Wedding

Author of the theory of instincts of social behavior. Development of the theory of instincts. Social movements, the problem of the leader and leaders

Originated in the USA. The book by the English psychologist McDougall, An Introduction to Social Psychology (1920), is considered to be the first serious central work. For a number of years this book has been used as a textbook in American universities. According to his theory, personality psychology plays a decisive role in the formation of social psychology.

The main reason for the social behavior of individuals is innate instincts, i.e. an innate predisposition to the perceptibility of the environment and a willingness to respond in one way or another. He believed that each instinct corresponds to a certain emotion. He attached particular importance to the social instinct, which gives rise to a sense of belonging to a particular group.

This theory was leading in the USA. The concept of instinct was eventually replaced by the concept of predisposition, but the main driving forces of human behavior, the basis of social life, were still considered the need for food, sleep, sex, parental care, self-affirmation, etc. Freud's work, especially the structure of the personality and the driving forces of development, was of great importance for the development of this theory, and the mechanisms for relieving stress also turned out to be important. The theory of psychological defense he created was further developed into social psychology; at present, 8 methods of psychological defense are distinguished:

1) Denial is manifested in the unconscious rejection of information that is negative for self-esteem. A person, as it were, listens, but does not hear, does not perceive what threatens his well-being ...

2) Repression - an active way to prevent internal conflict, involves not only turning off negative information from consciousness, but also special actions to preserve a positive self-image, i.e. a person can not only forget facts that are not acceptable to him, but also put forward false, but acceptable explanations for his actions. 3) Projection - an unconscious attribution to another person of one's own desires and aspirations of personal qualities, most often of a negative nature.

4) Substitution - the removal of internal stress by transferring, redirecting the action aimed at an inaccessible object, into an accessible situation.

5) Identification - the establishment of an emotional connection with another object of identification with him. Often allows you to overcome feelings of inferiority.

6) Isolation - protection from traumatic facts by breaking emotional ties with other people. Loss of the ability to empathize. And the most effective are:

7) Rationalization manifests itself in the form of a decrease in the value of the unattainable. 8) Sublimation is the translation of unfulfilled desires (sexual) into a socially acceptable channel.

9) Regression is a return to past (childish) forms of behavior. Freud's ideas about human aggressiveness and methods of psychological defense found a new development in the works of the American psychologist Eric Fromm (1900-1980) (2Escape from Freedom").

The third theoretical premise of the modern science of human communication can be considered the theory of the instincts of social behavior, which arose from the idea of evolutionism by Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and G. Spencer (1820–1903).

At the center of this trend is the theory of W. McDougall (1871–1938), an English psychologist who has been working in the United States since 1920. The main theses of his theory are as follows.

1. The psychology of personality plays a decisive role in the formation of social psychology.

2. The main reason for the social behavior of individuals are innate instincts. Instincts are understood as an innate psycho-physiological predisposition to the perception of external objects of a certain class, causing emotions and a willingness to respond in one way or another. In other words, the action of instinct involves the emergence of an emotional reaction, motive or act. At the same time, each instinct corresponds to a very specific emotion. The researcher paid special attention to the herd instinct, which gives rise to a sense of belonging and thus underlies many social instincts.

This concept has undergone some evolution: by 1932 McDougall abandoned the term "instinct", replacing it with the concept of "predisposition". The number of the latter was increased from 11 to 18, but the essence of the doctrine has not changed. Unconscious needs for food, sleep, sex, parental care, self-affirmation, comfort, etc. were still considered the main driving force of human behavior, the foundation of social life. Gradually, however, the American intellectual climate changed: scientists became disillusioned with the rather primitive idea of the immutability of human nature, and the scales tipped in favor of the other extreme - the leading role of the environment.

Behaviorism

The new doctrine, called behaviorism, dates back to 1913 and is based on the experimental study of animals. E. Thorndike (1874–1949) and J. Watson (1878–1958), who were strongly influenced by the works of the famous Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlova.

Behaviorism - the science of behavior - proposes a rejection of the direct study of consciousness, and instead - the study of human behavior according to the "stimulus - reaction" scheme, that is, external factors come to the fore. If their influence coincides with inborn reflexes of a physiological nature, the “law of effect” comes into force: this behavioral reaction is fixed. Consequently, by manipulating external stimuli, any necessary forms of social behavior can be brought to automatism. At the same time, not only the innate inclinations of the individual are ignored, but also the unique life experience, attitudes and beliefs. In other words, the focus of researchers is the relationship between stimulus and response, but not their content. However, behaviorism has had a significant impact on sociology, anthropology and, most importantly, management.

In neobehaviorism (B. Skinner, N. Miller, D. Dollard, D. Homans, and others), the traditional “stimulus-response” scheme is complicated by the introduction of intermediate variables. From the point of view of the problem of business communication, the most interesting is the theory of social exchange by D. Homans, according to which the frequency and quality of rewards (for example, gratitude) are directly proportional to the desire to help a source of positive incentive.

Freudianism

A special place in the history of social psychology is occupied by Z. Freud (1856–1939), an Austrian physician and psychologist. Freud lived in Vienna almost all his life, combining teaching with medical practice. A scientific internship in Paris in 1885 with the famous psychiatrist J. Charcot and a trip to America in 1909 to give lectures had a significant impact on the development of his teaching.

Western Europe at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. It was characterized by social stability, lack of conflict, an excessively optimistic attitude towards civilization, boundless faith in the human mind and the possibilities of science, and the bourgeois hypocrisy of the Victorian era in the field of morality and moral relations. Under these conditions, the young and ambitious Freud, brought up on the ideas of natural science and hostile to "metaphysics", began the study of mental illness. At that time, physiological deviations were considered the cause of mental deviations. From Charcot, Freud got acquainted with the hypnotic practice of treating hysteria and began to study the deep layers of the human psyche.
He concluded that nervous diseases are caused by unconscious mental traumas, and connected these traumas with the sexual instinct, sexual experiences. Scientific Vienna did not accept Freud's discoveries, but a trip to the USA with lectures on psychoanalysis made a revolution in science.

Let us consider those provisions that are directly related to the laws of human communication and behavior in society and, to one degree or another, have withstood the test of time.

model of the mental structure of personality, according to Freud, consists of three levels: “It”, “I”, “Super-I” (in Latin “Id”, “Ego”, “Super-Ego”).

Under " It ” refers to the deepest layer of the human psyche, inaccessible to consciousness, initially an irrational source of sexual energy, called libido. “It” obeys the principle of pleasure, constantly strives to realize itself and sometimes breaks into consciousness in the figurative form of dreams, in the form of slips of the tongue and slips of the tongue. Being a source of constant mental stress, “It” is socially dangerous, since the uncontrolled realization by each individual of his instincts can lead to the death of human communication. In practice, this does not happen, because a “dam” in the form of our “I” stands in the way of the forbidden sexual energy.

“I ”obeys the principle of reality, is formed on the basis of individual experience and is designed to promote the self-preservation of the individual, its adaptation to the environment on the basis of restraint and suppression of instincts.

“I”, in turn, controlled “ Super-I ”, which is understood as social prohibitions and values, moral and religious norms learned by the individual. The “Super-I” is formed as a result of the identification of the child with the father, acts as a source of feelings of guilt, reproaches of conscience, dissatisfaction with oneself. From here follows the paradoxical conclusion that there are no mentally normal people, everyone is neurotic, since everyone has an internal conflict, a stressful situation.

In this regard, Freud's proposed mechanisms for relieving stress, in particular repression and sublimation, are of practical interest. Their essence can be illustrated as follows. Imagine a hermetically sealed steam boiler in which the pressure is steadily increasing. An explosion is inevitable. How to prevent it? Either strengthen the walls of the boiler as much as possible, or open the safety valve and release steam. The first is repression, when unwanted feelings and desires are forced out into the unconscious, but even after the displacement they continue to motivate the emotional state and behavior, remain a source of experience. The second is sublimation: sexual energy is catalyzed, that is, it is transformed into external activity that does not contradict socially significant values, for example, artistic creativity.

Thus, on the basis of what has been said above, it can be stated that social psychology illuminates the laws governing the emergence, development, and manifestation of socio-psychological phenomena. Socio-psychological phenomena arise and manifest themselves at different levels (macro-, meso-, micro-), in different spheres (state, economy, society, individual) and conditions (normal, complicated and extreme).

To understanding and explaining the science of socio-psychological phenomena in society in the scientific community, 3 approaches have been identified on the subject of social psychology:

The 1st defines that Social psychology is the science of “mass-like phenomena of the psyche”, which is understood as various phenomena from the psychology of classes and communities to the study of mores, traditions, customs of groups, collectives, etc.;

the second studies social psychology, meaning by this the study of social consciousness, through the study of the social psychology of the individual;

3rd attempt to synthesize the two previous approaches, studying mass mental processes and the position of the individual in the group.

The unit of analysis in social psychology is taken as "interaction" as a result of which socio-psychological phenomena are formed. In essence, they are interaction effects. It is they who act as a universal concept of social psychology, a unit of its analysis.

Questions for self-control

1. From what branches of knowledge has social psychology developed as a science?

2. What can be distinguished as an object and subject of research in social psychology?

3. What do you know about national psychology and its significance for the practice of using it in business communication?

4. What is the essence of crowd psychology? What are the features of crowd manipulation?

5. Tell us about the unconscious mechanisms of personality according to the teachings of Z. Freud.

6. How are behaviorism and modern concepts of personnel management related?

control test

1. Behaviorism is a doctrine

A) about human behavior based on the study of his life experience

B) about the behavior caused by an external stimulus

C) about the behavior of a person guided by a conscious attitude to what is happening.

2. The conclusion that various forms of the social psyche are a qualitatively new formation, and not an average statistical sum of individual psyches, was first formulated:

BUT) in the psychology of peoples

B) in mass psychology

C) in the psychology of the crowd

3. The significance of the psychology of peoples lies in the fact that:

BUT) within the framework of this concept, the existence of a collective psyche and consciousness, not reducible to individual consciousness, is substantiated

B) this theory shows the existence of phenomena that are generated not by individual, but by collective consciousness

C) in assimilation of oneself to another person

4. The direct creators of mass psychology were:

A) W. McDougal

B) M. Lazarus, G, Steinthal

C) G. Lebon, G. Steinthal

G) S.Siegele, G.Lebon

5. Functionalism as a direction in social psychology arose under the influence of:

A) K. Marx's theory of surplus value

B) the concepts of the psychology of peoples and the psychology of the masses

AT) the evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin and the theory of social Darwinism G. Spencer

D) behaviorism

6. The frequency and quality of rewards (for example, gratitude) are directly proportional to the desire to help. The source of a positive incentive refers to:

BUT) theories of social exchange

B) neobehaviorism

C) theories of mass psychology

7. The central idea of behaviorism in social psychology is:

A) the idea of the inevitability of influence

B) the idea of punishment

AT) reinforcement idea

D) idea of measurement

8. Which of the following statements does not apply to the prescriptions described by E. Berne

A) be perfect

B) "hurry up"

C) be strong

D) be yourself

9. The concepts of mass psychology contain important socio-psychological patterns:

A) interactions of people in a crowd

B) the influence of mass media on public and mass consciousness

C) relations between the masses and the elite

10. The concept of social influence in social psychology introduced:

A) J. Watson

B) allport

B) Mac Dougall

A) Muzafer Sheriff

B) Kurt Lewin

B) Lyon Festinger

11. For an individual in a crowd are typical:

A) impersonality

B) a sharp predominance of feelings, loss of intelligence
C) loss of personal responsibility

G) all of the above

12. "Psychology of peoples" as a theoretical school has developed:

BUT) in Germany

B) in France

B) in England

Lecture 2. PSYCHOLOGY AND GROUP BEHAVIOR

Topic 2.1. History of group research in social psychology

"Mere social contact generates the stimulation of an instinct that enhances the efficiency of each individual worker." (K. Marx)

The life of most people takes place in one group or another (growing up, socialization, training, acquiring skills, abilities, professions) is associated for each of us with joining more and more new groups. Belonging to a group is an indispensable condition for human existence, the preservation of mental health.

Theorists of the psychology of the masses G. Tarde and G. Le Bon convincingly proved that the behavior and psyche of a single individual and his own, but being in the mass, among other people, differ greatly. A meeting of two people already forms a mass. The origins of the socio-psychological and proper sociological understanding of groups is the psychology of the masses.

Social psychology turned to the problem of group, mass behavior only a few decades after mass psychology, in the 1930s. Initially, there was a tradition in social psychology that prescribed the study of social behavior at the level of the actions of individuals, not groups. Psychologists focused on personal perception, individual attitudes, actions, interpersonal interactions, etc.

Some psychologists argued that groups as carriers of a special psychology do not exist at all, that groups are some kind of fiction created by the imagination. So, in particular, Floyd Allport argued that a group is just a set of values, thoughts, habits shared by people, i.e. everything that is simultaneously present in the minds of several people. This point of view has been called in the history of social psychology personalistic or pure psychological approach. N. Tritlett, W. McDougall, M. Sheriff, S. Ash, L. Festinger, J. Homans continued this tradition, but their approach was less radical.

In parallel with personalism in social psychology, a sociological tradition coming from E. Durkheim, V. Pareto, M. Weber, G. Tarde. Proponents of this approach argued that all social behavior cannot be adequately explained and understood if it is studied only at the level of individual behavior. Therefore, groups and group processes must be studied in their own right, since the psychology of groups cannot be understood on the basis of individual psychology.

Active study of groups began in the 1930s. It was then that Kurt Lewin conducted the first laboratory studies of group processes (“group dynamics”) in the USA. In social psychology, thanks to Levin, such concepts as “group cohesion”, “type of leadership” appeared, he also formulated the first definition of a group (Shicherev P.N., 1999, p. 89).

In the 1950s and 60s. there was an intensive convergence of the above-mentioned currents of social psychology - personalistic and sociological schools. Contradictions were gradually overcome. This unifying trend did not arise by chance. The problem of studying the regularities of group processes has acquired actual practical significance. 75% of all small group research was funded by industrial firms and military organizations. The interest of government agencies, businessmen and financiers in the study of groups was dictated by the need to improve the methods of managing groups-organizations, and through them individuals.

Number of publications concerning group problems in world literature from 1897 to 1959. amounted to 2112 items, but from 1959 to 1969. it increased by 2000, and from 1967 to 1972. 3400 more, 90% of all publications concerning group research came from the United States. (Semechkin N.I., 2004, p. 292).

Group definition

With the development of social psychology, the denial of groups as carriers of a special psychology was overcome. But other problems remain. One of them is related to the definition of what a group is.

The diversity of the groups of which we are members best confirms that groups are not fictions, not phantoms of consciousness, but active psychological subjects of social reality. The heterogeneity of groups makes it difficult to single out something in common in them in order to define a group. Obviously, not every collection of people, even those gathered in one place, can be considered a group.

What makes a group a group? What is the most common feature of a group? E. Bern argues that this is a kind of awareness of belonging and non-belonging, i.e. "We" and "You". Australian social psychologist John Turner said essentially the same thing, arguing that group members should perceive themselves as "Us" as opposed to "They" (Myers D., 1997).

But this is too general a criterion. It does not allow us to understand what, in fact, makes a certain set of individuals realize themselves as “We”.

The most indisputable criterion for defining a group, proposed by Kurt Lewin, who suggested that the essence of the group is the interdependence of its members. Therefore, the group is a "dynamic whole" and a change in one part of it entails a change in any other part. The cohesion of the group is determined by the degree of interdependence and interaction of all parts and members of the group.

Most modern definitions of a group are derived from the formulation proposed by K. Levin. Group is an association formed of two or more people who interact with each other with a certain measure of activity.

The presence of a structure;

The presence of an organization;

Active interaction of group members;

Awareness of oneself by members of the group as a single whole, as "We" in contrast to all other people who are perceived as "They".

Thus, a group arises whenever at least two people begin to interact with each other, fulfilling their role and observing certain norms and rules.

A group appears when the interaction of people leads to the formation of a group structure. Moreover, it is not necessary for people to be in close, direct interaction. They may be at a great distance from each other, rarely, or perhaps never see each other, and yet form a group.

Joseph McGras believes that groups can differ in the degree of expression of group features in them: the number of social interactions, the degree of influence of group members on each other, the number of group norms and rules, the presence of mutual obligations, etc. (McGrath, 1984)

All this will determine the measure of the cohesion of the group and the longevity of its existence.

Group size

The group involves the interdependence and interaction of its members, as a result of which they have common experiences, develop and establish emotional ties, and also form certain group roles. Groups differ from each other in many ways. They may vary in size, composition, i.e. by "appearance" - age, gender, ethnicity, social affiliation of its members. In addition, the groups differ from each other structurally.

Throughout the history of the study of groups, researchers have tried to establish the optimal group size needed to solve certain problems. The problems solved by different groups differ significantly: for the family - one, for the sports - others. Therefore, it is pointless to raise the question of the optimal size of the group: before talking about the size of the group, it is necessary to clarify what kind of group we are talking about.

The issue of group size is a pragmatic one. For example, how many people should an academic student group consist of so that each student and the group as a whole can use the resources of the university as efficiently as possible.

American social psychologists have traditionally dealt with the problem of the optimal size of two kinds of groups. Firstly, groups designed to solve intellectual problems (P. Slater - 5 people, A. Osborne - from 5 to 10); and, secondly, the jury (a compact jury of 6 people can reach unanimity faster).

Thus, the size of the group is not just a descriptive characteristic, it is an important factor influencing the course of intra-group processes: it is difficult for a large group to make a unanimous decision.

What should be the size of a team that works in extreme conditions (submarine, space, border outpost, etc.)? In a word, all those places where people are in forced group isolation for a long time.

Often, the isolation of relatively small groups due to various reasons (economic, psychological illiteracy, indifference, etc.) leads to conflicts, mental disorders and illnesses, suicides and murders among members of groups who find themselves in isolation. The well-known polar explorer R. Amundsen called this phenomenon "expeditionary rabies", and another, no less famous traveler T. Heyerdahl - "acute expeditionary".

The size of the family group affects another aspect of this problem. It is known that the traditional family consisted of several generations, which ensured its stability. The modern nuclear family (parents and children up to the age of majority) is small and therefore unstable.

Of course, in this case, not only the size of the family group itself is important, since this is a matter of family values - i.e. attitudes towards the family as a social value. Nevertheless, the large number of the family group can be considered as a factor in the family's self-preservation. (Matsumoto, 2002).

Thus, it is wrong to raise the question of the optimal group size in general, regardless of what kind of group it is. First, there is no single criterion for the success and effectiveness of all groups in all respects and in all conditions. Large groups can help reduce the activity of their members, worsen the psychological climate, but in a large group it is easier to find like-minded people. However, if in a small group a person always runs the risk of being alone, then in a large group it is easier for him to find like-minded people. Secondly, the size of the group should be related to the complexity of the problem being solved. Some tasks can be done alone, while others require the participation of many people. Thirdly, the size of the group should depend on how structured the task is, i.e. how it can be decomposed into subtasks.

In addition, when determining the size of the group, it is necessary to take into account its type, the circumstances in which it will operate, as well as the possible duration of its existence. (Semechkin N.I., 2004, p. 297).

Group structure. Role, role expectations and status

The structure of the group is a system of group roles, norms and relationships between members of the group. All these elements of the group structure can arise spontaneously, in the process of the formation of the group, but can also be established by the organizers of the group. The structure of the group ensures the unity of the members of the group, supports its functioning, vital activity. In addition, since each group has its own structural characteristics, the structure is an expression of the specifics of a particular group, its direction, essence, stability and constancy.

Concerning roles, then it is associated with the performance of certain functions by a person occupying a certain social position.

Role expectations- these are ideas about what a person who plays a specific social role should do. Role separation is a characteristic of group structure.

Small groups are divided into formal and informal. The main difference between them is that the former are created and organized purposefully, while the latter usually arise spontaneously. Depending on whether the group is formal or informal, role division occurs either spontaneously or purposefully.

In formal groups, roles are assigned and prescribed - for example, a formal leader is appointed. But in any formal group, there is a parallel spontaneous role distribution. So, along with the formal leader, an informal leader appears in the group, with even greater influence.

When the group is still being formed, the roles of its members are not clearly defined, but then a rather ambiguous process of isolating certain roles takes place. For example, in any student group, a “comedian”, “the smartest”, “the dumbest”, “the most fair”, “the most cunning”, “sexy”, etc. are defined. group member. When the group has already taken shape and has been functioning for some time, then for a newcomer who has just joined the group, a certain place, as a rule, not very prestigious, can be assigned in advance.

In any social society, a certain system of subordination of authorities is always built, so people are inherent in the "struggle for status". Because not all roles are equally respected and therefore have equal status. The degree of status depends on the age, level of education, gender, cultural affiliation of the members of the group, the nature of its activities, direction, etc. (Maurice, 2002).

Sociologists J. Berger, S. Rosenholtz and J. Zeldich developed the theory of status characteristics. This theory explains how status differences arise. According to this theory, the basis for the inequality of status is the differences that exist among individuals - members of the group. Status can be any characteristic of a person that distinguishes him from others. In various studies, it was found that such characteristics as abilities, military ranks and ranks, assertiveness, demonstrated concern for group goals, etc. can turn out to be status. In general, researchers have found that in Western cultures, men, white people, the elderly, as opposed to women, blacks and youth.

test questions

1. How does a group differ from a random, or aggregate, accumulation of people?

2. What elements make up the group structure?

3. What is the essence of the group, according to K. Levin?

4. What are the main features of the group.

5. Is it right to raise the question of the optimal group size?

6. Why is group size vital when a group is working under extreme conditions?

7. Why can the size of the group be considered as a factor in the self-preservation of the family?

control test

1. Small group is

BUT) a small group of people connected by direct interaction.

B) spontaneously arisen, characterized by the absence of a common goal, the accumulation of people who are in direct contact.

C) a small association of people who are not connected by direct interaction.

2. Group pressure is

A) analysis of the influence of the organization on the socio-psychological structure and development of the team.

B) the process of influence of attitudes, norms, values and behavior of group members on the opinions and behavior of the individual.

AT) change in opinions, attitudes and behavior of individuals under the influence of others.

3. Social stereotype is

BUT) a relatively stable and simplified image of a social object - a group, person, event, phenomenon.

B) the tendency to overestimate the extent to which human behavior depends on internal, dispositional factors, and underestimate the role of situational factors.

C) an attitude that prevents adequate perception of a message or action.

4. Social perception is

BUT) people's perception and understanding and evaluation of social objects, primarily themselves, other people, social groups.

5. Sociometry - a method

A) collecting information about objective or subjective facts from the words of the respondent;

B) collecting information through direct, purposeful and systematic perception and registration of socio-psychological phenomena;

AT) diagnosing the socio-psychological structure of relationships in small groups

6. A situation in which the fact of the presence of another enhances the productivity of activity. called

BUT) social facilitation

B) social inhibition

B) risk shift

D) causal attribution

7. Situation in which the evidence of the right decision is sacrificed for the unanimity of the group

A) social facilitation

B) group polarization

B) risk shift

G) group thinking

8. Social status is

BUT) the position of the subject in the system of interpersonal relations that determine his duties, rights and privileges.

B) changing the opinions, attitudes and behavior of individuals under the influence of others.

C) the process of forming a person's attractiveness for the perceiver, the result of which is the formation of interpersonal relationships.

9. The projection mechanism is

A) an unconscious desire to have clear, consistent, ordered ideas about perceived faces.

B) endowing a cognizable object with exclusively positive qualities.

AT) the transfer of the mental characteristics of the subject of perception onto cognizable people.

10. Social distancing is

BUT) a combination of official and interpersonal relations, which determines the proximity of those communicating, corresponding to the sociocultural norms of the communities to which they belong.

B) the optimal combination of psychological characteristics of partners that contribute to the optimization of their communication and activities.

C) a special area dealing with the norms of the spatial and temporal organization of communication.

11. Conformism is

A) the process of influence of attitudes, norms, values and behavior of group members on the opinions and behavior of the individual.

B) some contradiction between two or more attitudes.

AT) change of initially conflicting opinions, attitudes and behavior of individuals under the influence of others.

12. Interactive side of communication -

A) people's perception and understanding and evaluation of social objects, primarily themselves, other people, social groups.

B) is associated with identifying the specifics of information exchange between people as active subjects.

C) is associated with the direct organization of the joint activities of people, their interaction.

13. The frequency and quality of rewards (for example, gratitude) are directly proportional to the desire to help. A source of positive incentive refers to:

BUT) theories of social exchange

B) neobehaviorism

1. Andreeva, G.M. Modern social psychology in the West / G.M. Andreeva, N.N. Bogomolova, L.A. Petrovskaya. – M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1978.

2. Wittels, F. Freud. His personality, teaching and school / F. Wittels. - L .: Ego, 1991.

3. Granovskaya, R.M. Elements of practical psychology / R.M. Granovskaya. - L .: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1984.

4. Kulmin, E.S. Social psychology / E.S. Kulmin; Ed. V.E. Semenov. - L .: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1979.

5. Mescon, M. Fundamentals of Management / M. Mescon, M. Albert, F. Heduori. – M.: Delo, 1992.

6. Plato. State / Plato // Works: In 3 vols. - M .: Thought, 1971. - Vol. 3. Part 1.

7. Fedotov, G. Saints of Ancient Russia / G. Fedotov. - M .: Moskovsky worker, 1990.

8. Franklin, B. Autobiography / B. Franklin. - M .: Moskovsky worker, 1988.

9. Freud, Z. “I” and “It” / Z. Freud // Proceedings of different years. - Tbilisi, 1991.

10. Yaroshevsky, M.G. History of psychology / M.G. Yaroshevsky. – M.: Thought, 1984.

Personalities

Aristotle

(384-322 BC)

Aristotle - ancient Greek scientist, philosopher,
was the first thinker to create a comprehensive system of philosophy, covering all areas of human development: sociology, philosophy, politics, logic, physics. His most famous works are "Metaphysics", "Physics", "Politics", "Poetics".

Plato (Aristocles) (approximately 428 - 348 BC) -

ancient Greek philosopher.

Plato was born into a family with aristocratic roots. After meeting Socrates, he accepted his teachings. Then, in the biography of Plato, several trips took place: to Megarts, Cyrene, Egypt, Italy, Athens. It was in Athens that Plato founded his own academy.

The philosophy of Plato received the greatest expression in the doctrine of knowledge, as well as in the political and legal direction. Plato's theory of knowledge is based on two ways of gaining knowledge - through sensations (faith, assimilation) and the mind.

In his work The State, the philosopher describes a political utopia. Also in his biography, Plato considered various types of government represented by timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, tyranny. The next work "Laws" was also devoted to the utopian state. It was possible to fully study the heritage of the philosopher only in the 15th century, when his works were translated from Greek.

Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) -

neurologist, psychiatrist, psychologist.

Born May 6, 1856 in Freiberg, Czech Republic. Then, due to the persecution of Jews in Freud's biography, he moved with his family to the city of Tysmenitsa, Ivano-Frankivsk region of Ukraine.

Freud's psychoanalysis is based on the study of previously experienced traumatic experiences. Parsing the dream as a message, he found out the causes of the disease, thus allowing the patient to recover.

Freud devoted several works to the study of psychology. His method of free association represented the uncontrolled flow of the patient's thoughts.

In 1938, another move took place in the biography of Sigmund Freud: to London. Max Schur, at the request of Freud, who was in considerable pain as a result of cancer, gave him an overdose of morphine. From her, Freud died on September 23, 1939.

Karl Heinrich Marx (1818 - 1883) -

economist, philosopher, political journalist.

Born May 5, 1818 in Trier, Prussia.

Education in the biography of Marx was received at the Trier Gymnasium. After graduating in 1835, Karl entered the University of Bonn, then the University of Berlin. In 1841, Karl Marx graduated from the university and defended his doctoral dissertation. At that time, he was fond of putting forward atheistic, revolutionary ideas from the philosophy of Hegel.

In 1842-1843 he worked in a newspaper after the closure of the newspaper, he became interested in political economy. After marrying Jenny Westaflen, he moved to Paris. Then in the biography of Karl Marx there is an acquaintance with Engels. After that, Marx lived in Brussels, Cologne, London. In 1864 he founded the "International Workers' Association".

Development of the theory of instincts

The last of Freud's great discoveries is his theory of the life and death instincts. In 1920, while working on Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud embarked on a fundamental revision of his entire theory of instincts. He attributed the characteristics of the instinct to "compulsory repetitions" and for the first time formulated a new dichotomy "Eros - the instinct of death", the nature of which was discussed in detail in the work "I and It" (1923) and in subsequent writings. This new dichotomy "life instinct (Eros) - death instinct" took the place of the original dichotomy "Ego - sexual instincts". Although Freud now attempted to identify Eros with libido, the new polarity represented a completely different concept of drives.

While working on Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud was still completely unconvinced that his new hypothesis was valid. “One may ask,” he wrote, “how sure I myself am of the validity of the hypotheses presented in these pages. My answer might be the following: I myself am not sure and do not seek to force others to believe in them. More precisely, I do not know how convinced I am of them. Considering that Freud was trying to develop a new theoretical doctrine that threatened the validity of many earlier concepts and required great intellectual effort, his sincerity, which is so brilliantly displayed in all his works, is especially impressive. For the next eighteen years he devoted himself to the development of the new theory, and grew more and more convinced of its validity, which he lacked at first. It was not the addition of completely new elements that led to this result, but rather an intellectual "elaboration"; this must have added to his frustration that only a few of his followers understood and shared his views. The new theory found its full exposition in the work "Ego and Id".

The following assumption is of extreme importance: “Each of the two classes of instincts should be associated with a special physiological process (anabolism or catabolism): both varieties of instincts should be active in every particle of living matter, although not in equal proportions, so that some one substance would be the main representative of Eros. This hypothesis does not at all shed light on how the two classes of instincts are combined, mixed, fused with each other, but that this happens regularly and on a very large scale is an assumption necessary for our concept. As a result of the unification of unicellular life forms into multicellular ones, death instinct in a single cell can be successfully neutralized destructive impulses can be directed to the outside world with the help of a special organ. This special organ would be represented by a muscular apparatus, and thus the death instinct would be expressed - although perhaps only partially - in the instinct of destruction, turned on the outside world and other organisms.

With these formulations, Freud expressed his new direction of thought more explicitly than in Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Instead of the mechanistic physiological approach contained in the old theory, which was based on the model of chemically induced tension and the need to reduce this tension to a normal level (the pleasure principle), the new theory is biological in nature; it is assumed that each cell of the body is endowed with two basic properties of living matter: Eros and the desire for death. However, the principle of stress relaxation is preserved in a more radical form: the reduction of excitation to zero (the principle of nirvana).

A year later, in The Economic Problem of Masochism (1924), Freud went one step further: clarifying the relationship between the two instincts, he wrote: “The task of the libido is to make the instinct of destruction harmless, and this task it accomplishes by largely reversing it—by a special organic system, a muscular apparatus - outward, onto objects of the outside world. Then this instinct is called the instinct of dominion or the lust for power. Part of the instinct directly serves the sexual function, where it plays an important role: this is sadism. The other part does not participate in this outward turning: it remains inside the organism and, by means of the concomitant sexual excitement described above, becomes libidinal bound. It is in this part that we recognize the original, erotogenic masochism.

In New Introductory Lectures (1933) Freud took the same position. He spoke of "the erotic impulses that seek to unite more and more living matter into ever greater Unities, and the death instinct that opposes such an attempt and transfers the living back into an inorganic state" .

In the same lectures, Freud wrote about the original instinct of destruction: “We can perceive it only under two conditions: if it combines with erotic drives into masochism, or if – with a much smaller erotic addition – it is directed against the outside world as aggressiveness. It should be noted the importance of the possibility that aggressiveness may not be able to find satisfaction in the outside world, faced with real obstacles. If this happens, it will probably retreat and increase the self-destructiveness that dominates within. We will look at how this actually happens and how important this process is. Delayed aggressiveness inflicts severe injury. Indeed, it seems that we need to destroy some object or person in order not to destroy ourselves, in order to protect ourselves from the impulse of self-destruction. A sad discovery for a moralist! .

In his last two articles, written a year or two before his death, Freud made no significant changes to the concepts that he had developed in previous years. In Finite and Infinite Analysis, he further emphasized the power of the death instinct. As James Strachey wrote in an editorial note, “The most powerful deterrent of all completely out of our control is the death instinct» . In An Outline of the History of Psychoanalysis, written in 1938 and published in 1940, Freud confirmed the system of previous assumptions without any important changes.

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