Does pakistan have nuclear weapons. Pakistan is ready to use nuclear weapons against India. == Pakistan's Modern Nuclear Weapons ==

Pakistan's nuclear arsenal is approximately 70 to 90 nuclear weapons and is constantly being built up. A new ballistic missile is ready for service, and two cruise missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads are in development. In addition, two new plutonium production reactors and a plant for its chemical separation are under construction.

It is extremely difficult to accurately estimate the number of charges produced, deployed charges, as well as their types. It is also difficult to assess Pakistan's future plans for the development of nuclear forces. In 1999, US military intelligence estimated that Pakistan had 25 to 35 warheads, and by 2020 this number would increase to 60 to 80. Although Pakistan's arsenal is constantly growing, it is unlikely that it has already exceeded the number of 100 warheads. First, by the beginning of 2008 Pakistan had produced about 2,000 kg of highly enriched uranium and 90 kg of weapons-grade plutonium. While this is sufficient to produce 80 to 130 implosion warheads, assuming 15 to 25 kg of highly enriched uranium would be used per warhead, it is unlikely that the entire stock of uranium will be used up in weapons production. Second, Pakistan does not have enough delivery vehicles for that many warheads. Further, all types of Pakistani missiles and aircraft are designed to be equipped with both nuclear and conventional weapons, so some of them will always be used for conventional weapons. Thirdly, some fissile materials will likely be held in reserve for future use.

The exact amount of plutonium or uranium required to create a nuclear charge depends on two factors: the scientific and technological level of the developers and the required charge power. The higher the level of technology, the fewer materials are required to achieve a given power, while increasing the charge power requires more materials. We do not know the level of Pakistani nuclear weapons developers, but we can assume that they have reached some average level. At the same time, to achieve a charge power of 10 kt, about 20 kg of highly enriched uranium and 3 kg of plutonium are required. The power of Pakistani nuclear charges, which was estimated from the test results, ranged from 5 to 10 kt.

Pakistan stated that six nuclear tests were conducted on 28 and 30 May 1998, but most experts, based on seismic data, confirmed only two tests. It is likely that the production of warheads for the Shaheen II medium-range ballistic missiles has already been completed, and the production of Babur cruise missiles will be launched within a few years. The current stockpile of nuclear warheads in Pakistan is estimated at 70 to 90 units.

Following the example of other states, Pakistan has constantly improved the design of its nuclear weapons in order to move from first-generation weapons based on the use of highly enriched uranium to plutonium nuclear weapons, which have been developed over the past ten years. At the center of this effort is the 40 to 50 MW Khushab heavy water reactor used for plutonium production. It is protected from air attacks by six batteries of surface-to-air missiles. An indication that Pakistan is already well advanced in the development of plutonium nuclear weapons is the construction of two more heavy water reactors next to the first. With their commissioning, plutonium production will more than triple.

In anticipation of an increase in the amount of plutonium produced, Pakistan is increasing its reprocessing capacity. The first own chemical isotope separation plant was built at the Institute of Nuclear Physics and Technology near Rawalpindi. It processed plutonium obtained at the first Pakistani reactor. Satellite images show that another isotope separation plant is being built nearby, which is designed to process the products of two new reactors. Also, work can be resumed at the unfinished complex for isotope separation, which was laid back in the 70s. This complex is located in the town of Chasma, which operates a 300 MW nuclear power plant (CHASNUPP-1) and plans to build three more, one of which is under construction. In addition, Pakistan is expanding production at Dera Ghazi Khan, in the south of Punjab state, where uranium metal and uranium hexafluoride are produced.

All this shows that Pakistan is preparing to increase and strengthen its nuclear forces. The new plants will provide Pakistan with additional capabilities: the production of charges with a plutonium core, the combination of plutonium and highly enriched uranium to create combined nuclei, the increase in the power of charges using tritium. Since Pakistan has not carried out full-scale tests of two-stage thermonuclear warheads, it would be premature to believe that it is already capable of producing them, but the types of plants under construction indicate that it is planned to replace heavy uranium warheads with lighter and more compact plutonium warheads, which will increase the range of ballistic missiles, and also place nuclear charges on cruise missiles. The Pakistani leadership has repeatedly stated that it is not going to violate the moratorium on nuclear testing in South Asia, which entered into force in 1998, if India does not violate it.

Nuclear Forces Control System. In the past few years, the level of security of the Pakistani nuclear forces has been significantly improved, especially in light of the separatist uprisings in the north-east of the country. In February 2008, Lieutenant General Khalid Kidwai, head of the strategic planning unit, which is responsible for all aspects of the Pakistani nuclear weapons program, except for their direct use, reported that the security systems of all nuclear facilities have been significantly upgraded and fully meet modern requirements. President Pervez Musharraf later added that the Strategic Planning Unit and the Army's Strategic Forces Command currently number 12,000 to 15,000.

It is not known what security systems that prevent the unauthorized use of weapons are installed on Pakistani nuclear weapons. Lieutenant General Khalid Kidwai reported in 2006 that the lockout system used on Pakistani nuclear weapons is similar to those used by other nuclear powers. Moreover, it is assumed that the warheads are stored disassembled, and their storage sites are located at a considerable distance from the delivery vehicles.

Pakistan Nuclear Forces

delivery vehicle	range, km
F-16A/B	1600	1 bomb (4500)
Mirage V	2100	1 bomb (4000)
Ghaznavi (Hatf-3)	400	500
Shaheen-1 (Hatf-4)	450	1000
Shaheen-2 (Hatf-6)	2000	1000
Ghauri (Hatf-5)	1200	1000
Babur (Hatf-7)	320	there is no data
Ra "ad (Hatf-8)	320	there is no data

Aviation means of delivery. Most likely, American-made F-16 fighters are supposed to be used to deliver nuclear weapons to the Pakistani Air Force, although French Mirage V fighters can also be used. , at least 8 of which are no longer in service. To replace them, Pakistan ordered an additional 11 F-16A / B in December 1988, but their delivery, as well as plans for the delivery of another 60 fighters, were delayed by more than 16 years due to a ban on the supply of military equipment to countries involved in the creation nuclear weapons. Nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan in 1998 reinforced the negative attitude of the United States towards the supply of weapons to Pakistan, but given that Pakistan had become an ally of the United States in the fight against the Taliban, President Bush on September 22, 2001 lifted the ban on the supply of weapons and military equipment. On March 25, 2005, the US administration announced that it was resuming aircraft deliveries to Pakistan, after which the Pakistani authorities quickly ordered an additional 36 F-16C / D Block 50/52 fighters, as well as 60 sets of equipment for the modernization of F-16A / B fighters.

In the Pakistani Air Force, F-16 fighters are in service with the 9th and 11th squadrons based at the Sargodha airbase, located 160 km northwest of Lahore. The F-16 has a range of more than 1,600 km, which can be increased by using external tanks, and can carry a payload of up to 5,450 kg on one under-fuselage and six under-wing pylons.

When used in NATO, the F-16 is capable of carrying two B61 nuclear bombs, however, Pakistani aircraft most likely all carry one bomb on the central pylon, since Pakistani uranium bombs should be significantly heavier than the B61, which weighs 343 kg.

Mirage V fighters, which can also be used to deliver nuclear bombs, are part of the 8th Squadron of the 32nd Fighter Wing, based at Masroor Air Base, located 8 km west of Karachi. In addition, they are operated by the 25th squadron of the 33rd Fighter Wing, located at the Kamra airbase, 65 km west of Islamabad. In the future, it is planned to equip Mirage V fighters with Hatf-8 cruise missiles capable of carrying a nuclear warhead.

Ballistic missiles. Pakistan is armed with three types of operational-tactical ballistic missiles, which are considered capable of carrying a nuclear warhead. These are Ghaznavi (Hatf-3) and Shaheen-1 (Hatf-4) short-range missiles, as well as the Ghauri (Hatf-5) medium-range missile. A fourth missile, the Shaheen-2 (Hatf-6), is due to enter service shortly.

The Ghaznavi solid-propellant single-stage rocket, put into service in 2004, is capable of delivering a payload of 500 kg over a distance of up to 400 km. The number of missiles produced is unknown. The missile was developed on the basis of the Chinese OTR M-11, which in the amount of 30 pieces was delivered to Pakistan in the early 90s. To launch Ghaznavi, a four-axle transport-launcher is used. The Pakistani army is armed with 50 such installations. Some of these missiles are possibly located on the territory of a large arsenal in Sargodha, where there are 12 hangars for transport-launchers.

On February 13, 2008, during military exercises, the first test launch of the Ghaznavi missile was made. In April 2007, the production of the rocket was completed.

The Shaheen-1 missile is a reverse engineering product of the Chinese M-9 missile. Introduced in 2003, this solid-propellant, two-stage missile can hit targets over 450 km away, although some observers believe it actually has a range of around 700 km and can carry a payload of up to 1,000 kg. Shaheen-1 is transported and launched from a four-axle transport-launcher, of which less than 50 were produced. The last test launch of the rocket was carried out on January 25, 2008.

Islamabad said the Shaheen-2 two-stage medium-range missile, first shown at a military parade seven years ago but still under development, has a range of 2,050 km and can carry a payload of 1,000 kg. The missile is transported on a six-axle transport-launcher. According to satellite imagery, there are 15 such machines in Pakistan at various stages of assembly. On April 19 and 21, 2008, two test launches were carried out, which confirmed the high degree of readiness of the missile for adoption.

The only liquid-fuel rocket in service with the Pakistani army and capable of carrying a nuclear warhead is the Ghauri (Hatf-5) with a range of 1200 km. It was put into service in 2003 and carries a payload of 700 - 1000 kg. It is supposed to replace it with Shaheen-2.

Cruise missiles. Pakistan is also developing two types of cruise missiles that US intelligence says are capable of carrying nuclear weapons. Test launches of the ground-based Babur (Hatf-7) rocket were carried out five times, most recently on December 11, 2007. According to US intelligence reports, it has a range of 320 km, while the media reports a range of 500 - 700 km.

Official Pakistani sources describe the Babur as "a low-flying, terrain-following cruise missile, highly maneuverable, stealthy and highly accurate." By design, Babur resembles the new Chinese DH-10 aviation cruise missile and the Russian AS-15. Babur hulls are significantly thinner than ballistic missile hulls, which confirms the progress of Pakistani developers in the miniaturization of nuclear warheads, or in the development of new plutonium warheads. According to some reports, a modification of the missile for launch from submarines is also being developed. On August 25, 2007, the first test launch of the Babur air-to-ground modification, also known as the "Thunder", was carried out.

Delhi and Islamabad exchanged threats to severely punish each other for possible aggression. The reason was an interview with an Indian commander who said that his troops could launch a non-nuclear attack in response to a terrorist attack. Pakistan, which has perfected tactical nuclear weapons, called it an invitation to nuclear conflict. Relations between the neighbors have escalated against the backdrop of increased pressure on Islamabad from its military partner, Washington.

At first glance, the speeches of General Bipin Rawat, commander of the Indian ground forces, and Pakistani Foreign Minister Khawaji Asif are nothing more than an episode of an information war between warring neighbors.

“We will show that they are bluffing. If there is an order, we will not say that we cannot cross the border because they have nuclear weapons,” Rawat told reporters. “A very irresponsible statement. It is tantamount to an invitation to a nuclear conflict. If that is what they want, we invite them to test our resolve,” Asif replied.

The background of this "exchange of pleasantries" cannot but cause concern. Pakistan is improving tactical nuclear weapons. Allegedly, this is the only thing keeping India from a new war against Pakistan using conventional means.

In an interview with NG, Vladimir Sotnikov, a senior researcher at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, noted: “Pakistani tactical nuclear weapons are mainly tactical missiles with the ability to install small nuclear warheads. Pakistan has been placing these missiles near the Pakistani-Indian border for a long time. It has no long-range ballistic missiles. Missiles are being tested on ships, there are air-launched missiles. But in the doctrines of war with a potential adversary (this is India), ground-to-ground missiles have the main place. They have been deployed near the border since the 2001-2002 nuclear standoff. That is, Pakistani generals understand that if India strikes with ground forces, the only possible response is missiles with nuclear warheads. They reach the main strategic centers, primarily in northern India.

“Therefore, the Indian military is taking into account the fact that a retaliatory strike is possible. But India, like China, has made a commitment not to be the first to use nuclear weapons. So we are talking about the variant of the conflict, when India will use ground forces. Here India is ahead of Pakistan in terms of the number of armed forces. Although Pakistan has a fairly powerful army, the expert explained. - India during the confrontation of 2001-2002 developed the Cold Start doctrine. It provides for preemptive strikes by ground forces without the use of nuclear weapons against the main centers deep in Pakistani territory. This doctrine will be applied if a powerful terrorist attack is organized on the territory of India from the territory of Pakistan.” Most importantly, the Indians are ready to be the first to launch such a strike in order to forestall a possible Pakistani nuclear attack. Pakistan has not committed itself to being the first to use nuclear weapons.

The statement by the commander of the Indian ground forces was made against the backdrop of a noticeable deterioration in relations between the antagonist countries, Sotnikov stressed.

But Pakistan's Cold War ally, Washington, is also stepping up pressure on it. US President Donald Trump has accused Pakistan of "lying and deceiving". After that, the US announced that it was suspending military aid to Pakistan. In response, according to the BBC, Pakistani Defense Minister Khurram Dasgir said that Pakistan would not share intelligence information with the United States. And Foreign Minister Asif added fuel to the fire, saying that Pakistan and the United States are no longer allies.

The root of the controversy is that Pakistan provides safe haven on its soil to terrorist groups such as the Pakistan Taliban (banned in Russia) and the Haqqani Network. And these organizations are not only involved in military operations in Afghanistan against the Afghan security forces, but even against the Americans.

Pakistani military intelligence does not want to abandon these clients as they are helping Pakistan counter Indian influence in Afghanistan.

The leadership of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, along with the creation of nuclear weapons, planned to use them in various combat conditions and to destroy enemy targets at various distances. Taking into account the solution of these tasks, Islamabad also developed various options for the delivery of nuclear warheads - from aircraft to ballistic missiles.

Among the means of delivery of nuclear weapons should be considered the US-made F-16 aircraft. Although the Pakistan Air Force will be able to use French Mirage V aircraft or Chinese A-5s in this case. Twenty-eight F-16A (single-seat) and 12 F-16B (two-seat) were delivered between 1983 and 1987. At least eight of them are no longer in service.

In 1985, the US Congress passed the "Pressler Amendment" aimed at prohibiting Pakistan from building an atomic bomb. Under this amendment, Pakistan could not receive economic and military assistance unless the US president could verify that Islamabad did not possess a nuclear device. This also applied to possible means of delivering nuclear weapons. However, while there was ample evidence of Pakistan's development of nuclear weapons, Presidents Reagan and Bush Sr. turned a blind eye to it, mainly because of the intensification of activities against the USSR in the Afghan conflict. After the war in Afghanistan ended, sanctions were finally imposed on Pakistan. It happened on October 6, 1990. In March 2005, George W. Bush agreed to the sale of F-16s to Pakistan. At the first stage, these deliveries included 24 F-16s.

It should also be noted that, according to Press trust of India, in March 2005, production of the joint Pakistani-Chinese JF-17 fighter jet officially began in Pakistan. At the aviation enterprise in the city of Kamra, where the aircraft will be produced, a solemn ceremony dedicated to this event was held. It was attended by President Pervez Musharraf.

With the help of Chinese specialists, the F-16 will be upgraded for use as a nuclear weapon carrier. First of all, they will be equipped with squadrons 9 and 11 at Sargodhi airbase, 160 km northwest of Lahore.

The F-16 has a range of more than 1,600 km and can be further extended by upgrading the fuel tanks. Given the weight and size limitations of the F-16 payload, the bomb is likely to weigh approximately 1,000 kg, and it is most likely that the nuclear warhead is precisely "in limbo" in full combat readiness at one or even several Pakistani air bases.

Note that, in principle, assembled nuclear bombs or their components specifically for such aircraft can be stored in an ammunition depot near Sargodha.

Alternatively, nuclear weapons could also be stored near the Afghan border. This option is also possible, but for specialists this information is a kind of distraction, because there are clear obligations of the Pakistani authorities to the United States not to deploy nuclear components in the territories adjacent to Afghanistan.

Pakistan uses the Ghauri missile as a delivery vehicle for nuclear weapons, although other missiles in the Pakistani military could be upgraded to carry a nuclear warhead. Ghauri-1 was successfully tested on April 6, 1998 at a distance of 1100 km, probably with a payload of up to 700 kg. According to experts, the missile was launched near the city of Jhelum in northeastern Pakistan, 100 km southeast of Islamabad, and hit its intended target near Quetta in the southwest.

The Ghauri-2 two-stage ballistic missile was tested on April 14, 1999, three days after the tests of the Indian Agni-2 missile. The launch was from a mobile launcher at Din, near Jhelum, and the rocket landed at Jiwani, near the southwest coast, after an eight-minute flight.

A third version of the Ghauri with an unconfirmed range of 2,500-3,000 km is under development, but it has already been tested on 15 August 2000.

There is information that there is also a Khataf-V Ghauri missile, which was allegedly tested in early June 2004. It is claimed that it has a range of 1.5 thousand km and can deliver any charge weighing up to 800 kg. The location of the test was not reported. As if it was attended by the President of Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf. This was the second test of such a missile in a week(1).

The choice of the name "Ghauri" (2) is very symbolic. The Muslim sultan Mahammad Ghauri defeated the Hindu ruler Chauhan in 1192. In addition, "Priitvi" is the name that India has given to its short-range ballistic missile.

Using its political intrigue with Beijing against India, Islamabad managed to obtain not just M-11 missiles, but also documentation for their production and maintenance. Since 1992, 30 or more M-11 missiles have been delivered to Pakistan from China. Subsequently, Beijing's assistance was also manifested in the construction of missile maintenance and storage facilities. Therefore, Pakistan can produce its own Tarmuk missile based on the M-11, which it is doing quite successfully.

The war with India is more than a real factor, which is the top priority of the entire economic and political life of Pakistan. This thought occupied and occupies the minds of the generals of Islamabad, Delhi and Beijing. That is why billions of dollars go into the production of already technically developed delivery vehicles and the same amount of money goes into the creation of new missile systems. In particular, the Chinese M-9 Shaheen-1 (Eagle) missile, redesigned in Pakistan, has a range of 700 km and can carry a payload of 1,000 kg. Pakistan conducted an initial flight test of Shaheen from the coastal town of Sonmiani on 15 April 1999.

At the March 23 parade in 2000, Islamabad displayed a two-stage Shaheen-2 medium-range missile, as well as a missile with a range of 2500 km, capable of carrying a 1000-kilogram payload. The missile was transported on a mobile launcher with 16 wheels. It is possible that both missiles can carry nuclear warheads.

In November 2000, Pakistan decided to place its key nuclear facilities under the control of the National Nuclear Weapons Control Committee. The new government, which was established in February 2000, set as its goal the creation of an effective nuclear command and control system.

The events of September 11, 2000 gave rise to increased measures against the use of nuclear weapons by terrorists. Pakistan, as a loyal and more than devoted ally of the United States, immediately increased the security of storage facilities with nuclear warheads and their means of delivery.

According to press reports, in the two days after September 11, 2000, the Pakistani armed forces moved nuclear weapons components to new secret facilities. General Pervez Musharraf took several active measures to organize the security of maintaining the country's nuclear arsenal. Thus, in particular, six new secret facilities for storage and warehousing of nuclear weapons components were installed.

In early March 2004, Pakistan tested a medium-range ballistic missile that could safely hit any city in India.

The Pakistan Defense Ministry said in a statement that the tests of the two-stage Shaheen-2 missile were successful. According to Reuters, the creation of Pakistani science and engineering can carry a nuclear warhead at a distance of up to 2,000 km (3). Pakistan said it considered the missile test sufficient to deter aggression and "prevent military pressure."

India was warned about the tests in advance. It should be noted that in early March 2004, India concluded an agreement with Israel on the purchase of the Falcon airborne radar station. The system can detect aircraft at distances of several kilometers and intercept radio transmissions over large parts of Pakistan, including the disputed state of Kashmir.

In the first ten days of October 2004, the Khatf-5 (Ghauri) medium-range ballistic missiles were tested, during which all conditional targets of the alleged enemy were successfully hit.

This rocket is liquid-fueled and, according to some agencies, was developed on the basis of Korean technology (4). This missile is capable of carrying a nuclear charge and covering a distance of up to 1,500 km.

In April 2006, it was reported that Islamabad had conducted new tests of the Hatf-6 medium-range ballistic missile with an increased range of up to 2,500 km. These tests, according to the Pakistani military, were successful. As noted in one of the reports, “the tests were carried out to confirm a number of additional technical parameters, in addition to those verified during the last launch in March 2005” (5).

In Pakistan, delivery vehicles for nuclear weapons, unlike in India, are limited to the air force and missiles, which continue to be improved with the help of China.

In terms of technology, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan has reached full parity with the United States, and India is already ahead of its neighbor in some types of delivery.

The supposed evolution of the technical development of Pakistan's rocket science allows us to conclude that intercontinental ballistic missiles will appear in its arsenal in the very near future.

The formation of Pakistan's nuclear program took place in the context of a prolonged military confrontation with India and complex political relations with the United States. The beginning of the Pakistani nuclear program dates back to 1965. In the same year, the Atomic Energy Commission was established by the decision of the President of Pakistan. Pakistan's nuclear program from the very beginning had a military orientation and was not aimed at the tasks of peaceful nuclear energy. Its implementation has been accelerated since 1972, shortly after the defeat in the war with India, and especially after India's first nuclear explosion in 1974. Pakistan has declared at the state level that it should have its own nuclear weapons. An important stimulus for the possession of nuclear weapons, in addition to the "Indian factor", was the desire of Pakistan to strengthen its position in the Muslim world, becoming the first owner of nuclear weapons in it. Pressure (until 1979) by the United States to slow down Pakistan's nuclear program and tightening export controls by Western countries prompted Pakistan to conclude a Sino-Pakistani agreement on cooperation in nuclear technology. During the period of the Soviet military presence in Afghanistan, the United States of America, seeking to win Pakistan over to its side, resorted to multibillion-dollar economic and military assistance to it. In 1989, Pakistan announced the possession of nuclear weapons. Thus, it can be argued with a high degree of certainty that it was the inconsistent US policy that largely contributed to the implementation of the Pakistani nuclear program.

Pakistan has not acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty.

On May 28, 1998 (two weeks after India's nuclear tests), Pakistan announced the success of five underground nuclear explosions at the Chagai test site in Balochistan (their total energy release is 40-45 kt), and on May 30, 1998, another explosion took place with an energy release of 15-18 kt.

Pakistan's nuclear weapons. There are very rough estimates of Pakistan's nuclear arsenal. Presumably, the country has up to 30-50 nuclear weapons, although estimates of stocks of fissile materials make it possible to assume the presence of more. Possible carriers of nuclear weapons in Pakistan could be tactical aircraft and ballistic missiles. Presumably, in peacetime, nuclear warheads are not installed on carriers, but are kept in reduced technical readiness separately from them.

Carrier aircraft. The Pakistan Air Force is armed with aircraft that can carry nuclear bombs: the American F-16 and the French-made Mirage-5. The most likely carrier is the F-16 fighter (tactical

115 radius - up to 1100 km). There are no more than 32 F-16 aircraft in service (out of 40 delivered

USA in 1983-1987). In 1988-1989 71 more units were ordered, of which 28 aircraft were manufactured, but were not delivered due to the US imposition of an arms embargo on Pakistan in 1990. In March 2005, the United States lifted the ban on the supply of weapons, and it can be expected that in the near future the fleet of nuclear weapons carriers will be replenished with several dozen F16s.

ballistic missiles. Pakistan's ballistic missile program has been underway since the early 1980s. and has two areas of work: liquid and solid rockets. In most cases, their design is based on foreign developments - China and North Korea. Ballistic missiles that can be carriers of nuclear warheads:

short range - "Hatf-3" (another name - " Ghaznavi""), as well as "Hatf-4" (" Shahin-1»);

medium range - "Hatf-5" (" Gauri-1"), "Hatf-5A" (" Gauri-2”), “Hatf-6” (“ Shahin-2"). The main characteristics of the missiles are given in Table. 4.16.

BR "Ghaznavi"

BR "Gauri"

BR "Shahin"

BR "Shahin"

BR "Gauri"

Table 4.16 Characteristics of Pakistani ballistic missiles

In this post, we will look at how to use baking soda.

It is possible to use it for medicinal purposes, as well as in everyday life, for example, cooking, etc. I will give three full-fledged examples where each person can use soda.

At the very beginning, you need to know that baking soda is also called sodium bicarbonate. This is a compound of hydrogen, sodium and oxygen, an alkaline substance and, as you know, it enters into a full reaction with various acids. For the body, this substance neutralizes the existing excess acid. For cooking, it is a baking powder. They also use baking soda as a detergent.

The use of baking soda in cooking

Most importantly, remember that this substance must be stored in a dry and slightly cool place. Soda has no expiration date.

When preparing the dish, make sure that you can use baking soda, and not a special baking powder. Soda in its form is not a baking powder, it must be extinguished with vinegar, then they will take the necessary form and give a result.

Mix dry ingredients and liquid ingredients separately. For example flour, soda, sugar, salt and in another bowl eggs, buttermilk, water and others.

Then, mix the resulting mixtures together. The baking soda will give the dough for bread, cake, etc. a more airy look, but don't overdo it.

Be sure to let the test brew so that the chemical reaction goes as expected, this is about 5 minutes. Then do everything according to the recipe.

You can use soda for a special volcano. The volcano is made for beauty and to demonstrate the reaction of soda and vinegar.

Take a jar and cover it with sand. Pour a glass of soda into it.

Then pour a glass of vinegar into the jar and see how the reaction occurs.

You can also use baking soda to clean dishes or sinks.

You can also use baking soda to take care of yourself. Take 4 grams of soda and a couple of drops of hydrogen peroxide. This substance can be used as a toothpaste, it cleans the enamel and neutralizes the acid in the mouth.

If you have oily hair, apply baking soda on your head and rub it in slowly.

Take 50 grams of soda, 10 drops of essential oil and get a deodorant from natural substances. If you want to get a scrub, then mix 50 grams (3 tablespoons) of baking soda, as well as 15 milligrams (one tablespoon) of olive oil. These substances do not clog pores, as they are natural.