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Environmental conventions and agreements signed by Russia. International environmental law International environmental law contains

The concept of international environmental law

International environmental law - a set of principles and norms of international law governing the relations of its subjects in the field of environmental protection and rational use of its resources. In domestic literature, the name "international environmental law" is more common. The term "environmental law" seems preferable only because of its international use. S. V. Vinogradov, O. S. Kolbasov, A. S. Timoshenko, and V. A. Chichvarin are known for their research in this area.

Nowadays, environmental protection comes to the fore. The consequences of insufficient attention to the problem can be catastrophic. It is not only about the well-being of mankind, but about its survival. It is especially alarming that the degradation of the natural environment may be irreversible.

Water pollution damages human health and fish stocks. Farmland degradation has led to drought and soil erosion in many areas. Hence malnutrition, hunger, disease. Air pollution is increasingly affecting human health. Massive destruction of forests adversely affects the climate and reduces biodiversity, the gene pool. A serious threat to health is the depletion of the ozone layer, which protects against harmful solar radiation. The "greenhouse effect", i.e. global warming as a result of growing emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, leads to catastrophic changes in the Earth's climate. The irrational use of mineral and living resources leads to their depletion, which again poses the problem of the survival of mankind. Finally, accidents at enterprises associated with radioactive and toxic substances, not to mention nuclear weapons testing, cause enormous damage to human health and nature. Suffice it to recall the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant and at the American chemical plant in India. Armed conflicts cause great damage to the environment, as evidenced by the experience of wars in Vietnam, Kampuchea, the Persian Gulf, Yugoslavia, and others.

The position of states in relation to the protection of the environment is different. The states that emerged as a result of the liquidation of the USSR inherited a heavy legacy as a result of a long neglect of the interests of protecting nature. Vast areas were poisoned and unable to provide normal living conditions. Meanwhile, the resources to correct the situation are extremely limited.

In developing countries, environmental problems can call into question the success of the development process, and there are no funds to change the situation. In the most developed countries, the existing system of consumption leads to such a depletion of resources not only of their own, but also of other countries, which creates a threat to future development throughout the world. This shows that environmental protection concerns all aspects of the development of society and is vital for all countries, regardless of their level of development. Therefore, such protection should become an element of the policy of any state. Since the national parts of the environment form a single global system, its protection should become one of the main goals of international cooperation and an integral element of the concept of international security. In a resolution of 1981, the UN General Assembly indicated the importance of peace for the protection of nature and noted the inverse relationship - the conservation of nature contributes to the strengthening of peace, ensuring the proper use of natural resources.

All of the above stimulates the dynamic development of international environmental law. Noteworthy is the peculiarity of this development, which consists in the large role of the public and the media. Many acts and decisions are taken by governments under their influence. Mass movements in defense of nature, various parties "green" are becoming more and more influential.

The position of governments is explained by differences in interests. Protecting the environment is very costly. It negatively affects the competitiveness of goods. Activities on their territory do not prevent transboundary pollution. Factories on the Kola Peninsula are damaging the Norwegian environment. In 1996, Russia entered into an agreement for Norway to finance the installation of filters at a metallurgical plant on the Kola Peninsula. In general, the problem can be solved only on a global scale, and this requires enormous funds.

International environmental law began to take shape as customary law, first of all, it concerns its principles. This is how the basic principle of international environmental law was established - the principle of not harming the nature of another state by actions performed on its own territory. The most general principle has developed - the principle of environmental protection. There is a formation of the principle of responsibility for causing harm to the nature of another state. I will especially note the cardinal principle, which was formulated in the Declaration of the UN Conference on the Human Environment of 1972 as follows: "Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and proper living conditions, to an environment of such a quality that it makes it possible to live with dignity and well" .

International environmental law is closely connected not only with human rights, but also with other branches of international law. As we have seen, the protection of the environment is also a principle of maritime and space law. Considerable attention is paid to the protection of workers from a polluted environment by the International Labor Organization; for example, in 1977 it adopted the Convention for the Protection of Workers from Occupational Hazards from Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration.

In the general process of formation of customary norms of international environmental law, an important role belongs to the resolutions of international organizations and conferences that pave the way for positive law. As an example, I will point to such acts of the UN General Assembly as the 1980 resolution "On the historical responsibility of states for the conservation of the Earth's nature for present and future generations" and the 1982 World Charter for Nature.

Treaties are an important source of international environmental law. In recent years, a whole complex of universal conventions has been adopted in this area, which give an idea about the subject matter of this branch of international law. First of all, these are the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Interference with the Environment of 1977, as well as the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of 1985, the Convention on the Protection of Migratory Species of Wild Animals of 1979, the Convention on International Trade in Species of Wild Fauna and Endangered Flora, 1973, UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972

Among these conventions, there is no main, fundamental one that would contain the provisions reflected in the mentioned UN resolutions. There is not even a convention dedicated to such an urgent problem as air protection. Regional organizations have made more progress in this direction.

The leading role in the development of international environmental law belongs to international organizations. A special place is occupied by the UN. The principle resolutions of the General Assembly have already been noted earlier. The Economic and Social Council is constantly engaged in environmental issues, an important role belongs to other organizations of the UN system, as well as its regional commissions. In their field, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), UNESCO, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) are developing environmental protection rules. There is a special United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), which is practically an international organization, although legally it is a subsidiary body created by a General Assembly resolution. UNEP has a primary role in promoting the development of international environmental law. Within its framework, the foundations of this right are being developed, and the preparation of conventions is being initiated.

Regional organizations play a significant role. Environmental protection is one of the main tasks of the CFE. Within its framework, a number of convention acts and a number of decisions in this area have been adopted.

Cooperation within the CIS is called upon to play a significant role in protecting the environment. This task is set by the CIS Charter and confirmed by many other acts. The 1996 agreement between Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Russia obliges to increase "cooperation in the field of environmental protection, including the development and adoption of common standards of environmental safety." The parties "take joint measures to prevent and eliminate the consequences of accidents, natural disasters, nuclear and environmental disasters" (Article 9). These provisions give an idea of ​​how the principle of environmental protection is understood in the relations between the CIS countries.

To implement the principle, in 1992 the CIS countries signed an Agreement on cooperation in the field of ecology and environmental protection. On the basis of the Agreement, the Interstate Ecological Council was established, and under it the Interstate Ecological Fund. The task of the Council is to coordinate the cooperation of states in the field of nature protection, to prepare the relevant regulations. The Fund is intended to finance interstate programs, assistance in liquidation of emergency environmental situations, as well as design and research work in the field of environmental protection.

Protection of various types of environment

The marine environment was one of the first objects of protection. Relevant provisions are contained in the general conventions on the law of the sea. Particular attention is paid to the fight against oil pollution. The first environmental universal convention, the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Oil of 1954, is devoted to this problem. It banned the discharge of oil and oil-water mixture from ships: After a series of accidents with tankers, new conventions are adopted. The Brussels Convention on Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Accidents, 1969, granted coastal states very broad powers, up to the right to destroy a ship and cargo in the event of a threat of serious pollution of the coast and coastal waters. The Convention paved the way for the control of marine pollution and other substances in similar cases (1973 Protocol).

Naturally, the question of compensation for the damage caused by oil pollution arose. Already in 1969, the Brussels Convention on Civil Liability for Damage from Oil Pollution was dedicated to him. It established the absolute, i.e., not dependent on fault, liability of shipowners, at the same time limited its size, however, by a rather high ceiling. Combating the consequences of oil pollution requires joint action by states. The organization of such actions is dedicated to the 1990 Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Control and Cooperation.

The prohibition of all operational discharges from ships is contained in the Convention on the Prevention of Pollution from Ships of 1973. The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter of 1972 is dedicated to the disposal of environmentally hazardous substances at sea.

Agreements have also been signed at the regional level. Thus, the 1992 Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea from Pollution deals with issues of land-based sources of pollution, disposal, and cooperation in the fight against pollution by oil and other harmful substances in emergency conditions.

The Baltic Sea also occupies a special position. It has been classified as a "special area" by the 1973 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships. Higher pollution prevention requirements apply to such areas. In 1974, the Baltic countries signed the Helsinki Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Region. Its peculiarity lies in the prohibition of pollution of the sea from land. The Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea was established on the basis of the Convention. However, it soon became clear that the provisions of the Convention were insufficient, and in 1992 a new Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea was adopted, which established more stringent requirements. I would like to emphasize that its action also extends to a certain part of inland waters, the limits of such distribution are determined by each state.

The waters of rivers and lakes have such significant differences that the development of a common convention turned out to be impossible. Even the regional convention prepared by the Council of Europe in 1974 did not collect the required number of ratifications. Separate provisions on the prevention of river pollution are contained in agreements on other issues. The mentioned Convention on the Baltic Sea also affects the rivers flowing into it. But in most cases, issues of protection are resolved by agreements of coastal states, however, so far unsatisfactorily. As a positive example, one can refer to the norms and organizational forms for the protection of the waters of the Rhine. In 1963, the Berne Convention for the Protection of the Rhine from Pollution was signed. For its implementation, a Commission was established, which prepared in 1976 a Convention for the Protection of the Rhine against Chemical Pollution and another for protection against chlorides.

In connection with the growing consumption of fresh water and the limited nature of its resources, the issue of protecting freshwater basins is of paramount importance. As a result, new aspects of international environmental law are emerging. Responding to the demands of life, the UN International Law Commission prepared and submitted to the General Assembly draft articles on the right of the non-navigational use of international watercourses.

A watercourse is understood as a system of not only surface, but also groundwater, forming a single whole and usually flowing to one outlet. International watercourses are watercourses, parts of which are located in different states. The regime of such watercourses is determined by the agreement of the states with whose territory they are connected. Each such state has the right to participate in the agreement.

States are obliged to use watercourses in such a way as to provide them with the necessary protection. They are obliged to participate in the protection of watercourses on an equitable basis, to cooperate to achieve this goal.

The air environment, as already noted, is the common property of mankind. Despite this, its protection is not reflected in international environmental law. The issue is being resolved at the bilateral and regional levels. Perhaps the only significant step in this area is the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution prepared within the framework of the CFE, subsequently supplemented by a number of protocols. Particular attention is paid to the reduction of sulfur emissions into the atmosphere, which generate acid rain, which is transported over long distances and harms all living things.

An important direction in the protection of nature is cooperation in counteracting the growth of the greenhouse effect, i.e. global warming as a result of saturation of the atmosphere with carbon dioxide, the main source of which is motor transport. The consequences of this effect could be catastrophic in the coming decades. On the one hand, new vast deserts will appear, and on the other hand, the rise in sea level will lead to the flooding of large spaces developed by man. In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted. It determined the general provisions and main directions of cooperation. A common responsibility of states is established, but differences in economic potential must be taken into account. Particular attention should be paid to the interests of developing countries, which are most vulnerable to negative climate change, and on the other hand, have the least ability to counteract this.

The ozone layer protects the Earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Under the influence of human activity, it was significantly depleted, and "ozone holes" appeared over some areas. In 1985, the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was adopted. It is about monitoring his condition and cooperating to protect him. In 1987, the Montreal Protocol appeared on substances that lead to the depletion of the ozone layer. Restrictions have been placed on the production of substances that adversely affect this layer.

Radioactivity as a result of peaceful and military uses of nuclear energy has become a serious danger to life on Earth. An important step in its reduction was the Moscow Treaty on the Ban on Tests of Nuclear Weapons in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water of 1963. The IAEA sets safety standards for the use of nuclear energy in the national economy, including the safety of workers associated with it. The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials of 1980 was prepared. The Convention contains provisions that allow any state to prosecute foreigners for relevant crimes, regardless of the place of its commission.

The European Atomic Energy Agency operates in Europe. The main standards in the area under consideration are established by the Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (EUROATOM).

Protection of fauna and flora

The 1972 UN Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment endorsed the principle that the earth's natural resources, including air, water, surface, flora and fauna, should be protected for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning and management where necessary.

The overall strategy was developed by a non-governmental organization, the International Union for Conservation, Nature and Natural Resources, and published in 1982 as the World Conservation Strategy Program of Action. In the process of preparing the document, numerous consultations were held with governments and international organizations. The aim of the strategy is to promote the achievement of sustainable development through the conservation of living resources by offering governments effective methods for managing these resources. The strategy is aimed at supporting important ecological processes and self-preservation of systems, such as soil restoration and protection, nutrient recycling, water purification, biodiversity conservation. Many vital processes depend on all this. The aim is to ensure the supportive use of certain species of animals and vegetation, as well as ecosystems.

The achievement of these goals should be as soon as possible. The Earth's ability to provide for its population is shrinking all the time. Many millions of tons of soil are lost every year as a result of deforestation and mismanagement. At least 3 thousand square meters per year km of agricultural land are only taken out of circulation in industrialized countries as a result of the construction of buildings and roads.

As one of the important means of achieving its goals, the strategy points to a fundamental improvement in the legislation on natural resources. A more effective and broader national environmental law needs to be created, along with an intensified development of international environmental law. The survival of all the diversity of nature, including man, can be ensured only on the condition that the policy of states will be based on the understanding of the fact that all elements of nature are interconnected, interdependent, that the environment is a single global system.

The same Union prepared the World Charter for Nature, which was approved and solemnly proclaimed by the General Assembly in 1982. According to the Charter, living resources should not be used beyond the possibilities of their restoration; soil productivity should be maintained and increased; resources, including water, should be recycled and reused wherever possible; non-recoverable resources should be used with the maximum limit.

Among the conventions devoted to flora and fauna, I will name first of all the Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, designed to ensure cooperation in the protection of natural complexes of particular importance, habitats of endangered species of animals and plants. The Tropical Forests Agreement of 1983 is devoted to the protection of the flora. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973, which determined the basis for controlling such trade, is of general importance.

The bulk of the conventions are aimed at protecting various representatives of the animal world - whales, seals, polar bears. I will especially note the Convention on Biological Diversity of 1992, the title of which gives an idea of ​​its content. The 1979 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals is also important.

All of the above gives an idea of ​​the colossal importance of protecting the environment and the urgency of decisive measures based on broad cooperation between states. This also determines the role of international environmental law, which so far lags behind the needs of life.

International environmental law (IEP) or international environmental law is an integral part (branch) of the system of international law, which is a set of norms and principles of international law governing the activities of its subjects to prevent and eliminate damage to the environment from various sources, as well as to rationally use natural resources. The object of the MEP is the relationship of the subjects of international law regarding the protection and reasonable exploitation of the environment for the benefit of present and future generations of people.

The process of formation of the MEP industry has been going on since the 19th century, and has gone through several stages in its development. Yes, prof. Bekyashev K.A. identifies three stages in the formation and development of the MEP: 1839–1948; 1948–1972; 1972–present. The first stage is linked with the first attempts of "civilized" states to solve regional and local environmental problems, the second stage - with the beginning of the UN activities, the third stage marks the holding of global international conferences on this issue.

The sources of the MEP industry are the norms of international environmental agreements, as well as international customs. The MEP sector is not codified. The system of sources is dominated by the norms of regional international agreements. The most important sources are such acts as the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, the 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change, the 1985 Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1970 Convention on the Protection of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, etc.

The development and functioning of the IEP, as well as any branch of international law, is based on certain fundamental provisions, which are a kind of legal axioms in the relatively mobile matter of international law - the principles of the IEP. MEP has main beginnings of 2 types:

basic principles of international law;

specific principles of the MEP.

The main principles of international law include the principles set forth in the UN Charter, the 1970 UN Declaration of Principles, the Final List of the 1975 Helsinki Summit and developed by international legal practice. First of all, these are the fundamental principles of international law: sovereign equality, non-use of force and threat of force, inviolability of state borders, territorial integrity of states, peaceful settlement of disputes, non-interference in internal affairs, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, self-determination of peoples, cooperation, conscientious implementation of international legal obligations.

The specific principles of international environmental law are a developing category. These principles have not yet been reflected in any complete codified form; they are scattered across a multitude of international legal acts that are both mandatory and recommendatory in nature. This diversity introduces some uncertainty in the position of international lawyers on the issue of the number of MEP principles. The following principles are usually distinguished:

    the environment is the common concern of mankind;

    the environment outside state borders is the common property of mankind;

    freedom to explore and use the environment and its components;

    rational use of the environment;

    promotion of international legal cooperation in the study and use of the environment;

    interdependence of environmental protection, peace, development, ensuring human rights and fundamental freedoms;

    precautionary approach to the environment;

    the right to development;

    harm prevention;

    prevention of environmental pollution;

    state responsibility;

    waiver of immunity, from the jurisdiction of international or foreign judicial bodies.

International legal regulation of environmental protection is differentiated by environmental components: protection of water, air, soil, forests, flora, fauna, etc. Accordingly, within the framework of the IEP, international legal institutions are distinguished: international legal protection of the air, international legal protection of animals, etc.

The concept, sources and principles of international environmental law

International environmental law is a set of principles and norms of international law that make up a specific branch of this system of law and regulate the actions of its subjects (primarily states) to prevent, limit and eliminate damage to the environment from various sources, as well as the rational, environmentally sound use of natural resources. resources.

The concept of "environment" covers a wide range of elements related to the conditions of human existence. They are divided into three groups of objects: objects of the natural (living) environment (flora, fauna); non-living environment objects (marine and freshwater basins - hydrosphere), air basin (atmosphere), soil (lithosphere), near-Earth space; objects of the "artificial" environment created by man in the process of his interaction with nature. Together, all this constitutes an environmental system, which, depending on the territorial sphere, can be divided into global, regional and national. Thus, the protection (protection) of the environment is not adequate to the protection (protection) of nature. Having arisen in the early 50s as the protection of nature and its resources from depletion and pursuing not so much protective as economic goals, in the 70s this task, under the influence of objective factors, was transformed into the protection of the human environment, which more accurately reflects the current complex global problem. .

The following can be distinguished principles of law international environmental law:

    the principle of state sovereignty over its natural resources;

    prevention of environmental pollution; declaration of the natural environment within international territories as the common heritage of mankind;

    freedom to explore the natural environment;

    cooperation in emergency situations.

    The main directions of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection are the actual protection of the environment and ensuring its rational use.

Objects of international legal protection are:

Earth's atmosphere, near-Earth and outer space;

World Ocean;

Animal and plant world;

Protection of the environment from pollution by radioactive waste.

The development of international environmental law takes place mainly by contract. According to the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), there are currently 152 registered multilateral treaties in this area.

The current contractual practice is characterized by the conclusion of general and special contracts. According to the subject of regulation, they are divided into the prevention of pollution and the establishment of a regime for the use of renewable and non-renewable natural resources. The bulk of the contracts fall on regional acts.

Bilateral treaties most often regulate the joint use of international freshwater basins, marine areas, flora, fauna (agreements on veterinary medicine, quarantine and protection, animals and plants), etc. These documents define agreed principles of activity and rules of conduct for states in relation to the environment in in general or its specific objects.

In 1972, the Stockholm Conference adopted a recommendation to establish UNEP, and UNEP was established at the 27th session of the General Assembly. The main goal of UNEP is to organize and implement measures aimed at protecting and improving the environment for the benefit of present and future generations of mankind. The main tasks of UNEP are to promote international cooperation in the field of the environment and develop appropriate recommendations; general management of environmental policy within the UN system, development and discussion of periodic reports, promotion of the progressive development of international environmental law and a number of others.

International treaties on environmental protection.

In the field of protecting the marine environment from pollution and using the resources of the World Ocean, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of ​​1982, the Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Materials of 1972, the Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships of 1973, the Convention for the Protection of Marine Living Resources Antarctica 1982, etc.

The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of 1985 and the Montreal Protocol of 1987, the Framework Convention on Climate Change of 1992 are dedicated to protecting the atmosphere from pollution.

The protection of flora and fauna from extermination and extinction is provided for by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973, the Agreement on the Protection of Polar Bears, 1973, the Convention on the Protection of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 1979, the Convention on Biodiversity, 1992 and etc.

The protection of the global environment from nuclear contamination is regulated by the 1980 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, the 1986 Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident and the 1986 Convention on Assistance in the Event of a Nuclear Accident or Radiation Emergency, and a number of others.

Protection of the environment from damage resulting from the use of military means is provided for by the 1963 Nuclear Weapons Test Ban Treaty in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water, the 1976 Convention on the Prohibition of the Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Means of Influencing the Natural Environment, and the Convention on the Control of transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and their use 1989.

International environmental law- a set of principles and norms of international law that make up a specific branch of this system of law and regulate the actions of its subjects (primarily states) to prevent, limit and eliminate damage to the environment from various sources, as well as the rational, environmentally sound use of natural resources.

Special Principles of International Environmental Law. Protecting the environment for the benefit of present and future generations is a generalizing principle in relation to the entire set of special principles and norms of international environmental law. Its essence boils down to the obligation of states to take all necessary actions to preserve and maintain the quality of the environment, including the elimination of negative consequences for it, as well as the rational and scientifically sound management of natural resources.

The inadmissibility of causing transboundary damage prohibits such actions of states within their jurisdiction or control that would cause damage to foreign national environmental systems and common areas.

Environmentally sound management of natural resources: sustainable planning and management of the Earth's renewable and non-renewable resources for the benefit of present and future generations; long-term planning of environmental activities with an environmental perspective; assessment of the possible consequences of the activities of states within their territory, zones of jurisdiction or control for environmental systems beyond these limits, etc.

The principle of inadmissibility of radioactive contamination of the environment covers both the military and civilian areas of the use of nuclear energy.

The principle of protecting the ecological systems of the World Ocean obliges states: to take all necessary measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from all possible sources; not to transfer, directly or indirectly, damage or danger of pollution from one area to another and not to transform one type of pollution into another, etc.

The principle of the prohibition of military or any other hostile use of means of environmental modification expresses in its concentrated form the duty of States to take all necessary measures to effectively prohibit such use of means of environmental modification that have widespread, long-term or serious consequences as a means of destruction, damage or harm to any state.

Ensuring environmental security: the obligation of states to carry out military-political and economic activities in such a way as to ensure the preservation and maintenance of an adequate state of the environment.

The principle of monitoring compliance with international treaties on environmental protection provides for the creation, in addition to the national, of an extensive system of international control and monitoring of environmental quality.

The principle of international legal responsibility of states for environmental damage provides for liability for significant damage to ecological systems beyond the limits of national jurisdiction or control.

International legal protection of the air environment, climate, ozone layer. conventions

The air environment is the common property of man. In 1979, the OSCE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution was signed. Transboundary air pollution is considered as a result of the transfer of harmful (polluting) substances, the source of which is located on the territory of another state. In order to reduce such pollution by sources of emissions of harmful substances located on the territory of the Russian Federation, the Russian Federation ensures the implementation of measures to reduce such emissions, and also takes other measures in accordance with its international obligations in the field of atmospheric air protection.

In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was signed. Its goal is to stabilize the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic impact on the climate system. The climate system is understood as the totality of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, biosphere and their interaction. Adverse climate change refers to changes in the physical environment or biota caused by climate change that have a significant negative impact on the composition, resilience or reproduction of natural or managed ecosystems, or on the functioning of socio-economic systems, or on human well-being.

In accordance with the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of 1985, the states (parties) participating in it shall take appropriate measures in accordance with the provisions of this Convention and those protocols in force to which they are parties, to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects that are or may be the result of human activities that alter or may alter the state of the ozone layer. "Adverse impact" means changes in the physical environment or biota, including changes in climate, that have significant adverse effects on human health or on the composition, resilience or productivity of natural and managed ecosystems or on materials used by humans. In this regard, the parties:

  • collaborate through systematic observation, research and information sharing to better understand and evaluate the impact of human activities on the ozone layer and the health implications of changing ozone layer conditions.
  • take appropriate legislative or administrative measures and cooperate in agreeing on appropriate programmatic measures to control, restrict, reduce or prevent human activities within their jurisdiction or
  • cooperate in the development of agreed measures, procedures and standards for the implementation of the Convention with a view to adopting protocols and annexes;
  • cooperate with the competent international bodies for the effective implementation of the Convention and the protocols to which they are parties.

In 1987, the Montreal Protocol was signed to it regarding substances that lead to the depletion of the ozone layer.

International legal protection of flora and fauna

International treaties for the protection of flora and fauna can be combined into two groups: treaties aimed at protecting flora and fauna in general, and treaties protecting one population.

Protection of flora and fauna. Here it should be mentioned: the Convention on the Conservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State of 1933, the Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, the Tropical Forests Agreement of 1983, the Convention on International Trade in Species of Wild Flora and Fauna under threat of destruction, 1973, Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992, Convention on the Protection of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 1979

The second group of treaties includes the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling of 1946, the Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears and many others.

The conservation of natural fauna and flora in some parts of the world is carried out through the creation of national parks and reserves, the regulation of hunting and the collection of certain species.

Convention for the Protection of Wild Fauna and Flora and Natural Habitats 1979 Its purpose is to conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitats, especially those species and habitats whose conservation requires the cooperation of several states, and to promote such cooperation. Particular attention is paid to endangered and vulnerable species, including endangered and vulnerable migratory species. The Parties to the Convention undertake to take the necessary measures to conserve or adapt populations of wild flora and fauna at a level that meets, in particular, ecological, scientific and cultural requirements, taking into account economic and recreational requirements, as well as the needs of subspecies, varieties or forms that are threatened at the local level.

An effective measure for the protection of wild animals is the international legal regulation of their transportation and sale. The 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna contains three appendices. The first includes all endangered animals, the second includes species that may be endangered, the third includes those species that, by definition of any party to the Convention, are subject to regulation within its jurisdiction.

The objectives of the 1983 Tropical Forest Agreement are: to provide an effective basis for cooperation and consultation between tropical timber producer and consumer members on all relevant aspects of the tropical timber sector; promoting the development and diversification of the international trade in tropical timber and the improvement of the structure of the tropical timber market, taking into account, on the one hand, long-term growth in consumption and continuity of supply, and on the other hand, prices favorable to producers and fair to consumers, and improved market access; promotion and assistance to research and development in order to improve forest management and improve the use of wood, etc.

International legal protection of the oceans. conventions

The World Ocean, covering 2/3 of the earth's surface, is a huge reservoir, the mass of water in which is 1.4. 1021 kg. Ocean water makes up 97% of all water on the planet. The oceans provide 1/6 of all animal proteins consumed by the world's population for food. The ocean, especially its coastal zone, plays a leading role in maintaining life on Earth, because about 70% of the oxygen entering the planet's atmosphere is produced in the process of plankton photosynthesis. Thus, the World Ocean plays a huge role in maintaining a stable balance of the biosphere, and its protection is one of the urgent international environmental tasks.

Of particular concern is the pollution of the oceans with harmful and toxic substances, including oil and oil products, and radioactive substances.

The most common ocean pollutants are oil and petroleum products. An average of 13-14 million tons of oil products enter the World Ocean annually. Oil pollution is dangerous for two reasons: firstly, a film forms on the surface of the water, which deprives marine life of oxygen; secondly, oil in itself is a toxic compound; when the oil content in water is 10-15 mg/kg, plankton and fish fry die. Major oil spills during the crash of supertankers can be called real environmental disasters.

Particularly dangerous is radioactive contamination during the disposal of radioactive waste (RW).

Initially, the main way to get rid of radioactive waste was the disposal of radioactive waste in the seas and oceans. This was usually low-level waste, which was packed in 200-liter metal drums, filled with concrete and dumped into the sea. Until 1983, 12 countries practiced the dumping of radioactive waste into the open sea. During the period from 1949 to 1970, 560,261 containers of radioactive waste were dumped into the waters of the Pacific Ocean.

The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea obliges states to protect and preserve the marine environment. States must take all measures necessary to ensure that activities under their jurisdiction or control do not cause harm to other States and their marine environment through pollution. States are under an obligation not to transfer damage or risk of pollution from one area to another or to transform one type of pollution into another:

Recently, a number of international documents have been adopted, the main purpose of which is the protection of the oceans. In 1972, the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Discharges of Wastes with High and Medium Levels of Radiation was signed in London; burial of radioactive wastes with low and medium levels of radiation is allowed with special permits. Since the beginning of the 1970s, the UN environmental program "Regional Seas" has been implemented, which brings together the efforts of more than 120 countries of the world that share 10 seas. Regional multilateral agreements were adopted: Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (Paris, 1992); Convention for the Protection of the Black Sea from Pollution (Bucharest, 1992) and a number of others.

Environmental protection by international legal means is a relatively young branch of international law. In fact, today we can only talk about the formation and formation of an appropriate system of norms and principles. At the same time, the great importance of the subject of regulation of this industry for all mankind allows us to predict the intensive development of international environmental law in the foreseeable future. The global environmental problems on the agenda in one way or another affect the interests of all states and objectively require coordination of the world community's efforts to resolve them. Some figures characterizing the current state of the environment look very menacing. So, at present, about a third of the entire land area of ​​the globe is under the threat of becoming a desert. Over the past 50 years, the forest fund of the planet has almost halved. More than a thousand species of animals are threatened with extinction. About half of the world's population suffers from water scarcity. Almost all of these problems are anthropogenic in nature, that is, to one degree or another related to human activities. It is generally recognized that environmental security is an integral part of global international security in the broad sense of the term. In this regard, a certain regulatory framework dedicated to environmental protection has already been formed in international law by now.

International environmental law(international legal protection of the natural environment) is a system of principles and norms governing the activities of subjects of international law for the rational and environmentally sound use and protection of natural resources, as well as the preservation of favorable living conditions on Earth.

Scientific and technological progress and the associated growth of the productive forces of man as a biological species leads to a whole range of problems, the solution of which is beyond the power of individual states today. These issues include, in particular:

Depletion of natural resources;

Pollution of the natural environment;

Irreversible degradation of ecosystems;

Disappearance of certain biological species;

Deterioration of the environmental situation, etc.

The principal feature of environmental problems is their global nature, which is due to the organic unity of the human environment on Earth. The scale of human economic activity and the anthropogenic impact on the natural environment are currently such that it is almost impossible to isolate the harmful effects from them. This is especially true of global ecosystems: the atmosphere, the oceans, space. Consequently, states, as subjects of international law, are objectively forced to cooperate in order to solve the problems they face. This need is clearly recognized by the world community, which is reflected in the creation of appropriately oriented principles, norms and mechanisms.


Environmental law includes, mainly, the protection of the environment as a sphere of human physical existence. The environment should be understood as a combination of at least three elements: objects of the living environment, objects of the inanimate environment and objects of the artificial environment.

Objects of the living environment are flora and fauna, flora and fauna of the planet. This element of the environment includes both those plants and animals that are of economic importance to humans, and those that indirectly affect the conditions of its existence (through maintaining the balance of their ecosystems).

The objects of the inanimate environment, in turn, are divided into the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and outer space. These include marine and freshwater basins, air basin, soil, space and celestial bodies.

Objects of the artificial environment are structures created by man and having a significant impact on the conditions of his existence and the natural environment: dams, dams, canals, economic complexes, landfills, megacities, nature reserves, etc.

It should be noted that all elements of the environment are interconnected and have mutual influence on each other. Therefore, international legal protection of the environment requires an integrated approach. It is this approach that is the basis of the concept of sustainable development and the concept of environmental safety.

An analysis of existing international legal documents allows us to highlight several main areas of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection. Firstly, this is the establishment of an environmentally sound, rational regime for the exploitation of natural resources. Secondly, the prevention and reduction of environmental damage from pollution. Thirdly, the establishment of international responsibility for the violation of relevant norms. Fourthly, the protection of natural monuments and reserves. Fifthly, the regulation of scientific and technical cooperation between states in environmental protection. Sixth, the creation of comprehensive programs of environmental protection measures. According to the register of UNEP (United Nations Environment Program), there are more than a thousand international treaties in the world, the totality of which forms international environmental law, or international environmental law. The most famous among them are the following.

In the field of protection flora and fauna the Convention for the Conservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State of 1933, the Convention for the Protection of Nature and the Conservation of Wildlife in the Western Hemisphere of 1940, the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling of 1946, the International Convention for the Protection of Birds of 1950, the International Convention for the Protection of Plants 1951 Convention on Fisheries and the Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas 1958 European Convention for the Protection of Animals during International Carriage 1968 Washington Convention 1973 on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 1979 Bonn Convention for the Protection European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 1979 Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 1973 Agreement for the Conservation of Polar Bears in Europe, 1980 Convention for the Protection of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, 1983 International Tropical Timber Agreement, Convention on biodiversity 1992, the 1986 South Pacific Convention and others.

International legal protection atmosphere the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution is dedicated to. Currently, the Convention has a number of documents that regulate in more detail the obligations of its participants: the Helsinki Protocol of 1985 on the reduction of sulfur emissions by 30%, the Sofia Protocol of 1988 on the control of fugitive emissions of nitrogen oxides, the Geneva Protocol of 1991 on volatile organic compounds and the 1994 Oslo Protocol to further reduce sulfur emissions. In 1985, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (operating with the Montreal Protocol of 1987) was adopted, and in 1992, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.

In the field of protection marine environment the most important are the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the 1954 International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Oil Pollution, the 1972 London Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, the 1973 London Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, and the 1978 Protocol to 1959 Antarctic Treaty system, 1971 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 1992 Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Waterways and International Lakes. In addition, a large number of regional marine environmental protection treaties are in force: the 1976 Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution, the 1976 Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Rhine by Chemical Substances, the 1978 Kuwait Regional Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, the Agreement on Cooperation on Pollution of the North Sea by Oil and Other Harmful Substances of 1983, Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area of ​​1992, Bucharest Convention for the Protection of the Black Sea from Pollution of 1992, Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic Ocean of 1992, Kievsky protocol on civil liability and compensation for damage caused by the transboundary impact of industrial accidents on transboundary waters of 2003 and others.

A number of environmental norms are enshrined in agreements governing cooperation between states in the field of development space, which also has a great impact on the state of the natural environment. More on these conventions in Chapter 22.

environmental protection against radioactive contamination provided, in particular, by the 1980 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material. In addition, the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident or Radiation Emergency was adopted in 1986, as was the Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiation Emergency. Even earlier, in 1960, the Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage was adopted in Paris, and in 1962 in Brussels, the Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships. Mention should also be made of the 1971 Convention on Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Transport of Nuclear Materials. Finally, the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management was adopted in 1997 (not yet in force).

Separately, one should point to international agreements that are designed to protect the environment from damage associated with military activities states. These include, in particular, the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, the Moscow Treaty of 1963 on the Prohibition of Tests of Nuclear Weapons in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, and the Convention of 1977 on the Prohibition of the Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Means of Impact on the Natural Environment . The 1982 World Charter for Nature and the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development also prohibit military activities that damage nature.

Some international agreements in the field of environmental protection do not concern any individual natural objects, as they regulate general issues of environmental safety. Such agreements include, in particular, the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage of 1969 and its Protocol of 1976, the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage of 1971 and its Protocol of 1976, the Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, the 1991 European Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, the 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change, the 1993 Convention on Civil Liability for Environmental Damage by Hazardous Substances, the Access Convention to information, public participation in decision-making and access to justice in environmental matters of 1998, the Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents of 1998, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants of 2001, and a number of human rights instruments eka, securing the right of everyone to a favorable environment.

Concerning bilateral and regional treaties, then in most cases they regulate the joint use of international and transboundary rivers and basins, the protection of local flora and fauna, quarantine measures, etc. For example, in 1992, Kazakhstan and Russia signed an agreement on the joint use of water bodies. Kazakhstan has similar agreements with the states of Central Asia. On March 27, 1995, an Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the US Government on cooperation in the field of environmental protection and natural resources was signed in Washington. Within the framework of the CIS in 1992, an Agreement on Cooperation in the Field of Ecology and Protection of the Environment and the Natural Environment and a Protocol on the Obligations, Rights and Responsibilities of the Parties to the Agreement were adopted. Similar agreements exist in other regions, for example, the 1968 African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

An important feature of international environmental law is the presence of a large number of recommendatory acts: declarations, resolutions and decisions of international organizations (the so-called “soft law”). Without binding legal force, these international documents formulate the general principles and strategy for the development of this branch of international law. The positive significance of recommendatory acts is that they reflect the most desirable model of behavior of states in the field of environmental protection and indicate the standards that the world community must meet in the future. In a certain sense, “soft law” is objectively ahead of the current capabilities of states in this area.

The most authoritative acts of a recommendatory nature in the field of international legal protection of the environment are the World Charter for Nature of 1982 (approved by the 37th session of the UN General Assembly), the Stockholm Declaration of the UN on Environmental Problems of 1972 and a number of documents adopted in 1992 at the UN Conference for Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro.

The 1972 Declaration for the first time consolidated the system of principles of international cooperation in environmental protection, at the universal level defined approaches to solving environmental problems by subjects of international law. Subsequently, the provisions of the Declaration found confirmation in international agreements and in the practice of international cooperation. For example, the preamble to the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution explicitly mentions one of the principles of the 1972 Declaration.

An important result of the Stockholm Conference in 1972 (the USSR did not take part in it) was the creation in more than a hundred states of special government structures - ministries for environmental protection. These bodies were supposed to monitor the implementation of the decisions taken at the Conference.

The need to solve environmental problems and the importance of efforts in this area are confirmed in such an authoritative act as Charter of Paris for a New Europe 1990. The charter emphasizes the paramount importance of introducing clean and low-waste technologies, the important role of broad public awareness of environmental issues, and the need for appropriate legislative and administrative measures.

1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, which took place in Rio de Janeiro ("Earth Summit"), marked a qualitatively new stage in the development of international environmental law. For the first time at the global level, the idea of ​​the unity of sustainable economic growth and environmental protection was formulated. In other words, the Conference strongly rejected the possibility of social and economic progress without addressing the major ecological systems of today. At the same time, international cooperation in the field of environmental protection should be carried out taking into account a differentiated approach to the needs of certain categories of countries.

The Conference adopted Declaration of Principles aimed at achieving sustainable development. Of the 27 principles formulated in the Declaration, a number are directly related to environmental protection: the principle of differentiated responsibility, the principle of caution, the principle of environmental impact assessment, the “polluter pays” principle, and others. Among other provisions enshrined in the Declaration, the following can be distinguished:

The right to development must be respected in such a way as to adequately meet the developmental and environmental needs of current and future generations;

Potentially hazardous activities are subject to a preliminary environmental impact assessment and must be approved by the competent national authorities of the respective state;

The habitat and natural resources of peoples living under oppression, domination and occupation should be protected;

In the event of an armed conflict, states must respect international law by ensuring the protection of the environment;

Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and inseparable.

The Conference participants adopted a Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests, as well as two conventions: the Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

The main outcome document of the Conference, Agenda 21, points out the need for global cooperation in the field of environmental protection in order to achieve sustainable development. Of the four sections of the agenda, the second is entirely devoted to environmental issues - the conservation and rational use of resources for development, including the protection of the atmosphere, forests, rare species of flora and fauna, combating drought and desertification.

The UN General Assembly in September 2000 approved United Nations Millennium Declaration, section IV of which is entitled "Protection of our common environment". The Declaration notes the need for end-of-form-beginning-of-form to spare no effort in ridding all of humanity of the threat of living on a planet that will be hopelessly corrupted by human activity and whose resources will no longer be sufficient to meet their needs. The General Assembly reiterated its support for the principles of sustainable development, including those set out in Agenda 21 agreed upon at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. The main idea of ​​this section of the Declaration is the implementation of environmental activities on the basis of a new ethic of careful and responsible attitude to nature. The United Nations has declared the following priorities:

Make every effort to ensure the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol and proceed with the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions envisaged by it;

Intensify collective efforts for forest management, conservation of all types of forests and sustainable development of forestry;

Seek full implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification in those countries experiencing severe drought or desertification, especially in Africa;

Stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources by developing water management strategies at the regional, national and local levels that promote equitable access to water and its sufficient supply;

Intensify cooperation to reduce the number and consequences of natural and man-made disasters;

Provide free access to information about the human genome.

In May 2001, the environmental ministers of the member states of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) adopted the OECD Environmental Strategy for the Second Decade of the 21st Century. The significance of this document is determined by the fact that the OECD includes the most developed states of the planet, whose activities largely determine the environmental situation on the planet. The strategy defines 17 most important environmental problems of our time and contains a list of 71 (!) obligations of member states that will fulfill them at the national level.

In September 2002, Johannesburg hosted World Summit on Sustainable Development, at which it was stated that environmental problems not only do not decrease, but, on the contrary, become more and more urgent. In fact, for hundreds of millions of people, environmental problems and the need to solve them are already a factor in physical survival. The representativeness of the summit can be judged by the fact that the leaders of more than 100 states (including the President of Kazakhstan N. Nazarbayev) took part in its work, and the total number of forum participants exceeded 10,000 people.

In general, it can be stated that today the international legal protection of the environment is developing in line with the ideas and principles enshrined in the outcome documents of the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development. At the same time, the doctrine of international law rightly emphasizes the need for codification of documents in force in this area 1 . The creation of an appropriate single convention would serve to progressive development of international environmental law. The first step in this direction can be considered the draft International Charter on Environment and Development, approved in 1995 by the UN Congress on Public International Law.

Certain value for regulation of the international relations has the nature protection legislation of the separate states. In particular, environmental standards governing the activities of various subjects of international law in territories with mixed and other regimes (in the exclusive economic zone, territorial sea, airspace, on the continental shelf, international channels, etc.) are established by national legislative acts. All states are obliged to respect the relevant rules, and the state that issued them, after due publication, has the right to demand their observance and bring the perpetrators to justice.

International environmental law

Definition 1

International environmental law is the legislative norms, according to which the state and society must carefully and diligently treat the environment and preserve it. Protected natural objects include forests, rivers, lakes, as well as agricultural lands. In addition, we note the issue of utilization and processing of pollutants and toxic substances harmful to humans and nature, which is related to the conservation of nature.

International environmental law is a branch of international law. The law we are considering corrects contacts between countries and interstate organizations on issues related to the protection and conservation of natural objects and resources.

The subject of international environmental law is the establishment and regulation of legal relationships between countries on the issue of environmental protection.

Remark 1

It should be noted that the adopted norms of international environmental legislation can have significant legal force and solve environmental problems.

The subjects of environmental international law are states and international organizations. Their main tasks are the conservation of the world around us and the skillful use of the resources at the disposal of mankind.

Forms of implementation, principles and sources of international environmental law

Consider the process of implementing a decision related to the field of international environmental law.

Emerging problems related to environmental problems and environmental protection can be considered in such instances as

  • national court
  • international Court
  • International Arbitration Commission

But at the same time, in order to make any decision related to international environmental legal relations, the consent of governments to submit to the jurisdiction of international bodies is necessary. And as a result, states, avoiding the possibility of incurring political and economic damage, refuse such jurisdiction.

The main principles of environmental international law are:

  1. The affiliation of certain natural resources to a particular state, as sovereign in a given region.
  2. Not causing any harm to the environment of neighboring countries.

[Note] However, note that according to the Stockholm Declaration on the Environment of 1972, these principles are combined into one. Namely, the principle that the countries of the globe have the full right to develop the available natural resources in accordance with their laws, but bear full legal responsibility for possible damage to other states as a result of their actions.

The sources of the law we are considering are multilateral treaties between states of the whole world and customary legal norms that have been established in international law.

Among the multilateral treaties, we note the following concluded documents:

  • International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969,
  • International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973,
  • Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources 1980
  • Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985

To the usual legal norms of international law relating to nature protection, we refer, as an example, bilateral agreements between the Russian Federation and Belarus concluded in 1993 and 1994.

International organizations that are engaged in the protection and conservation of the environment include such political and public associations as the UN (United Nations), the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO).

The UN, in particular, is engaged in activities related to climate change in the modern world and the search for ways to solve this problem. Also, the UN deals with the problems of pollution of the surrounding world, as well as the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) mentioned by us.

As for international conferences, their work can also have a positive impact on the problems of protection and restoration of the natural environment. We note here such earlier international conferences in Brazil in 1992 and a conference in Switzerland in 1993, which brought together European countries that sent their ministers there.

Protection of the World Ocean

In order to protect the World Ocean as one of the most important natural spheres on planet Earth and one of the most important sources of biological and mineral sources, the issue of developing a mechanism for protecting the ocean biosphere has become extremely important.

In particular, in 1992 the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted. The main purpose of this document was the conservation and reasonable use of the biological diversity of the surrounding world.

Remark 2

At the same time, biological diversity is understood as the totality of living organisms living in all spheres of wildlife.

In order to preserve such diversity, and hence the necessary resources for the development, existence and survival of mankind itself, states adopt various international agreements designed to preserve and strengthen the biosphere of the entire planet Earth.

Protection of international rivers

One of the main legal international sources that concerns the protection and protection of rivers that are international is the following document. This is the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, adopted in 1992.

Thus, according to this document, the countries that have signed this international document undertake to comply with the following requirements. Namely:

States must take all appropriate measures to prevent pollution of rivers or at least reduce the negative impact on river waters.

Take actions that promote both the wise use of water resources and the gradual restoration of the ecosystem of rivers, as appropriate.

Protection of the North and South Pole regions

The North Pole, the Arctic and the South Pole, Antarctica are among the important reserve sources of resources and minerals for the entire human community.

In order to protect and protect the ecosystem of these regions, the following actions have been taken. So, for the protection and coordination of actions related to the North Pole, the Arctic Council was created in 1996, which included countries with possessions in the Arctic zone. This Council also includes Russia.

To protect and manage the southern mainland, Antarctica, relevant international legal norms have also been created. One of these documents, namely the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, adopted in 1991, spoke about the protection and responsibility of states to protect and preserve a unique ecosystem. This document was also signed by the Russian Federation.