Africa in the 19th century political development. South Africa in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. Great Power Politics in the North

Africa. A continent in an era of change

Prepared the presentation

History teacher at Donetsk gymnasium No. 6

Zubkova Yu.b.

• The second largest continent in the world, which has become the homeland of all humanity.
• Here is the only surviving wonder of the world - the Pyramid of Cheops.
• More than two thousand languages ​​are spoken here.
• The tallest and smallest people live here.

This is all about Africa - a continent that in the 19th century was divided between the world's largest states.

• Historically, Africa was divided into two parts, which differed from each other in both socio-economic development and political structure.

• The northern part had close ties with the Mediterranean countries. Here, by the 19th century, states were emerging.

• The southern part was inhabited by various nationalities, many of whom still lived in the primitive communal system. And if states appeared here, then no one in them had the right to own land. It was believed that she could not belong to anyone.

• One of the peoples of central Africa were the Pygmies - the smallest people on Earth. The height of an adult man reached a maximum of one hundred and thirty centimeters.

• In southern Africa lived the Bantu people, which included more than four hundred ethnic groups. All of them had black skin.

• In the very south lived the Hottentots and Bushmen. These are indigenous tribes whose characteristic feature was a yellowish-brown skin color.

• The Malagasy, or Malagasy people, live on the island of Madagascar. They have an unusual and very beautiful appearance. The island was once inhabited by immigrants from Indonesia. That's why the Malagasy has a narrow eye shape. Many call them the most beautiful inhabitants of the planet.

• Basically, the inhabitants of Africa were engaged in hunting, gathering, farming and fishing.

• By the 19th century, states already existed in Egypt, Ethiopia, Tunisia, Morocco, Sudan and Madagascar.
• The most ancient states in Africa were Ashanti, located on the territory of modern Ghana, and the Malian Empire, south of the Sahara.

• Many African peoples had a cult of the leader. This is evidence that society was already divided into classes, each of which had its own clear responsibilities.

• There were many prohibitions for rulers - in behavior, food, lifestyle. The tribes endowed them with supernatural abilities, the most important of which was the ability to make rain. This was very important for arid Africa. At the same time, only a young and physically healthy person could be a leader or king. Therefore, in order not to cause trouble, in some tribes the aging leaders were killed.

• In the 15th century, active development of West African lands by Europeans began. However, they did not move deeper into the continent. Trade in gold and slaves took place on the coasts.

• In 1652, Jan van Riebeek founded the city of Kapstad, which was to become a base for the ships of the Dutch East India Company.

• In the 17th century, a new people began to appear in this territory - the Afrikaners. These are the descendants of colonialists from Holland, and later Germany and France. Among them stood out the Boers - white farmers. Afrikaners were Protestants and spoke Afrikaans, a language derived from Dutch dialects.

• In the modern world, representatives of this people live in South Africa and consider it their ethnic homeland. A famous representative of Afrikaners is actress Charlize Theron.

• Almost all African territories by the end of the 19th century were divided between European powers.
• So great was the activity of European countries in annexing new territories that this era was called "race for Africa" ​​or "fight for Africa".

• The Portuguese, who owned the territory of modern Angola and Mozambique, hoped to capture the intermediate territory, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi, and thus create a network of their colonies on the African continent. But it was impossible to implement this project, since the British had their own plans for these territories. Premier of the Cape Colony, headquartered in Cape Town, Cecil John Rhodes believed that Great Britain should create a chain of its own colonies. It should start in Egypt (Cairo) and end in Cape Town.
• Thus, the British hoped to build their own colonial strip and stretch a railway along this strip from Cairo to Cape Town. After the First World War, the British managed to build the chain, but the railway turned out to be unfinished. It does not exist to this day.

• In 1884–1885, the European powers held a conference in Berlin, at which a decision was made on the issue of which country belongs to this or that sphere of influence in Africa. As a result, almost the entire territory of the continent was divided between them.
• As a result, by the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries, Europeans had mastered the entire territory of the continent. There were only 2 semi-independent states left: Ethiopia and Liberia. This is due to the fact that Ethiopia was difficult to colonize, because the colonialists set one of their main goals to spread Christianity, and Ethiopia has been a Christian state since the early Middle Ages.
• Liberia, in fact, was a territory created by the United States. It was in this territory that former American slaves were located, taken from the United States by decision of President Monroe.
• As a result, the British, French, Germans, Italians and other peoples began to conflict in England. The Germans and Italians, who had few colonies, were dissatisfied with the decisions of the Berlin Congress. Other countries also wanted to get their hands on as many territories as possible. IN 1898 happened between the British and the French Fashoda incident. French Army Major Marchand captured a stronghold in modern-day South Sudan. The British considered these lands theirs, and the French wanted to spread their influence there. The result was a conflict during which relations between England and France deteriorated greatly.

Attempts to resist European colonization

• Naturally, the Africans resisted the European colonialists, but the forces were unequal. Only one successful attempt can be identified in the 19th century, when Muhammad ibn abd-Allah, who called himself Mahdi, created a theocratic state in Sudan in 1881. It was a state based on the principles of Islam. In 1885, he managed to capture Khartoum (the capital of Sudan), and even though the Mahdi himself did not live long, this state existed until 1898 and was one of the few truly independent territories on the African continent

Muhammad ibn abd-Allah (Mahdi)

• The most famous Ethiopian ruler of this era fought against European influence. Menelik II, reigned from 1893 to 1913. He united the country, carried out active conquests and successfully resisted the Italians. He also maintained good relations with Russia, despite the significant distance between the two countries.
• But all these attempts at confrontation were only isolated and could not give a serious result.

Menelik II

Although until the 70s of the XIX century. The colonialists captured only a small part of African territory; by this time they had already had a disastrous influence on the development of the peoples of Tropical and Southern Africa. The first Portuguese conquests disrupted long-standing and fairly intense trade ties between Africa and Asia. The seizure by Portugal and then by other European powers of the most convenient harbors and the creation of colonial strongholds on the coast practically deprived many African peoples of access to the sea. The slave trade had extremely grave consequences for the peoples of tropical and southern Africa.

Slavery existed in Africa long before the advent of Europeans, but at that time it was of a patriarchal, domestic nature. With the advent of Europeans, human trafficking acquired unprecedented proportions. During its heyday, in the 17th and 18th centuries, almost all countries of Western Europe overtly or covertly participated in this profitable trade. The loss of tens of millions of people by African peoples could not but have a sharply negative impact on the development of productive forces. The slave trade had an extremely negative impact on the political development of African peoples. In the pre-colonial period, slaves were replenished mainly from prisoners of war. The massive slave trade led to a sharp increase in civil wars. The colonialists set some tribes and peoples against others in order to increase the number of slaves. Squads of leaders began to make sudden raids on neighbors specifically to hunt for people. Often, leaders began to sell their subjects into slavery.

At the beginning of the 19th century. the interest of developed capitalist countries in the slave trade weakened. In 1807, the British Parliament passed a law prohibiting British subjects from practicing it. But this did not lead to the end of the hunt for people. The legal trade in slaves turned into smuggling. When the slave ship was discovered by British naval patrol vessels, the ship's owners, in an effort to destroy evidence of the crime, mercilessly dumped the shackled Africans into the ocean.

In the depths of the deep sea,

Buried in shifting sands

Human skeletons lie forgotten in chains, wrote the poet Longfellow.

The disastrous consequences of the slave trade continued to affect the mid-19th century. In addition, the British government used the “fight against slavery” to cover up colonial aggression. Often the result of “expeditions to eradicate the slave trade” was new colonial conquests.

State formations and social system of the peoples of Tropical and Southern Africa in the 18th-19th centuries.

Colonial conquests and the slave trade consolidated a certain stagnation in the development of the peoples of Tropical and Southern Africa. The great unevenness in the development of different peoples and regions that developed in previous eras has also been preserved.

Ancient and medieval states and state formations did not cover the entire territory of Tropical and Southern Africa. Tribes and peoples of the vast, mainly forested, regions of the “middle belt”, modern Nigeria and Cameroon, the river basins. Ubangi and the middle reaches of the river. The Congo, a number of regions of Eastern Equatorial Africa, and the entire south of the continent continued to live under the conditions of a primitive communal system. Some Bushmen tribes who lived in the Kalahari Desert were at a stage of development corresponding to the Upper Paleolithic. The territories that were part of the once strong and relatively highly developed states (mainly in Western Sudan) returned to a state of political fragmentation.

Creation of new state-political associations in the 18th-19th centuries. took place in difficult and difficult conditions. Nevertheless, during this period in Tropical and partly in Southern Africa there were a number of states and government entities.

At the beginning of the 19th century. between the river Senegal and the lower reaches of the Niger emerged as a relatively large state with its capital in Segou. In the middle of the 19th century. its ruler was Al-Haj Omar. At the same time, as a result of the conquests of the small states of the Hausa people by the leader of a small tribe of the Fulbe people, Osman dan Fodio, another large state of Western Sudan arose, which was called Sokoto after the name of its capital. The conquerors quickly merged with the Hausa, adopting their language and culture. South of the mouth of Senegal, the state of Cayor, created by the Wolof people, arose.

In the interior regions of the Congo Basin, which later and to a somewhat lesser extent were subject to the destructive effects of the slave trade, in the 17th-18th centuries. experienced a period of short-lived prosperity of the states of Luba, Lunda and Cuba (sometimes they are called Baluba, Balunda and Bakuba by the names of the corresponding peoples). At that time, a trade route connecting the western and eastern coasts of Tropical Africa passed through Luba and Lunda. Here was also the most economically developed region of the Congo Basin - Katanga (Shaba), which has long been famous for its salt and copper deposits.

It intensified in the 18th century. the state of Vadai, which arose in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bLake. Chad in the 14th century

The political center of the federation of Yoruba states, located on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea (coastal regions of modern Nigeria), in the 18th century. Oyo remained. It was the residence of the Alafin, the head of the Yoruba. Alafin elected a council of seven representatives of the highest nobility from members of the reigning dynasty. The enslavement of the free population, constant wars with neighbors, and Fulbe invasions from the north contributed to the decline of Oyo. In the first half of the 19th century. The process of disintegration of the Yoruba state unification has already gone far. The loosely connected states only formally recognized the supremacy of the Alafin of Oyo.

In particular, neighboring Dahomey waged constant wars with Oyo. She had a combat-ready army, the core of which was a regular army, which also included detachments of women warriors.

At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century. the Ashanti state strengthened north of the Gold Coast. It was a federation of principalities grouped around the most powerful of them - Kumasi. In the first half of the 19th century. Ashanti tried to unite the peoples of the central and western parts of the Gulf of Guinea coast under its hegemony.

The most significant state in East Africa (excluding Ethiopia) at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th century. There was Buganda, whose ethnic basis was the Baganda people. The state was headed by a hereditary monarch with the title of “tavern.”

In addition to those mentioned above, there were a number of other states and government entities in Tropical Africa.

The social and political structure of the state formations of Tropical Africa has not yet been sufficiently studied. Their socio-economic structure was different, but with a large variety of specific forms, they all experienced the formation or development of feudal relations, which grew directly from the tribal system. At the same time, feudal relations, as a rule, coexisted with a relatively strong and stable slave-owning system, the preservation of which was facilitated by the colonialist slave trade. It must be assumed that the rapid rise of the states of the Guinean coast (Oyo, Dahomey, Ashanti) and the enrichment of their ruling elite were also associated with the European slave trade.

The most important distinguishing feature of all state formations in Tropical Africa, no matter what stage of feudalization they were at, was the preservation of many institutions of the tribal system. Everywhere, the collection of feudal rent was combined with communal forms of land ownership and land use. Ancestral remnants had a strong influence on the organization of social life. The functions of the state apparatus were often performed by tribal self-government bodies.

Soviet Africanists define the class societies of African states as feudal-patriarchal. It is necessary to take into account that in the neighborhood of these societies, and sometimes on the territory of their state formations, there lived peoples who were at various stages of decomposition of the tribal system. Sometimes there was a kind of “restoration” of tribal relations during the collapse or weakening of state formations. On the other hand, among some nationalities that were at the tribal stage of development, in the first half of the 19th century. There was a rather intensive process of unification of tribes and the formation of a state (for example, among the Zulus of South Africa). The need to repel colonial aggression accelerated this process.

Colonial conquests of the era of pre-monopoly capitalism and the resistance of African peoples

During the period under review, the main bases of colonialism in Tropical and Southern Africa were the colonies that arose at the turn of modern times.

Portuguese possessions in Angola included the coastal areas from the mouth of the Congo to Capo Negro. In the first half of the 19th century. these areas remained places of exile for criminals. All power was in the hands of Portuguese officials, who mercilessly robbed the local population. Tribal leaders gradually turned into agents of the colonialists. Slavery and the slave trade played a very important role.

In Mozambique until the middle of the 19th century. colonial control was also limited to the coastal strip. In the 17th, 18th and even the first half of the 19th centuries. Mozambique was the scene of human hunting and the main base of the slave trade in Southeast Africa. From here, slaves were transported to Brazil to work on sugar plantations. The penetration of Portuguese colonialists in the 19th century. into the interior of Mozambique led to a long war with the local population.

The exploitation of the population of Guinea (Bissau) intensified. A system of forced cultivation of export crops - peanuts, etc. - was introduced.

In South Africa, the stronghold of colonialism was the Cape Colony, created by the Dutch in the second half of the 17th century. Huguenots who fled from France also moved here, leaving

people from Germany and other emigrants. The descendants of the Dutch, as well as French and German colonists began to call themselves Boers. Seizing the lands of the Hottentots, the Boers created their own farms in the Cape of Good Hope area, where slave labor was widely used. Subsequently, the Boers moved on to seize the lands of the Xhosa - tribes belonging to the Bantu group of peoples.

During the Napoleonic Wars, the Cape Colony passed to the British. At first, the British authorities maintained the old order established by the Dutch East India Company. The inhabitants of the colony were officially divided into “Europeans” and “slaves”, the latter numbering 30 thousand. However, later relations between the Boers and the British became tense. The influx of colonists from England began. English was introduced everywhere. The British abolished local self-government of the Boers. But the Boer colonialists were especially displeased with the 1833 law on the emancipation of slaves in the British colonies. After this, a mass exodus of Boers from the Cape Colony began.

By that time, the Bantu tribes, whose territory was the scene of Boer and British colonial aggression, were undergoing unification processes and the formation of nationalities. They were especially intense in the territory of modern Natal. Already at the very beginning of the 19th century. here the unification of numerous Zulu tribes and the formation of the Zulu state went quite far. It was led successively by the distinguished chiefs Dingiswayo, Chaka and Dingaan. Under Chaka (1818-1828), the Zulu state union covered about a hundred tribes. The Zulu army included all healthy men between the ages of 20 and 40. They formed detachments with a permanent commander - an induna. In peacetime, only a small part of the soldiers were, as it were, in a barracks position, located in the border areas and monitored the actions of enemy tribes. The majority lived in their villages, engaged in agriculture. The Zulu warrior was armed with a short, strong striking spear - an assegai, with which he acted like a bayonet. The Zulus fought in close formation, separating detachments to outflank the enemy from the flanks and rear. The united army was one of the foundations of the Zulu state unification that was being formed at that time. Over a wide area, the power of local tribal leaders was undermined. Under Chak, each of the territories under his control was ruled by the induna of the detachment stationed on it.

Boer caravans moving from the Cape Colony to the north and northeast began to seize Zulu lands. On December 16, 1838, the Zulus were defeated in a decisive battle. This day, called "Dingaan Day" (after the then ruler of the Zulu), has since been celebrated annually in South Africa. For racists, this is a public holiday, a day of triumph for whites over Africans. Progressive forces consider “Dingaan Day” their holiday - a symbol of the heroic resistance of Africans to the colonialists

In 1840, the Boers, using separatism and the betrayal of some of the Zulu leaders, finally defeated the armies of Dingaan. The Zulus were left with only a strip of land in the north of Natal, declared the independent state of Zululand. But the Boers failed to create their own republic in Natal; it was included by the British in the Cape Colony, and later separated into the independent British colony of Natal.

After this, most of the Boers left Natal and headed to the Orange and Vaal river basins, to areas inhabited by the Bechuana and Basotho. If the Bechuana acted separately, then among the Basotho the invasion of the colonialists gave rise to a strong desire for unification. A French missionary who lived among the Basotho wrote: “In recent years the continuous onslaught of the whites seems to have opened the eyes of the natives... The idea of ​​uniting the tribes to repel foreigners is becoming more and more ingrained in their minds every day.” The struggle to unite the Basotho and protect their independence was led by Moshesh, who was recognized as the supreme ruler of all Basotho. The stronghold of Basotho independence became the mountainous, inaccessible region where the state of Lesotho is now located. Moshesh appealed to the Zulu and Xhosa leaders to unite to fight the colonialists. Under his leadership, the Basotho successfully resisted colonial aggression for a long time. However, the forces were unequal. In 1868, the Basotho country became a British protectorate (Basutoland).

As for the Boers, they created in the middle of the 19th century. two state formations of the colonialists - the South African Republic (the British usually called it Transvaal) and the Orange Free State (Orange Republic), - whose independence was recognized by England. These events contributed to the strengthening of Boer nationalism. The Boers lost their previous connection with Holland. Gradually they began to call themselves Afrikaners. Their language, which later became known as Afrikaans, also differed from Dutch.

While the Boer colonialists attacked the Zulu, Bechuana and Basotho, the British moved east, capturing Xhosa lands. As a result of a whole series of “Kaffir wars”, the Xhosa tribes were enslaved by the British.

Thus, by the 70s of the XIX century. a significant part of South Africa passed into the hands of the colonialists. Two British colonies and two Boer republics were created on its territory. The Zulu, Basotho, and Xhosa courageously resisted colonial aggression, but the British and Boer invaders were stronger. By this time, only the Zulus of Zululand and the related Swazi people (in the territory of modern Swaziland) managed to maintain their independence.

If South Africa by the 70s of the XIX century. was basically already captured by Europeans, then in Tropical Africa England and France by this time had only slightly expanded the territories of their bases. Relying on previously captured points on the Gold Coast, England launched an offensive against Ashanti. However, the persistent resistance of the Ashanti people delayed the advance of the colonialists. The British had to conclude treaties with the Ashanti that recognized the independence of their state and its sovereignty over the coastal regions. In 1831, after another bloody war, the Ashanti state renounced control over the coast, and England confirmed its independence. The British significantly expanded their colonial possessions on the Gold Coast. A new war with Ashanti in 1863 did not bring them success. Ashanti ruler Kweku Dua said then: “The white man can bring guns to the jungle, but the jungle is stronger than guns.”

On the west coast, the British captured Sierra Leone and expanded their holdings in the Gambia. From the middle of the 19th century. The Niger Delta became one of the main objects of aggression of the British colonialists. English warships were sent several times to Lagos Island, which occupied a key position there. The population bravely defended their island. Nevertheless, in 1852, the British managed to impose a protectorate on Lagos, but the Yorubas rebelled more than once. Only in 1861, after another naval operation, Lagos became a British colony.

The corresponding agreement can serve as an example of the hypocrisy of the colonialists. It was formalized in the form of a statement by the ruler of Lagos, Dosemo: “In order that the Queen of England may better assist and protect the people of Lagos and put an end to the slave trade in Lagos and its neighboring areas, in order to stop the destructive wars that Dahomey and other countries are waging with for the purpose of capturing slaves, I, Dosemo, by this document bring to the attention of everyone that, with the consent and recommendation of my council, I forever hand over to the Queen of Great Britain and her heirs the port and city of Lagos ... "

France expanded its possessions of Senegal and Ivory Coast. In Senegal, the French colonialists met strong resistance from the Wolof people, led by the determined opponent of the colonialists, the ruler of Kayor Lat-Di-or. Several French military expeditions were unsuccessful, and in 1871 France made peace with Cayor, recognizing its independence.

In the first half of the 19th century. economic exploitation of the peoples of tropical and southern Africa by England and other capitalist countries of Europe begins to acquire

some new features. Interest in obtaining raw materials and cheap food products is growing. The export of palm oil and valuable wood species is increasing especially rapidly. The French create in the lower reaches of the river. Senegal cotton and indigo plantations. The beginning of the transformation of Tropical and Southern Africa into one of the sources of raw materials for capitalist Europe gave rise to a desire among the elite of England, France, and other European countries to “develop” the interior regions of the Black Continent. Numerous explorers, travelers, missionaries, and traders sought to unravel its secrets. Among the travelers and explorers, along with obvious colonialists, there were many honest, courageous people who selflessly served science. But under the conditions of capitalism, their discoveries were used in the interests of the colonial enslavement of the peoples of Africa.

During the period of pre-monopoly capitalism, European powers carried out a series of colonial conquests, mainly in North, West and South Africa. However, by the end of this period they captured no more than 10% of African territory. At that time, the vast continent was open to all colonial powers. For the time being, their rivalry did not cause armed conflicts.

Formation of the Republic of Liberia

The creation of Liberia was associated with some aspects of the fight against slavery in the United States. Supporters of the gradual emancipation of slaves and the eviction of freed blacks outside the United States created the American Colonization Society. Since the 20s of the XIX century. it began to establish settlements south of Sierra Leone of American blacks who had been freed, redeemed from their owners, or who had fled from them. Through deception and the threat of a warship's guns, the Americans forced the local tribal leaders to agree to cede more. 13 thousand sq. km of coastal territory for six guns, a box of beads, two barrels of tobacco and other goods worth a total of $50. Monrovia (named after US President John Monroe) and other settlements were founded here. By 1847 there were already 13 settlements of former slaves. In July of this year, the Constitutional Convention they elected adopted the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the Republic of Liberia.

The adoption of an advanced democratic constitution for its time by yesterday's slaves of American planters undoubtedly had a progressive significance. An American officer stationed in Monrovia at the time wrote: “It was most extraordinary to see these freed slaves passing laws, freely, not to say skillfully, discussing the problem of human rights on the same continent.

and perhaps in the same place where their ancestors were sold into slavery.” The creation of the Republic of Liberia underscored the inconsistency of the colonialists' claims about the racial inferiority of Africans.

At the same time, the creation of Liberia reflected the desire of the American elite to obtain a base for the US Navy and a stronghold for the penetration of American capital into Africa. American Negro settlers, having occupied a privileged position in their new homeland, exploited the indigenous inhabitants. Only male settlers enjoyed civil rights.



But there was also something common to all of colonial Africa: resistance to colonialism. In different forms, but it was felt everywhere, as everywhere it was accompanied by the inevitable adaptation of tradition to modern conditions of existence.

What did the adapting tradition rely on in the fight against the external invasion of colonial capital and the innovations that accompanied it? In Tropical Africa - on community in the broadest sense of the word, i.e. on community as a way of life, including forms of existence, forms of farming, forms of communication, etc., up to tribalism and countrymen’s associations in cities. In the north, the support was different - it went into the depths of religious civilization, the Islamic way of life, culture, principles and worldviews. But in relation to colonialism, these differences, quite significant in themselves, faded into the background: in both the north and the south, tradition opposed colonial capital, and depending on the circumstances, such opposition took different forms, including tendencies towards the egalitarianism characteristic of the world of Islam and the tendencies towards despotism of the unlimited power of the dictator, more characteristic of primitive forms of community life in southern Africa (both of these tendencies manifested themselves quite widely and eloquently during the period of decolonization and the establishment of independence in African countries).

17 New development trends in Asia and Africa

Main trends in Asia and Africa at the beginningXXV. Basics trend: the rise of the national liberation movement (the Ikhatuan uprising of 1900, the revolution in Iran, Turkey, etc.), the desire for modernization (a new layer of the ruling elite has formed, which has received education in developed countries and is striving to modernize their societies. For delivery of goods, export of raw materials and plantation products, as well as for military-strategic purposes, a railway network was created in most colonies, certain branches of the mining industry and plantation economy were developed, targeting foreign markets.At the beginning of the 20th century in the countries of the East, with the exception of Yap, formed only the preconditions for modernization. In China and Turkey, separate centers of industrial production were formed. The share of the slave class, hired workers employed in industry, construction and transport, did not exceed 1%). haara, but a high degree of dependence on nature and the geography of the environment (irrigation, agriculture, irrigation systems) hence collectivism, difficulties with drinking water, close connection of the individual with his social group (castes in India), low value of human life and a high degree of subordination to authority, low level of social security...

18 Asia and Africa in the early 20th century awakening

Colonial wars at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries as evidence of the aggravation of contradictions between the great powers. The role of Japan in the struggle for the territorial division of the world. Goals and methods of economic and non-economic influence of the “center” of the MES on its non-capitalist periphery. The emergence of multistructure structures in the countries of the East, including capitalist enclaves. The political role of social groups born of the bourgeois transformation of eastern societies: military and civil bureaucracy, national intelligentsia, entrepreneurial “minorities”. The spread of nationalist, religious reformist ideas among them. The emergence of public organizations and political associations (parties) that fought for the awakening of national consciousness, national revival and the acquisition of political sovereignty. The influence of the revolution of I905-I907. in Russia and the results of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. on the "Awakening of Asia".

Similarities and differences in the social scale and forms of political struggle in the Asian-African world at the beginning of the 20th century: the Young Turk Revolution (1908-1909), the constitutional movement in Iran (1905-1911), the Xinhai Revolution in China (1911), the rise of the liberation struggle in India (1906-1908) and the anti-colonial movement in Egypt (I906-1910), the countries of Tropical and Southern Africa (I907-I9I2)

The First World War as an expression of the crisis of the capitalist system and the aggravation of inter-imperialist contradictions. The degree of involvement of Asian and African countries in the military conflict. Middle Eastern theater of military operations. Japanese expansion in China, military actions against German colonies in Africa.

The use by the warring parties of the economic and human potential of colonial and dependent countries. Changing economic and political situation in the Asian-African world in the context of great power rivalry. Expanding opportunities for entrepreneurial activity and enrichment of the local bourgeoisie and other propertied layers. The use of nationalist slogans by the business elite in order to strengthen their economic positions and expand political influence.

Features of the genesis of capitalism in Japan. Trends in domestic political development. Japanese militarism as an ideological and political trend and its influence on domestic and foreign policy. Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The Russo-Japanese War and its significance for the emergence of Japan as a great power. Annexation of Korea. Development of socio-political movements. The struggle for democratic change and social reform.

The maturing socio-political crisis in China at the turn of the 20th century. The failure of the policy of “self-strengthening” and the strengthening of the position of foreign capital. The growing influence of national-patriotic organizations that advocated the overthrow of the Manchu Qing dynasty and against the colonial dominance of foreign powers. Three principles of Sun Yat-sen. The “New Policy” of the Qing authorities and the development of the legal reformist movement.

The significance of the Xinhai Revolution. The civil war and its consequences: the dictatorship of Yuan Shikai, the defeat of the revolutionary democrats, the collapse of statehood, the formation of militaristic regimes. Strengthening Japanese expansion. "Twenty-one demands." Economic recovery during the First World War. Finding ways to revive the country. Formation of the Kuomintang. Movement for a new culture.

Socio-economic development of India at the beginning of the 20th century. Foreign and domestic policies of the colonial authorities. Partition of Bengal. Features of the first all-Indian national movement: “Swaraj” and “Swadeshi”. The struggle within the Indian National Congress (INC). The growth of mass protests in the country and the formation of new political associations. Muslim League. Tilak process. Morley-Minto reforms. The role of R. Tagore and Gandhi in the formation of the national identity of Indians.

The influence of the revolutionary events in Russia in 1905 on the strengthening of the social crisis in Iran. The role of the first national-patriotic organizations and the Shiite clergy in the struggle to limit the Shah's autocracy and political reform. The main stages of the constitutional movement in Iran. Constitution of 1906-1907. The composition of the Iranian Majlis and its activities. Distinctive features of mass protests in 1906-1908. Disengagement of forces in the camp of supporters of the constitution. Revolutionary events in Iran and the politics of the great powers. The significance of constitutional gains for the development of Iranian society.

Türkiye (Ottoman Empire)

The Eastern Question at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. The growing influence of the great powers on the policies of the Sultan's government. Exacerbation of class, national and religious contradictions. Ottomanism. The Young Turks and their allies in the fight against Abdul-Khamid's tyranny. The role of the army in the Young Turk revolution. The Young Turks are in power. Further collapse of the empire. New phenomena in spiritual life: pan-Islamism and pan-Turkism.

Arab countries at the beginning of the 20th century. Socio-economic consequences of the establishment of British rule in Egypt. Formation of forces of anti-colonial protest. Position of Muslim religious figures. Mustafa Kamil and the formation of the Egyptian national movement.

Tropical and Southern Africa

Results of the “division” of Africa. Organization of colonial administration and methods of exploitation. Social changes under colonial rule. Traditional and new forms of protest. The attitude of socio-political organizations of the non-white majority of South Africa to the creation of the Union of South Africa.

19 Asia and Africa in 1918-45

During the years of the First World War, important changes took place in the countries of Asia and Africa. The countries of the Middle East found themselves in the war zone; soldiers from a number of colonies participated in the armies of the Entente. The countries of Asia and Africa constituted an important reserve of raw materials and food, as well as labor. The colonial peoples hoped that the post-war peace settlement would be accompanied by freedom and independence. However, these hopes did not come true. At the Paris Peace Conference, under the guise of mandates, the German colonies were divided. Not a single imperialist power was going to “set free” its colonies; on the contrary, the victors waged a fierce internecine struggle and cynically divided the former German colonies and the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire.

However, the process of undermining the colonial order gradually increased. The Russian Revolution of 1905 and the February and October Revolutions of 1917 played an important stimulating role in this. The appeal of Soviet Russia to the peoples of the East to rise up in the struggle for independence was heard in many parts of Asia and Africa. Patriotic forces advocating independence grew in colonial and dependent countries. Conditions were created for the transition of a national liberation movement of a spontaneous nature to an organized conscious struggle, in which various social strata of the population participated from peasants and workers to feudal lords and the clergy. The characteristics of the movement were determined by the uniqueness of the situation in individual countries, regions, and their historical and cultural traditions.

Throughout the 19th century. Great Britain took possession of all of South Africa, but the status of its various territories was not the same. The largest of them, the Cape Colony, had self-government since 1854. White residents (English-speaking and Afrikaners-Boers, each almost equally) made up 23%, Africans - 60% of the population. The colony of Natal achieved self-government in 1897. Here, 76% of the white population were immigrants from England and their descendants, 11 were immigrants from other countries, 13 were Afrikaners, but all of them together accounted for 8% of the total population of the colony . The Transvaal and the Orange River Colony were crown colonies.
White residents of the Transvaal were 24.9% (the number of English-speaking and Afrikaners was approximately equal), in the Orange River Colony - 33.2%, but here Afrikaners predominated. For the region as a whole, white South Africans made up about 20%. The ethnic groups of Afrikaners and people from Britain and other European countries were approximately equal in number. Differences in national mentality, culture, language, and economic interests did not prevent them from acting as representatives of the dominant single ethnic community. Conversely, indigenous Africans, mestizos, and people of Asian descent were in a position of oppression and were deprived of political rights.
However, fears of a new rise in the anti-British Afrikaner movement, on the one hand, and the desire to overcome the contradictions between the ruling regimes of the colonies, on the other, prompted the British colonialists to share power in order to strengthen “white” dominance in the south of the continent. In 1906 the Transvaal and in 1907 the Orange River Colony were granted self-government. Further steps towards the unification of the colonies are associated with the work of the National Convention of 1908-1909, convened to consider the draft constitution of the united state. Colonial delegates represented only “white” South Africa. The question of the state structure came to the fore in the discussions. Most delegates preferred a unitary state in the form of a union, which they believed would solve three problems. Firstly, the unitary state was most conducive to the process of merging Afrikaners, people of British descent and people from other European countries into a single nation. Secondly, they hoped by uniting into a union to more effectively exercise the power of the white population in the country and ensure complete non-interference by Great Britain in the internal affairs of South Africa. This view was shared not only by the Afrikaners, but also by the English-speaking delegates. The latter expressed the interests of miners who sought to resist British economic expansion. Thirdly, it was believed that a unitary state had greater capabilities to suppress the protests of the black African population.
On a number of key issues, after much debate, the Convention was able to reach decisions because the Anglophone and Afrikaner delegates compromised. We approved a resolution on equality between English and Dutch. Having failed to find agreement on the capital of the future state, they decided to territorially divide the branches of government: the government should be located in Pretoria (the capital of the Transvaal), the parliament in Cape Town (the capital of the Cape Colony), the supreme court in Bloemfontein (the capital of the Orange River Colony). They adopted the principle of “equal rights”, according to which members of parliament should be elected by districts with the same number of voters with a possible deviation of 15% from their average number - this took into account the characteristics of rural districts with a smaller number of voters compared to cities. We agreed on the equality of English and Dutch languages.
In 1909, the English Parliament adopted the South Africa Act, a constitution that defined the political system of the Union of South Africa (SAA) as a dominion. It included the former English self-governing Cape Colony and Natal, as well as the Transvaal and Orange River Colony. May 31, 1910 is considered the day of the official proclamation of the South African Republic. The governor general, as the king's representative, headed the executive branch. He appointed members of the Executive Council - ministers of state who led the relevant departments. He was responsible for the hiring and dismissal of officials, the chairman and members of the supreme court, and the command of naval and military forces. The Governor-General approved bills of parliament or refused such approval, and returned the bills to parliament with his amendments. But within a year the king could reject a bill adopted by parliament and approved by the governor-general.
Legislative power in South Africa belonged to parliament. The Constitution established that members of the upper house - the Senate - must belong to the white population and have real estate worth at least 500 pounds. Art. Of the 40 members of the Senate, 8 (including 4 non-whites) were appointed by the Governor General, and 8 senators were elected by the upper and lower houses of each province. In elections to the lower house—the House of Assembly—the laws in force in each of the colonies before unification were applied. In accordance with this norm in the Cape Province, for example, all men over 21 years of age could be elected to the lower house of the South African Parliament, regardless of skin color, but for the colored population a 12-year residence requirement was required, recommendations of 3 white voters, exemption for 7 years from operation of the laws concerning natives. As a result, less than 2.3% of the non-white male population actually received the right to vote. These were clan elders, leaders, native traders, and Indian traders. In addition, all those in military service were deprived of voting rights. In other provinces, voting rights were granted only to the white population. In no other English dominion did racial inequality reach such proportions as in South Africa. In the first parliamentary elections after the proclamation of the South African Republic, held in 1910, the Afrikaner South African Party won. The government included representatives of both the Afrikaner and English-speaking populations. The white minority immediately set about implementing the principles of a racial society throughout the Union.

At the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. The Cape colony of Dutch Boer settlers came under British rule, and clashes between the British and the Boers led to a sharp expansion of the zone of colonial conquest. Boer trekkers, as already mentioned, migrated en masse to the north, where in the places of settlement of the Bantu-speaking Basotho and Ndebele (Matabele) in the middle of the 19th century. they created the independent republics of Transvaal and Orange. In the south, where the British remained, during the long wars with the Zulus and Xhosa (“Kaffirs”), the territories of the Cape Colony and the newly created colony of Natal (Natal) on the coast northeast of it gradually expanded. In addition, in the middle of the 19th century. the British protectorate of Bechuanaland was created in the north, so that both Boer republics were surrounded by the British on almost all sides, except the coast in the east.
The discovery in the late 60s near the confluence of the Vaal and Orange rivers of the Kimberley diamond placers (the name is on behalf of the British Secretary of the Colonies) caused a diamond rush in the country, contributed to the influx of miners from all over the world and the rapid economic development of southern Africa. A second equally powerful impetus for development was the discovery of gold in the Transvaal in the 1980s, where the gold mining center of Johannesburg quickly grew. South Africa was quickly becoming one of the industrial centers of the world. Cities and railways were built, numerous enterprises arose, and the service sector developed. The number of workers both from among visiting Europeans and from among indentured Africans increased sharply. Powerful capitalist companies were created, one of which, De Beers (Beers), led by S. Rhodes, soon became a virtual monopoly in diamond mining.

By the law of 1913, Africans were limited in their rights: they were prohibited from acquiring land outside the reserves; they could own plots of leased land only if they worked on the owner’s lands. A system of passes was introduced, which were supposed to certify the right of Africans to be in the territory outside the reserves, while miners and workers in other professions (mostly it was menial work; skilled workers were performed by European workers) had to work outside the reserves, i.e. on the main part territory of the country, which was rapidly developing industrially. Although African workers in South Africa began to actively fight for their rights and create trade unions and other organizations from the end of the last century, this struggle did not produce tangible results. Of course, they had a guaranteed salary, their children could, although not all, study, which led to the emergence of an educated African population, an intelligentsia that led the struggle for political rights and freedoms. But the harsh apartheid system strictly limited the scope of this struggle, which was led by the African National Congress in 1912. The Negro worker, as well as the intellectual (teacher, priest, publicist, doctor), seemed to belong to a different breed of people in the eyes of the authorities. There was no question of Africans participating in the elections: at best, they were graciously given the opportunity to send a few deputies to parliament from among the Europeans they elected. There is no need to talk about the well-known restrictions on the use of housing, transport, hospitals, parks, etc., which existed until recently. Colonization of South Africa and the creation of the Union of South Africa as a multiracial state with political, legal and socio-economic superiority of the European population, numerically constituting less than 20% of the country's inhabitants (and with coloreds and Indians endowed with some rights compared to Africans, but clearly discriminated against attitude towards Europeans - about 30%), a unique phenomenon not only in Africa, but in the world in general. Rather, it lies in the paradoxical nature of the situation: the African majority of the Republic of South Africa, to a large extent formed due to the migration there of migrant workers from almost all of Tropical Africa, had a very high standard of living by African standards, including educational qualifications and the degree of political activity, but at the same time was relegated to the status of a powerless class, a despised social lower class. It is quite obvious that this kind of abnormal situation was politically dangerous and led to an explosion, which became especially noticeable in the second half of the 20th century.

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A Brief History of Africa. Africa: main historical events

Early history of Africa

It is in Africa that the remains of the oldest species of the human race have been found, suggesting that the African continent is the home of the first people and civilizations.

For this reason, Africa is sometimes called the cradle of humanity.

The earliest history of the continent is associated with the Nile Valley, where the famous civilization of the ancient Egyptians developed.

The Egyptians had well-planned cities and a developed culture, in addition, they also invented a writing system - hieroglyphs, through which they recorded their daily life. All this happened around 3000 BC.

For most of the time, the peoples of Africa were represented by kingdoms united by tribes.

Each tribe spoke its own language.

Presentation on the topic “Africa at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 20th century”

Even today, a similar social structure persists.

Middle Ages

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Islamic warriors repeatedly raided different areas of the continent, capturing most of North Africa by 711 AD. Then followed a series of internal strife over the question of the prophet's successor.

These differences led to constant power struggles, and different regions of Africa were led by different leaders at different times. By the 11th century, Islam had spread to the southern part of the continent, as a result of which one third of the total population of Africa became Muslim.

Contact with Europe

Throughout the 19th century, various African kingdoms began to establish contact with Europe. It was during this period that there was a significant increase in the rate of colonization of Africa, and slaves from various regions were sent to work in the colonies and plantations, particularly in America.

For the most part, Europeans controlled only the coastal regions of Africa, while in the interior regions of the continent control remained with local rulers and Islamists.

The peoples of Africa took part in both world wars. After World War II, European power weakened and African colonies began to demand freedom.

India's successful struggle for independence served as a strong catalyst in this matter. But even after many states achieved freedom, more severe trials awaited them ahead, in the form of mass famine, civil wars, epidemics, and political instability. Even today, many African countries are experiencing the same difficulties.

When economists talk about Africa, always emphasizing its backwardness and low level of development, which means the simplification of its economic structures, ethnologists and sociologists tend to note the exceptional originality and fantastic mosaic of African societies in all its forms.

The scale of economic activity in Africa is very small compared to the global background. In Africa, many energy production cycles are missing and most exist in the form of their bad partners, export cycles (RECs). Most African countries do not have urban settlement systems covering the entire national territory, with implications for urban centers. The African transport network can be described as colonial.

Thus, we are dealing with an economy with a limited number of industries, from the main links between substructures and the company, more than 2/3, which includes villages, only half of which are associated with the production of goods.

It should also be noted that some of the population barely survived the Neolithic revolution phase, while others approached post-industrial society. In addition, Africa is one of the poles of the ethno-interference diversity of the modern world (about 3 thousand.

In Africa, almost all global problems of humanity are very acute: irreversible negative changes in the environment (deforestation of tropical and equatorial forests, soil erosion, desertification), depletion of some natural resources, social, ethnic and religious conflicts against the backdrop of deepening contradictions in the level of well-being of various groups spread of deadly diseases, including AIDS.

Traditionally, Africa has five main subregions: Northern, Western, Eastern, Central (Equatorial) and Southern Africa.

Africa occupies an outstanding position in the reserve of the most important types of mineral raw materials: platinum, diamonds, gold, manganese, chromite, phosphorus, bauxite, copper.

Energy minerals. deposit oils There are 13 countries including Libya, Nigeria, Algeria, Angola, Gabon.

coal Africa's resources are limited. The number of surveyed coal reserves is 72 billion tons (less than 6% of world reserves), of which over 80% is in South Africa and 6% in Zimbabwe.

Iron ore— South Africa, Algeria, Zimbabwe, West African countries.

Manganese and chromite ore— Gabon, South Africa, Morocco.

baker— Central Africa (Zaire), Zambia.

tin— Zaire, Burundi, Rwanda, Nigeria.

bauxite- Guinea, Ghana, Cameroon.

Non-metallic minerals — PHOSPHORITE(Morocco, Tunisia).

Africa is experiencing an acute shortage of water resources, although it is a continent of the world's largest rivers and lakes (R.

Nile, Congo, o.

South Africa in the 18th and early 20th centuries.

Victoria, Tanganyika). In large areas, groundwater is the main source of water supply and irrigation. Freshwater bodies of great importance for fishing.

Soils on which vegetation can grow occupy only 2/3 of Africa's surface. They are weak in organic matter, the humus content is 4-10 times lower than for cultivated soil in Europe. Only 1/3 of the total is suitable for plowing. The main danger in Africa is secondary salinization of soils in irrigated areas and erosion.

The plant and animal life of Africa is rich and varied.

Africa is home to many cultures. Economic value - timber reserves (95% in tropical Africa).

Population. Africa is characterized by rapid population growth (in particular, the rate of natural increase). There is a "population explosion". High birth rate (1.7 times higher than the world average) and mortality (1.6 times). The tradition of early marriages and large families continues. National birth control policies are ineffective.

By 2025, Africa's population is projected to double since 2002.

The very low standard of living has a direct impact on demographic indicators, in particular infant mortality (95%) and life expectancy (53 g). Africa is relatively uninhabited.

The population density is 28 people. per 1 km2. The Sahara is located in less than 1% of the population, densely populated oases (more than 100 people. 1 km2), the fertile Nile Valley (more than 1000 people. 1 km2), Middle and Lower Niger, coasts, lake regions, inland areas with developed mining industries.

Population distribution is uneven: Nigeria (100 million people).

inhabitants), five countries with populations ranging from 25 to 60 million people (Ethiopia, Tanzania, South Africa, Zaire, Kenya). Six countries account for 56% of the region's population.

The continent's rate of urbanization (33% in 2002), along with Asia's, is the lowest in the world, but it is growing the fastest in the world at almost 5% per year.

The largest share of the urban population is in North Africa (Libya - 86%, Tunisia - 61%, Algeria - 56%) and South Africa (57%).

Characteristics of development and general characteristics of the economy. Sub-Saharan Africa, home to 10% of the world's population, produces only 1.4% of global GDP and about 1% of manufacturing output (mostly in South Africa).

Agriculture does not exceed 6% of the world's output. GDP per capita in developing countries in the region is on average 3.5 times lower than that for the group of developing countries and 50 times less than in industrialized countries.

The vast majority of countries remain the last remaining economies with weak manufacturing and low productivity.

High dependence on the world market. The export industry is one of the main sources of foreign exchange earnings. South Africa, along with Nigeria's largest population, accounts for almost half of the region's GDP.

Africa is the least industrialized region in the world.

Numerous modern industries (instruments, precision engineering, automobile manufacturing) are completely absent from developing countries in Africa, and most others are represented by individual companies. About half of the industry extractive industry. The growth rate of industrial production is 7% per year.

Mining- platinum, diamond, gold, manganese, chromite, vanadium, cobalt - leading positions in the world. Phosphorites, uranium, copper, asbestos, graphite - one of the first places in the world.

Africa was believed to be deficient in mineral resources. They have now reached significant proportions on the continent oils And Uranus. Africa's share in world oil production is about 10% in uranium oxide production - ¼. Currently, South Africa and Namibia contain almost 2/3 of Africa's uranium.

production iron ore applies to many particularly fast-growing mining industries.

Leading countries of North and West Africa.

Africa accounts for more than half of the world market manganese. Most of the production is located in South Africa.

Mining is important in South Africa and Zimbabwe chrome ore, these countries account for up to 40% of production worldwide.

It is important gold mining for the South African economy, which accounts for ¼ of global output.

production diamonds- the second oldest branch of the mining industry (after gold). The leading place in terms of production costs is in South Africa, where large jewelry stones are accumulated. However, in terms of the number of diamonds mined, Zaire ranks first, where technical stones predominate.

Most of the oldest mining areas are on the continent.

As a rule, they have significant capabilities for the enrichment and processing of raw materials, relatively good transport infrastructure and are the core of industrial regions.

New mining areas, whose foundations began after independence, gravitate towards the coastal part of the continent and on their basis industrial and transport zones and nodes are just beginning.

Overall, the mining industry in Africa, and in particular in developing countries on the continent, remains a strong enclave.

The main purpose of investment in foreign capital remains (more than 60% of foreign direct investment).

Energy African countries remain bottlenecked in their economies despite the significant development that the industry has received over the past 20-30 years. Most countries are net energy importers, and Africa as a whole exports 2.5 times more energy than it consumes.

Energy consumption in Africa is 5 times, and in developing countries on the continent it is 8 times lower than the world average. The consumption structure consists mainly of three almost equivalent components − coal, oil And vegetable fuel . The latter's large role in production and consumption is one of the most important features of the energy industry in Africa. Gas production and consumption are growing rapidly, especially in North Africa.

The widespread use of vegetable fuels has very negative consequences for the environment.

In this regard, some African countries have begun experimental use of non-traditional forms of energy, in particular solar energy, as well as the design of nuclear power plants.

Africa's share of global electricity production is less than 2%.

Almost all electricity generated in South Africa is generated thermal stations (98%) and about 2/3 in developing countries on the continent HES.

Manufacturing industry African countries are underdeveloped.

Light industry in developing countries on the continent accounts for approximately 2/3 (in South Africa -1/3) of all types of products.

The most important industries remain textile And food. For textile and clothing companies, one third of all manufacturing workers are fed by - ¼ . In the textile industry of Africa, the leading role belongs to cotton, which is relatively equipped with its own raw materials .

The leather and footwear industry is much worse than textiles, although in many African countries, where there is a large raw material of raw hides, the opportunities for its development are very favorable.

African countries continue to rank last in the world in the production of heavy industrial products and are forced to meet the bulk of demand due to imports.

Ferrous metallurgy Africa represents about 40 mostly dependent companies. African steel production is around 10 million tonnes per year, of which 4/5 is produced in factories in South Africa. Developing countries on the continent meet less than 1/4 of their ferrous metal requirements.

One of the most advanced heavy industries in Africa is non-ferrous metallurgy, based on the richest raw materials.

In copper production, the leading role belongs to Zambia, Congo and South Africa. Aluminum production is represented by plants in South Africa, Cameroon and Ghana.

In recent years, in important African countries oil refining And chemical industry.

Its intersectoral structure is characterized by an increased specific gravity of oil and petroleum products refining. The largest capacities are located in South Africa and Nigeria. The production of mineral fertilizers is gradually increasing, although the size of production remains very modest. The demand for most types of basic chemicals is filled by imports.

Equipment construction in Africa is relatively developed in South Africa (mainly the production of transport and mining equipment, military equipment).

In other countries, the industry is represented only by individual companies, mainly assemblies concentrated in the largest cities.

Industry accounts for only about 9% of all manufacturing output, with the exception of South Africa at just over 5%.

In modern Africa, traditional crafts are still important, especially in the interior with semi-natural economies.

Agriculture— the fundamentals of the economy of the African continent.

It employs 2/3 of the working population (in some countries up to 90%). Africa is a global supplier of various types of tropical agricultural products: cocoa beans - about 2/3 of world exports, sisal and palm kernels - ½, coffee and palm oil - 1/3 tea - about 1/10, large quantities of peanuts and peanut butter,

At the same time, African countries are increasingly forced to import food, especially grains and livestock products.

For agriculture, most African countries are characterized by the persistence of archaic socio-economic structures, which is a complex combination of different types of agrarian relations, usually with a low agricultural, technical and economic stage of the process.

Farmland in Africa accounts for one third of the continent.

The share of pasture land was 83.2%, arable land - 15.1%, forest products - 1.7%. Crop production accounts for up to 4/5 of total agricultural production. In agriculture, there are two different distinctions: on the one hand, crop production, and on the other, local crop production.

The relationship between agriculture and livestock is very weak. Livestock production in Africa is characterized by very low productivity with significant numbers of major livestock species.

Transport services.

Africa is the last among all parts of the world in its material base and technical and economic indicators of road traffic. Celina represents only 4% of traffic and 3% of global passenger traffic. For transport services, only South Africa, Zimbabwe and North African coastal areas are provided.

Automobile and gas transport are developing as quickly as possible. Their share in domestic transportation of the countries of the continent is 20% and 17%, respectively. However, the majority of cargo is transported by rail - approximately 54%. The share of river and sea transport in internal traffic for all is at least 5%. Sea transport carries out almost all external freight transport.

Its cargo turnover is almost one and a half times higher than domestic freight traffic in African countries. Ports in Africa are characterized by a significant excess of exports compared to imports, which reflects the subordinate position of the continent's countries in the international capitalist division of labor.

Foreign economic relations. African countries' foreign trade is the most important part of their international economic relations.

The extremely low level of economic development in Africa and the specialization of the economy imposed by them are shown, on the one hand, in a small part of Africa in world trade, and on the other hand, it is extremely important that foreign trade for African countries be the most. Thus, more than a quarter of the continent’s GDP is sold on foreign markets; Africa accounts for only 2.6% of world foreign trade, and this percentage is decreasing.

Foreign trade provides up to 4/5 of the budget revenues of African countries.

More than 90% of exports are fuel, raw materials and food. Approximately 80% of commercial traffic comes from developed capitalist countries. The main trading partners of many African countries continue to occupy their former homeland, although over the past two decades they have strengthened their positions in the USA, Japan, and Germany.

Developing countries on other continents account for only 14% of Africa's total foreign trade, but 2/3 of Africa's manufactured goods exports are sold in these markets. The share of mutual trade does not exceed 4-5% of the total volume of foreign trade transactions.

History of Africa

To main

Ancient and medieval states of Tropical Africa

The world's largest desert, the Sahara, divides Africa into two unequal parts. In the smaller of them - North Africa - there were Egypt, Carthage and other ancient states. Tropical Africa extends south of the Sahara. It is inhabited by peoples with black or dark skin. The life of their ancestors in ancient times and the Middle Ages is told by the rock paintings that have reached us, inscriptions on stones, and oral traditions, which are carefully preserved by almost all African peoples.

Information about the peoples of Tropical Africa was preserved by Egyptian inscriptions on stone and papyrus, as well as some books by Greek and Roman writers and scientists.

Sources say that African peoples have been engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, fishing and hunting since ancient times.

Millet and sorghum, cotton and various root crops were grown here. In many areas, canals and dams were built to irrigate fields. Among domestic animals, the most important economically were sheep, cows and goats. And at the beginning of our era, camels were imported from the Middle East into North Africa, and they became indispensable for the peoples of the Sahara and the adjacent regions.

In Tropical Africa, gold, silver, copper, and iron have been mined and processed since ancient times. African craftsmen widely used copper; their gold products that have come down to us amaze with their high art. In the southwest of what is now Nigeria, a school of bronze artistic casting has developed, surprising with the beauty and completeness of its works.

Most of the peoples of Tropical Africa switched from stone tools directly to iron ones. Pottery was a very common craft - making jugs, pots and other utensils; Unlike their counterparts in other parts of the world, African craftsmen did not know the potter's wheel. Brilliant craftsmanship distinguishes the products of African wood and bone carvers, as well as baskets, mats, and clothing woven from plant fibers.

Tropical Africa was famous for its riches. For a long time it has been trading with the peoples of North Africa, the Middle East, and then with others.

Ships from the Roman Empire, Arabia, India and other countries took slaves, ivory, gold, emeralds, animal skins, hippopotamus teeth, and various animals for menageries from here.

In exchange, Africans received handicrafts and salt.

One of the most ancient states of Tropical Africa - Napata - emerged in the 8th century. BC e. in the northern regions of what is now Sudan. In 736 BC. e. The rulers of Napata managed to subjugate Egypt, weakened by internal struggle, and ruled it for six and a half decades. Only powerful Assyria was able to expel them from Egypt.

At the end of the 6th century. BC e.

Napata was replaced by a new strong state - Meroe, which existed until the beginning of the 4th century. n. e. Neither the Persians nor the Romans could conquer it. The kingdom of Meroe had two capitals: Napata and Meroe.

On the site of these cities, stone pyramids, temples and palaces decorated with sculpture have been preserved.

In the 50s and 60s of our century, two inscriptions were found in northern Ethiopia.

From them it became known that in the 5th century. BC e. there was a state here. Excavations helped uncover the remains of temples, stone sculptures, and obelisks, which testified to the high culture of the ancient Ethiopians. The inhabitants of northern Ethiopia, just like in Napata and Meroe, knew writing. At first, Egyptian writing was used here, as well as the writing of one of the peoples of South Arabia - Sabaean.

In the II century. n. e. in Meroe, and then in Ethiopia, their own alphabet was invented.

Among the ancient states of Tropical Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum, which arose in the 2nd century, was especially famous. n. e. in the north of modern Ethiopia.

The strong and warlike rulers of Aksum subjugated not only the peoples of Ethiopia, but also parts of Sudan and South Arabia. They maintained diplomatic relations with neighboring countries: Aksumite ambassadors visited Egypt, Arabia, and India.

Ambassadors and travelers from different countries arrived in Axum.

Foreign ships came to the main port of the state - the city of Adulis, located on the shores of the Red Sea. They brought handicrafts to Aksum - fabrics, dishes, jewelry, metal tools - and generous gifts to the king.

And they took away ivory, gold, emeralds, and animal skins. Trade brought large revenues to the state. Aksumite caravans penetrated far into the depths of Africa; they exported gold from the Blue Nile Valley to their homeland.

The Aksumites achieved great skill in making statues and huge stone obelisks, which were carved entirely from basalt blocks. Some of them reach 20 - 30 m in height and weigh tens of tons.

In Axum, coins began to be minted for the first time in the countries of Tropical Africa.

The ruler of Aksum bore the title “king of kings.” He was considered a descendant of the war god Mahrem and was worshiped as a deity.

The power of the “king of kings” was passed on from father to son. According to legend, before taking the throne, the heir had to fight a bull and a lion to prove that he was a brave and dexterous warrior. The people saw the ruler only on holidays. Custom forbade him to address his subjects directly - to convey the royal will there was a special dignitary, called the “mouth of the king.”

The king also could not touch food with his hands: he was watered and fed by another dignitary - the “feeder”. The ruler's mother and his brother enjoyed great influence. A special council of nobles controlled his most important actions. The king and the nobility were served by many slaves.

A giant obelisk created in ancient Axum.

Its height is 24 m.

The splendor and power of the Aksumite state was based on the labor of peasant farmers who were subject to royal taxes. It is no coincidence that it was the gods of agriculture Becher and Medr who were considered until the 4th century.

n. e. the main gods of the Aksumites.

Sculptural portrait made of terracotta, created by an African sculptor in the 5th century. BC e. Found in tin mines in northern Nigeria.

In the 4th century. Aksum was ruled by King Ezana. He sought to unite the peoples subject to Aksum under a single religion (before this, the tribes conquered by the Aksumites retained their own gods).

Ezana proclaimed the veneration of a single god - “the lord of heaven and earth” - as the state religion; he declared himself the son of this god. At the same time, he patronized Christianity, which began to spread in Aksum at that time. In the V - VI centuries. Christianity became the dominant religion in Axum.

The Aksumite state ceased to exist in the 9th - 10th centuries. The traditions of its once brilliant culture were preserved by medieval Ethiopia.

Bronze head.

In the western part of Africa, the first states emerged later than in the northeast. One of the earliest was Ghana, created by the Soninke people on the territory of modern Mauritania and Mali. According to legend, Ghana arose at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th century.

Busy trade routes passed through the capital of the country, the “city of Ghana,”: slaves and gold were transported from the south to the north (before the discovery of America, West Africa was the main source of gold that circulated in world trade), and from the north - salt and handicrafts. According to the descriptions of Arab historians and geographers of the 8th century, medieval Ghana was primarily a “country of gold”; it was mined both in the country itself and to the south of Ghana - in the tropical forest zone, where the Soninka sent caravans to buy the precious metal.

In 1076, Ghana was defeated by the Almoravid Berber tribes that inhabited the Sahara. They also captured Morocco, Algeria, and Spain. The name of ancient Ghana has been preserved in the name of the modern African state.

In the 13th century The state of Mali, which had previously been a vassal of Ghana, rose to prominence. It extended its power from Gao to the Atlantic Ocean. In the Malian city of Timbuktu on the Niger River in the 16th century. the university arose. In addition to theology, they studied history, literary criticism, law, grammar, rhetoric, and Arabic.

Africa at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 20th century

The city of Timbuktu was widely known as a scientific center later, when it was part of the Songhai state.

East of Ghana, on another caravan route to North Africa, connecting the Niger River valley with Egypt, at the end of the 7th century. The city of Gao was founded, which became from the end of the 9th century. capital of the Songhai state.

Even further east, northeast of Lake Chad, the state of Kanem arose, created by the Kanuri people.

It was first mentioned in the works of Arab writers at the same time as Ghana, in the 8th - 9th centuries. In the 13th century the center of this state moved to the southwestern shore of Lake Chad, and since then it began to be called Bornu. Bornu reached its peak in the second half of the 16th century.

The peoples of West African states deified kings, worshiped the spirits of ancestors and the forces of nature. From the 8th century Islam began to penetrate into West Africa from the north (see.

Art. “How Islam Arose”), which was brought by Arab and Berber merchants. Gradually Islam became the religion of the majority of the inhabitants. The spread of Arabic writing was of great importance for the culture of the peoples of this part of Africa: in the 16th - 18th centuries. Several historical works were written in Arabic, which tell us many interesting information about the life of West Africa in the Middle Ages.

In the 7th - 8th centuries. Rich trading city-states arose on the east coast of Africa and remained independent for centuries. Their inhabitants were engaged in agriculture and ocean fishing. African sailors successfully sailed to Arabia and India. The city-states of East Africa developed a unique culture in which local traditions mixed with the culture of the Muslim peoples of the Middle East.

In the southeastern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers, in the 14th century.

a powerful state of Monomotapa emerged, inhabited by the Karanga people. The ruins of huge fortress and palace buildings erected by order of the rulers of Monomotapa have survived to this day.

There were legends about their wealth and power. In the 16th century dozens of Portuguese adventurers tried to make their way deep into the mainland, to the fabulous gold deposits that beckoned them. The intervention of the Portuguese in the feuds of various groups of Karanga nobility ultimately proved fatal for Monomotapa: in the 17th century. the unified state broke up into many small possessions.

In the southwestern part of Nigeria there is a city called Ife.

It was once the capital of a medieval kingdom created by the ancestors of a people called the Yoruba. Archaeological materials show that Ife flourished in the 14th century. Archaeologists have found in the city the remains of fortress walls and amazing pavements made of tens of millions of round clay shards. Many museums around the world contain sculptures of Ife foundry masters: human heads cast in bronze or sculpted in clay. They depicted ancestors and were considered sacred.

The city was inhabited by farmers and artisans: weavers, foundries, blacksmiths, potters, carvers. The townspeople, as a rule, had plots of land in the city itself or not far from it, on which grain crops, cotton, and various fruits were cultivated.

The state of Ife consisted primarily of the city and its surroundings.

The powerful state of Ono was also inhabited by the Yoruba people, ruled by the Alafin (in the Yoruba language - “master of the palace”).

Ordinary people could not see or hear him. The power of the king of Oyo was limited by a council of the largest dignitaries of seven people - “Oyo mesi”.

If the alafin made decisions they disliked, oyo mesi sent him a parrot egg or an empty calabash - a vessel hollowed out from a pumpkin. According to the custom of the country, this “gift” meant that people were tired of the king’s rule and it was time for him to “fall asleep,” that is, to commit suicide. Only once in the entire history of Oyo did the Alafin dare to refuse the parrot's eggs and, instead of dying himself, killed his dignitaries.

The majority of Oyo's population were peasant farmers.

They worked in the fields of the ruler of their district, built and repaired the master's estate for free, and sent him gifts every year.

Many artisans lived in the cities. Their products, especially fabrics, were highly valued in other countries. Important trade routes passed through Oyo territory. They connected the coast of the Gulf of Guinea with the interior of West Africa.

Along these routes, large caravans of slave porters brought horses from the west of Sudan and carried salt, copper and other goods that were not available in Oyo. And kola nuts, ivory, and fabrics were sent north. Bundles of cowrie shells, which foreign merchants brought from the Maldives of the Indian Ocean, served as money.

The priests enjoyed great influence in Oyo. They propagated the cult of the god Shango: he was considered the ancestor of Alafin.

During campaigns and punitive expeditions against conquered peoples, the Oyo army captured thousands of prisoners. When in the 16th century Europeans began to buy African slaves in large quantities to send to America (see article “International Slave Trade”), the Alafin and the Yoruba nobility around him became the largest slave traders. Captives were sold to European merchants for firearms, copper wire for making jewelry, and alcoholic beverages.

But the demand for slaves increased, and the rulers of Oyo began to sell their own subjects. Soon, sale into slavery became the most common punishment in the lands subject to Oyo (as well as in most countries on the coast of West Africa). Rich people hired gangs that waylaid travelers on the roads, kidnapped people from their homes and sold them to slave traders.

The slave hunt had a devastating impact on the entire life of society: no one could be sure of their safety.

Entire regions were depopulated, and the economy fell into disrepair. Ultimately, it was the slave trade that became one of the main reasons for the fall of the power of Oyo and the actual collapse of this state in the second half of the 18th century.

To the east of Oyo was another strong state - Benin. It was inhabited by the Bini people, related to the Yoruba. In terms of its culture and customs, Benin had much in common with Oyo.

In the 17th century, judging by the story of the Dutch physician and geographer Dapper, the capital of Benin was no less than the largest Dutch cities. The towers of the magnificent royal palace were decorated with bronze sculptures of birds and snakes. The walls of the palace were covered with bronze plaques depicting various events from the history of Benin.

The king of Benin had strong power. Without his permission, no European merchant could trade with the Benin people. He also set prices for foreign goods and for captives, whom he sold to Europeans as slaves.

As in Oyo, the slave trade and captive wars sapped Benin's strength.

In 1397, Benin was destroyed by the British. They subjected it to severe bombardment from their ships; The royal palace was destroyed and burned, and art objects were taken to Europe.

The original culture of the peoples of Tropical Africa was subjected to brutal defeat and destruction by European colonialists.