1825 1855 events. Historical essay. Solution of the peasant question

Task 25 of the exam in history: three topics for writing a historical essay to choose from.
Each of the topics is presented in the form of a historical period.
The proposed periods always correspond to different historical eras.

Historical essay.

An example of a historical essay period 1825-1855

Historical essay, writing order.

Introductory part.

The general situation in the state at the beginning of the period, tasks, main events and phenomena,
occurring during this time.

Main part.

Specify the historical process, for a more detailed consideration.
- Expand the causes and factors that influenced the development of the historical process.
- Describe the participation of a historical figure in this process.
- Conclusion about the nature and consequences of the historical process for the state, the life of society,
its historical significance.

Conclusion.

Using the facts, draw a conclusion about this period in the history of the state.
What were the objectives and consequences of the events that took place.
Give the opinions and assessments of historians of this period, your own assessment,
confirmed by historical facts.

An example of a historical essay period 1825-1855

Historical essay period 1825-1855

1825-1855 - the reign of Emperor Nicholas I Pavlovich in Russia.

The internal policy of Nicholas I was aimed at preserving autocracy and maintaining the existing order.
To combat dissent, the Third Branch of the Imperial Chancellery was founded in 1826 and a new censorship charter was adopted.
In 1832, after the suppression of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland, its new status within the Russian Empire was approved and the Polish constitution was abolished.
To maintain order, a whole series of reforms was carried out:
in 1826-1832 MM. Speransky carried out the codification of laws;
in 1837-1841 P. D. Kiselev carried out a reform of the state peasants;
in 1839-1843 E.F. Kankrin carried out financial reform.
In 1848, an inventory reform was launched.
Nicholas I paid attention to the development of education in Russia:
in 1828 the Technological Institute was opened in St. Petersburg,
in 1834 - a university in Kyiv.
Nicholas I sought to develop industry and transport in Russia:
in 1840 all factories that used serf labor were closed;
intensive construction of paved highways began;
in 1837, the first Russian railway St. Petersburg - Tsarskoye Selo was opened;
in 1851, the construction of the St. Petersburg - Moscow railway was completed.
Nicholas I forbade landlords to sell peasants without land and exile them to hard labor;
serfs received the right to own land, to conduct entrepreneurial activities.
Under Nicholas I, the persecution of the Old Believers began again.

In foreign policy, the main directions were western and southern.
In the West, Nicholas I sought to prevent revolutions in European countries.
So, in 1849, he sent Russian troops to suppress the Hungarian revolution.
In the south, Nicholas I sought to secure Russian patronage for the Christian peoples in the Ottoman Empire and to annex new territories in the Transcaucasus.
To this end, Russia led in 1826-1828. war with Iran and in 1828-1829. - with Turkey.
To subjugate the peoples of the North Caucasus, several fortified lines were built and there were almost continuous battles with the highlanders.
In 1832, Nicholas I assisted the Turkish sultan in the war with the pasha of Egypt, and under the treaty of 1833, the Black Sea straits were closed to warships of non-Black Sea powers.
In 1853-1856. Russia had to fight against England, France and Turkey, who sought to oust her from the Balkans and the Black Sea.

Historians believe that the reign of Nicholas I is difficult to assess unambiguously.
On the one side,
serious reforms of the public administration system were carried out,
eased the situation of the peasants,
education, transport developed, bribery officials were persecuted.
During this period, the industrial revolution began in Russia.
On the other hand,
serfdom was preserved
severely persecuted dissidents, Old Believers.
As a result of the Crimean War, Russia lost the right to maintain a navy in the Black Sea.

1825-1855 - the reign of Emperor Nicholas I Pavlovich in Russia.

The internal policy of Nicholas I was aimed at maintaining autocracy and maintaining the existing order. To combat dissent, the Third Branch of the Imperial Chancellery was founded in 1826 and a new censorship charter was adopted. In 1832, after the suppression of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland, its new status within the Russian Empire was approved and the Polish constitution was abolished. To maintain order, a whole series of reforms was carried out: in 1826-1832. MM. Speransky carried out the codification of laws; in 1837-1841 P. D. Kiselev carried out a reform of the state peasants; in 1839-1843 E.F. Kankrin carried out financial reform. In 1848, an inventory reform was launched. Nicholas I paid attention to the development of education in Russia: in 1828 the Technological Institute was opened in St. Petersburg, in 1834 - a university in Kyiv. Nicholas I sought to develop industry and transport in Russia: in 1840, all factories that used serf labor were closed; intensive construction of paved highways began; in 1837, the first Russian railway St. Petersburg - Tsarskoye Selo was opened; in 1851, the construction of the St. Petersburg - Moscow railway was completed. Nicholas I forbade landlords to sell peasants without land and exile them to hard labor; serfs received the right to own land, to conduct entrepreneurial activities. Under Nicholas I, the persecution of the Old Believers began again.

In foreign policy, the main directions were western and southern. In the West, Nicholas I sought to prevent revolutions in European countries. So, in 1849, he sent Russian troops to suppress the Hungarian revolution. In the south, Nicholas I sought to secure Russian patronage for the Christian peoples in the Ottoman Empire and to annex new territories in the Transcaucasus. To this end, Russia led in 1826-1828. war with Iran and in 1828-1829. - with Turkey. To subjugate the peoples of the North Caucasus, several fortified lines were built and there were almost continuous battles with the highlanders. In 1832, Nicholas I assisted the Turkish sultan in the war with the pasha of Egypt, and under the treaty of 1833, the Black Sea straits were closed to warships of non-Black Sea powers. In 1853-1856. Russia had to fight against England, France and Turkey, who sought to oust her from the Balkans and the Black Sea.

Historians, in particular A. N. Sakharov, believe that the period of the reign of Nicholas I is difficult to assess unambiguously. On the one hand, serious reforms were carried out in the system of state administration, the position of the peasants was eased, education and transport were developed, officials who took bribes were persecuted. During this period, the industrial revolution began in Russia. On the other hand, serfdom was preserved, dissidents, Old Believers, were severely persecuted. As a result of the Crimean War, Russia lost the right to maintain a navy in the Black Sea.

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1825-1855 - the reign of Nicholas I. At this time, many transformations were carried out, which laid a solid foundation for the future development of Russia. The extraordinary rise of national culture, the work of A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov in the first half of the 19th century was allowed to call this time the "golden age". Nicholas I is ranked among the conservative monarchs. The reason for this assessment was the Decembrist uprising of 1825. The king firmly believed that the obedience of all subjects to the law would ensure order in the country, therefore, during this period, legislation was codified. The work was entrusted to M.M., returned from exile. Speransky, who did a lot to create the "Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire" in 1832 (began to be used since 1835). For the first time in Russian legislation, civil and criminal laws were separated from each other. Thus, in the first half of the 19th century. the system of Russian law was formalized, which basically survived until the last days of the empire. In 1837-1841. a reform of the management of state peasants was carried out. An outstanding statesman P.D. played a huge role in organizing this reform. Kiselev. The government wanted to raise the welfare of the peasants, make them efficient taxpayers and show the landowners an example of management.

The reform involved the construction of roads, an increase in the number of schools and medical centers, as well as the allocation of land to small-land peasants and the introduction of peasant self-government. Changes were made in the legal status of state peasants. However, the set goal was not achieved, because as a result of the restructuring of the administrative apparatus, even greater guardianship of the authorities over the peasants was created, the system of taxation and collection of taxes was improved, which subsequently caused mass unrest among the state peasants.

In 1839-1843. financial reform was carried out. An important role in its creation was played by the Minister of Finance E.F. Kan-krin. He developed a reform, according to which credit notes were issued into circulation, which were freely exchanged for silver money. The Minister sought the economical spending of public money. The reform destroyed the various exchange rates of the ruble, leaving one, according to which all exchange and settlement operations were carried out; brought out of circulation a large amount of paper money supply; allowed the free exchange of credit and deposit notes for silver coins. Therefore, the monetary reform ensured a relatively stable monetary circulation.

This period has received different assessments of historians. Conservative A.A. Kornilov believed that "the government system of this period was one of the most consistent attempts to implement the ideas of enlightened absolutism" and that thanks to the wars, the territory of Russia in the East and the Caucasus was increased. Liberals (V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov) talked about the "gap between power and society." After all, Nicholas 1 left the peasant question open, he increased the number of officials to look after the population, waged endless wars - both of which "ate" the treasury. Also, Russia, as a result of the Crimean War, lost the privilege of having a navy in the Black Sea, which reduced its defense capability and led to political isolation in Europe.

This was a largely controversial period in the history of the Russian Empire. At the same time, conditions were prepared for the start of the Great Reforms in the 60-70s of the XIX century.

§ 1. Secret societies and the uprising of the Decembrists. After the return of the Russian army in 1815 from a foreign campaign, during which Napoleon was defeated, secret societies began to appear among the officers, organized according to the Masonic model. In them, the officers discussed the political situation, hatched plans for the reorganization of Russia, and subsequently began preparing a military coup. The most prominent figures of secret societies were P. I. Pestel and N. M. Muravyov, who developed programs for the state structure that they were going to give to Russia after they came to power. Both programs were utopian and were devoid of connection with reality.

For a long time, members of secret societies could not move from words to deeds. Characteristically, Emperor Alexander I was informed of their existence, but, not considering them dangerous, ordered no action to be taken. Extraordinary circumstances were required for the long-discussed performance to take place. They formed in December 1825 in connection with the death of Alexander I.

The emperor had no children to whom he could leave the throne. According to the law on succession to the throne, adopted in 1797 by Paul I, in this case he was to be succeeded by the next brother in seniority - Constantine. However, his accession was hampered by the fact that his wife, the Polish princess Lovich, was not a representative of the ruling dynasty. And, according to the law on succession to the throne, in this case, their children were deprived of the right to the throne. Therefore, Alexander I persuaded Constantine to abdicate the throne, which was to pass to the next of the brothers - Nicholas. However, this was not officially announced, and Constantine continued to be considered the heir.

Alexander I died in Taganrog, Konstantin was in Warsaw (he was governor in Poland), and Nikolai was in St. Petersburg. While couriers rode between the three cities, Nicholas took an oath of allegiance to Emperor Constantine. The leaders of the secret societies who gathered on the occasion of these events decided to stop their activities. However, with the news that Constantine had abdicated, and everyone had to take a new oath, they decided on an immediate performance. Due to the haste, and also because of the ignorance of reality inherent in secret societies, it did not take into account the real situation and was poorly planned.

On December 14 (hence the name - Decembrists), 1825, officers-members of a secret society announced to their subordinates that they were leading them to protect "Tsar Constantine and his wife Constitution." The rebel battalions lined up on Senate Square in St. Petersburg. It was supposed to force the Senate, under the threat of soldiers' bayonets, to declare the introduction of constitutional government, and then act, relying on the authority of this body. However, by the time the first rebels appeared on the square, the Senate had already taken the oath to Nicholas I. It was necessary to urgently change the plan of action, but Prince S.P. Trubetskoy, elected dictator by the Decembrists, refused to go to Senate Square. The uprising, without a leader, was doomed to defeat.

Most of the units of the St. Petersburg garrison did not support the rebels. But Nicholas I sought to resolve the situation peacefully. To do this, he sent to the rebels the governor-general of St. Petersburg M. A. Miloradovich, the hero of the war of 1812, who enjoyed great authority among the troops. M. A. Miloradovich appealed to the soldiers with an admonition, but his speech was interrupted by a shot that turned out to be fatal for him. After a series of attempts to force the rebels to disperse, Nicholas I decided to use force. Several artillery shots put the rebels to flight. The rebellion was put down. Soon after this, attempts were made to raise an uprising in other parts of the Russian army, but they were poorly organized and therefore quickly suppressed.

The investigation into the case of the Decembrists ended with the prosecution of the perpetrators. After the verdict was passed, Nicholas I commuted the punishment for most of them, but the five most guilty participants in the coup (including the murderer of M. A. Miloradovich) were hanged. About 70 Decembrists were sent to hard labor, the rest were exiled, demoted to soldiers, imprisoned for short periods in a fortress, etc. there was a war with the mountaineers.

§ 2. Domestic policy of Nicholas I. The Decembrist uprising had a huge impact on Nicholas I. He made a firm decision not to allow anything like this in Russia again. To do this, the emperor restructured the administration of the country in such a way that it was under his personal control. During his reign, the imperial office became the most important body, and his third department, which was engaged in political investigation, received the greatest importance. In fact, the work of the "third department" can be considered the most important achievement of the reign of Nicholas. The effectiveness of the secret police was so high that all opposition organizations were discovered in the early stages of their existence and did not have time to do any harm.

However, the high level of security also had negative aspects. First of all, this is the complete disappearance of political life in the country. Public activity was placed under absolute control by the state.

Characteristically, among the most important events of the reign of Nicholas I, which were marked with commemorative plaques mounted on the monument to the emperor, the activities of the secret police are not reflected. The four boards mentioned are dedicated to the following events:

1) The suppression of the Decembrist uprising (1825).

2) The suppression of the cholera riot (1831). The cholera epidemic that began in Russia in 1830 caused popular riots in a number of places. Illiterate peasants destroyed doctors who were considered guilty of mass deaths. The cholera riot that took place in St. Petersburg in June 1831 was liquidated thanks to the appearance of Nicholas I at the epicenter of the unrest - on Sennaya Square.

3) Creation by M. M. Speransky of the Code of Laws (1832). Thus, the work that the Catherine's Legislative Commission began was completed. The commission under the leadership of M. M. Speransky brought together and systematized all the laws issued by the supreme power after 1649. Thanks to this, the legal basis of the imperial administration was strengthened.

4) Opening of the Nikolaev railway (1851) St. Petersburg - Moscow, which became the longest railway in the world at that time. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that its track is absolutely straight. The opening of the road facilitated communication between the two Russian capitals.

Despite the significance of these four events immortalized by the boards, they are not fundamental. The reign of Nicholas I entered the history of Russia, first of all, as a time of total state control over society and the suppression of private initiative. True, this same time became the “golden age” of Russian culture: then the writers A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, composers M. I. Glinka, A. S. Dargomyzhsky, artists K. P. Bryullov, P. A. Fedotov, architect K. I. Rossi and O. Montferrand.

However, the reign of Nicholas I did not solve the most important tasks facing the country. Fearing that fundamental changes would provoke a revolution, the emperor refused to carry out reforms. During his reign, a number of measures were taken to improve the life of the state peasants and to limit serfdom, but they did not affect the fundamental foundations of the existing order. In fact, Nicholas I left the solution of the urgent problems in Russia to his heir.

§ 3. Foreign policy of Nicholas I. As in domestic politics, in the international arena, Nicholas I adhered to a conservative course, striving to maintain the status quo, even if it did not fully coincide with the interests of Russia. Continuing the traditions of Alexander I, Nicholas I was afraid of revolutions, wherever they occurred. Therefore, he was ready to use his troops to suppress them. This gave contemporaries a reason to call Nikolaev Russia "the gendarme of Europe." This meant that our country performed the same functions in Europe as the modern United States of America.

During the reign of Nicholas I, our country had to wage numerous wars, but what they had in common was that in the event of victory, the emperor tried to get by with minimal territorial changes.

1) Russo-Persian war (against Iran), 1826-1828 Under the terms of the peace, Russia limited itself to annexing the territory of modern Armenia.

2) Russian-Turkish war, 1828-1829 It began as a reaction to the atrocities of the Turks against the rebellious Greeks. After the victory, the Ottoman Empire recognized the independence of Greece and guaranteed the autonomy of the Romanian principalities and Serbia. Russia acquired only the islands at the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and two fortresses on the Georgian-Turkish border.

3) War with Poland, 1830-1831 You can often find the opinion that it was not a war, but an uprising of the oppressed Poles, and Russia's actions are qualified as suppression of the uprising. However, one should not forget that Poland was a state connected with Russia only by a personal union, that is, by a common emperor. Poland had its own army, which acted very effectively against the Russian one. In addition, remember that the Poles did not just seek to eliminate the power of the Russian emperor - they wanted the restoration of Poland "from sea to sea", that is, they sought to seize Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania, which were once subject to them. The war ended with the victory of the Russian army, after which Poland lost its army, constitution and parliament. True, she still retained her autonomy.

4) The war in Hungary, 1849. In 1848, the fire of revolution flared up throughout Europe, with the exception of Russia, where the III Division vigilantly followed the order. By 1849, all of them were suppressed, with the exception of one: Hungary continued the struggle, rebelling against Austrian domination. From the point of view of Russia's interests, it was necessary not to interfere with the Hungarians, or even support them, since the separation of Hungary undermined the power of the Austrian Empire. However, Nicholas I looked at the situation from the point of view of monarchist solidarity. He offered his help to the Austrian emperor. The Russian army entered the territory of Hungary, defeated its army and, thus, contributed to the suppression of the revolution and the restoration of Austrian power on the Russian borders. Russia did not make territorial acquisitions after this war.

5) In 1853-1856. there was a large-scale Crimean War, which summed up the reign of Nicholas I. It was preceded by the actual refusal of the emperor to comply with the policy of maintaining existing borders. Nicholas I believed that the Ottoman Empire was in a deep crisis, and believed that it was necessary to proceed with the division of its possessions, without waiting for its inevitable collapse. At the same time, Russia was to receive the lion's share of the inheritance - the Romanian principalities, Bulgarian lands, the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits leading from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and the ancient capital of Byzantium - Constantinople (Istanbul).

Naturally, such an initiative had to meet with a sharp rejection of the other great powers, since it led to a sharp strengthening of Russia. However, Nicholas I believed that he had solved this problem. He hoped that Prussia, Russia's traditional ally, would support him. France, according to the Russian emperor, was paralyzed by the previous revolution. Austria had to refrain from opposition out of gratitude for her help in suppressing the Hungarian revolution. And with England, the most powerful of potential enemies, Nicholas I, as it seemed to him, agreed, offering to take part in the division of Ottoman possessions.

However, all his calculations turned out to be false. Austria instantly forgot about the service and at the beginning of the conflict presented Russia with an ultimatum demanding to withdraw troops from the Romanian principalities occupied by that time. England did not consider itself bound by any agreements with Russia, since Nicholas I, while negotiating, did not complete them by signing a declaration, relying on a verbal promise given to him. The French emperor Napoleon III, contrary to the calculations of Nicholas I, intended to strengthen his internal position by a victorious war with Russia. Finally, Prussia did not dare to come out in support of Russia and remained neutral.

As a result, Russia, which started a war with the weak Ottoman Empire in 1853, in 1854, due to the miscalculations of the emperor, was also in a position against England and France, and Austria was ready to join them at any moment. The original goal of the Anglo-French army was to force the Russian army to withdraw from the Romanian principalities. After, fulfilling the conditions of the Austrian ultimatum, Russia did this without a war, a new task was set before the enemy army - to destroy the base of the Russian fleet - the fortress of Sevastopol. This goal was explained by the fact that at the beginning of the war the Russian fleet in the battle of Sinop completely destroyed the squadron of the Turks.

In 1854, the Anglo-French, taking advantage of the presence of modern armored ships, landed in the Crimea and approached Sevastopol. However, the heroic defense of this fortress by Russian troops dragged out the siege for 11 months. Only in September 1855, at the cost of huge losses, did the enemy manage to enter the city. The war was lost. The fighting in the Crimea ceased, peace negotiations began. Russia's positions were reinforced by the fact that in Transcaucasia, where the fighting did not stop, our army stormed the impregnable Turkish fortress of Kars.

In 1856, Russian diplomats signed a peace treaty under which Russia ceded territory at the mouth of the Danube and lost the right to have a fleet and naval bases on the Black Sea. Sevastopol was returned to Russia, and Kars - to the Ottoman Empire. Although our country has not lost the position of a great power, it has forever ceased to be the "gendarme of Europe". However, Nicholas I did not know about this. In the midst of the battles for Sevastopol in 1855, the emperor died.

/ Historical essay 1825-1855

1825-1855 - the period of the reign of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I Alexandrovich Romanov. These years have become an era of unprecedented reaction in all spheres of life. The last years of the reign of Nicholas I were overshadowed by the unsuccessful Crimean War.

The Decembrist uprising, which took place simultaneously with the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I (December 1825), made a huge impression on the emperor. From now on, he will consider the preservation and protection of the existing political regime as his main goal. At the same time, Nicholas I understood that deep social contradictions required the adoption of some measures to relieve tension.

The main problem for the government of Nicholas I was the peasant question. Serfdom became an obvious brake on the development of the country. However, its cancellation could lead to unpredictable results.

On the personal instructions of the emperor, several secret projects were developed, providing for the gradual abolition of serfdom. None of them has been fully implemented. Nevertheless, certain measures were taken to alleviate the situation of the peasants.

The most important is the decree of 1842 "On obligated peasants." The landowner received the right to release his peasants, but they remained in economic dependence, since they did not receive land.

In 1826, the famous III Section was created, which dealt with political affairs and became a gloomy symbol of the era.

Law-abiding has become a basic virtue. Any public activity was subject to regulation and strict obedience to laws.

A financial reform was carried out, which normalized economic life and strengthened the economy. In Nicholas Russia, for the first time, railways began to be built. The emperor sought to support industrial development.

The negative aspects of domestic policy were most clearly manifested in the field of education and the press. New censorship requirements were introduced that placed literature and journalism in a rigid framework. At the same time, many vocational schools appeared. A large number of raznochintsy received technical and medical education.

In general, the emperor sought to rely on the bureaucratic apparatus, attracting the petty nobility to public service.

The tough conservative policy of Nicholas I led to an increase in discontent. This led to the Polish uprising of 1830, cholera riots, the emergence and development of revolutionary ideas. In the era of the Nikolaev reaction, social movements of Westerners and Slavophiles, as well as a revolutionary-democratic camp, took shape.

The foreign policy of Nicholas I followed two main directions: European and Eastern.

The Russian emperor advocated a merciless fight against any revolutionary uprisings. He showed a practical example during the suppression of the Polish uprising (1830) and the suppression of the revolution in Hungary (1849).

The solution of the "Eastern question" went through several stages. War with Turkey 1828-1829 ended with the Treaty of Adrianaple, according to which Russia annexed part of the Black Sea coast. In 1833, the agreement was supplemented by another significant clause. Russia pledged to provide military assistance to Turkey in exchange for the latter's promise to close the Dardanelles for the passage of foreign ships.

The Western powers feared the strengthening of Russian influence in the East and pushed Turkey into a new conflict. The aggravation of contradictions led to the Crimean War (1853-1856). The successes of the Russian army and navy forced the British and French to support Turkey and enter the war. After the landing of the allies, the fighting concentrated in the Crimea. Serious defeat of Russian troops on the river. Alma in 1854 led to the siege of Sevastopol.

Nicholas I did not live to see the end of the war and the signing of the humiliating peace treaty, dying in early 1856.

The Nikolaev era should not be considered a time of decline and stagnation. Despite the strict protective policy and reaction, a number of positive measures were taken during these years aimed at the development of agriculture, the economy and industry. The Crimean War was successful until the leading European powers came out against Russia.