Success

Formal and informal groups in the organization briefly. The concept and types of groups in organizations. The role of groups in the process of functioning of the organization

Key Performance Indicators = KPIs = Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) - This is a system for measuring set goals, which is based on the usual mathematics of calculating the “Plan / Fact” of achieving the goal in percent. In a specific situation, key performance indicators (KPIs) define milestones in the process of achieving multi-stage objectives.

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) can be translated into Russian in different sources in different ways, for example: “key performance indicators”, “key performance indicators”, “key performance indicators”.

It is common to say that an indicator is a KPI if it measures the achievement of a goal. The technology of setting, controlling and reviewing the goals of the work of employees and departments as a whole is the task of a modern management system. One of the popular KPI management concepts is called "Management by Goals".

Automating the calculation of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) is a challenge for level decisions Business Intelligence (BI)

Management by Objectives = MBO = Goal Management - this is the process of coordinating goals within the organization, in which the company's management and employees, setting goals, as a rule, "top down", understand the existence of a hierarchy of goals within the company.

Simply put, Management by Objectives (MBO) means that every leader, from top managers to the line level, and every employee in the organization must have clear KPIs that ensure that the KPIs of higher-level managers are met.

In this case KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) are key performance indicators that measure the achievement of goals by employees at all levels in the organization.

Goal Management- this is primarily the task of the company's management, which includes the work of:

on goal setting
by KPI definition
communicating goals and KPIs to employees
to provide the goals with the necessary resources
to control the achievement of goals

Ideally, the goal itself, which is measured using KPIs, should meet SMART concepts, i.e. have:

S - specific/Specific (be specific, have a specific result)
M - measurable/Measurable (be measurable, have an achievement measurement, i.e. KPI)
A-achievable/reachability (have the necessary resources to achieve)
R-relevant/Relevance (be relevant, this task needs to be completed now)
T - time-bound/ Time bound (have a deadline, certainty in time)

Application in the organization of the approach Management by Objectives (MBO) allows you to systematize the process of setting tasks and evaluating the effectiveness of personnel by setting personal KPI indicators by employees.

In practice, everything Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) employee are reflected in the so-called "MBO Matrix of Indicators", or other common names: "Performance Evaluation Sheet"- (ENT-list) or simply "Employee's personal file".

The results of KPI fulfillment are used in the corporate "Personnel motivation system", for example, in the calculation of the bonus part (bonuses) of employees.

Methodology "Management by Goals" is an effective tool for setting and monitoring the implementation of tasks at the level of tactical management. At the same time, according to the requirements of quality management systems at the enterprise (ISO 9001), tasks at the level of tactical management should be consistent (follow) from the tasks defined at the strategic level, where the most effective management tool is Balanced Scorecard (BSC).

Balanced Scorecard = BSC = Balanced Scorecard (BSC) - one of the powerful tools of strategic management, which allows you to formalize the strategic goals of the company and further decompose them to the level of operations and core business processes. The following groups of indicators are usually distinguished as key levels of decomposition:

Finance (financial indicators)
Customers and Products (sales figures)
Business processes (process performance indicators)
Personnel (indicators of personnel training and development)

Control at all levels Balanced Scorecard (BSC) carried out through the so-called Key Performance Indicator (KPI)— Key performance indicators.

The relationship of all KPIs in groups is shown in "BSC Strategic Map".

It should be noted that in this case KPI are indicators of the achievement of strategic goals, as well as characteristics of the effectiveness of business processes, and not the work of each individual employee.

In the context of employees KPI used in managerial models of tactical management, for example, in the concept "Management by Goals", from which, as a rule, follows "Personnel motivation system" based on the achievement of personal KPIs.

Schematically, all this can be connected like this:

Relationship diagram BSC -> MBO -> KPI -> Business processes*
(Strategy -> Goals -> Plan/Fact -> Actions*)

But this is all theory...

In practice, the calculation of KPI comes down to the following mathematical logic:

Composition of KPI

KPI consists of:

KPI plan (planned KPI value to be achieved)
KPI fact (the actual KPI value that was achieved)

Types of KPIs

KPIs are:

Absolute (numeric)
Relative (percentages/ratios)

KPI calculation

KPI calculation formula:

Fact KPI/Plan KPI = KPI Fulfillment (Fact/Plan = if the result is more than the plan - good)
KPI Plan / Fact KPI = KPI Fulfillment (Plan / Fact = if the result is more than the plan - bad)

Examples of KPIs

I will give a number of examples of key performance indicators in the areas of analytics, which are provided by default in our turnkey business intelligence (BI) solutions .

Absolute KPIs (numeric)

Sales KPIs:

Sales volume in rubles
Sales volume in units of measure
Average sales price
Mark-up in rubles
Margin in rubles
Discount in rubles
Number of customers in sales
Number of brands in sales
Number of items on sale
Number of factories in sales
Number of vendors in sales
Number of sales orders

Purchasing KPIs:

Volume of purchases in rubles
Volume of purchases in units of measure
Average purchase price
Number of brands in purchases
Number of items in purchases
Number of factories in procurement
Number of suppliers in procurement
Number of orders in purchases

Inventory KPIs:

KPI for accounts receivable:

As a rule, absolute KPIs are not used.

Creditor KPI:

As a rule, absolute KPIs are not used.

Payment KPIs:

As a rule, absolute KPIs are not used.

Relative KPIs (percentages/ratios)

Sales KPIs:

Growth in sales in rubles
Sales growth in units of measure
Percent markup
Percentage margin
Percentage discount

Purchasing KPIs:

Increase in purchases in rubles
Increase in purchases in units of measure

Inventory KPIs:

Remaining shelf life in percent

KPI for accounts receivable:

Percentage of overdue accounts receivable (PDZ/ODZ,%)

Creditor KPI:

Percentage of overdue accounts payable (PKZ / OKZ,%)

Payment KPIs:

Document payment percentage
Payment distribution percentage
Margin in percent on payments
Margin in percentage by documents

This was an example natural key performance indicators, which are located inside analytical modules (OLAP cubes) and have full detailing on all dimensions (reference books) of the OLAP cube analytics.

Also in practice there are artificial KPIs, the calculation of the KPI Plan and the KPI Fact is more complex and often involves only a certain amount of detail, for example, only for employees. Such KPIs, as a rule, are taken out in a separate module, which contains analytics only for KPIs.

In such a case, we have a ready-made level module Business Intelligence (BI), which is called "ANALYTICS KPI". This module allows you to automate the calculation of the Plan / Actual KPI of any complexity.

Any company is interested in improving the efficiency of business and work of staff. The achievement of these goals is largely facilitated by the introduction of quantitatively measurable and reliable indicators in the assessment - KPI (Key performance indicators).

The main advantage of a system built on the basis of key indicators is its versatility. It is also aimed at increasing the interest of staff in the results of the company's activities. When developing KPIs, the specifics of the organization's activities are taken into account. KPI can be used both to evaluate the work of the entire company, its individual departments, and specific employees. In addition, the KPI system allows you to compare homogeneous processes that occur in different conditions. It also makes it possible to compare performance across multiple departments over the same period.

The main advantage of KPI systems is that the decision-making process is reduced to the analysis of data that is available at any time and presented in a pre-approved format.

Calculations and application of KPI

It is most effective to apply KPI in large retail companies that have an extensive network. In this business, each outlet generates the same business processes. This makes it possible for the top management of the head office, through the development of simple indicators, to see differences in the work of branches and predict difficulties. Moreover, on the basis of these indicators it is quite possible to build a system of staff motivation. In addition, constantly comparing and analyzing the results of each of the divisions, with a high degree of probability, it is possible to predict the development trends of the business as a whole.

Simplicity of calculations of financial indicators is ensured by a transparent form of presentation of financial or management reporting. All the necessary data is contained in the balance sheet and income statement. Management can obtain information for any period as quickly as the accounting system in use allows. In practice, this time ranges from three to five days to 20. Such a period is quite acceptable in order to timely implement managerial influence.

The development and comparison of indicators should be carried out by an internal business analyst, due to the need to provide accurate data. He should clearly present all the pros and cons of each of them. After all, indicators that are applicable to evaluate a top manager and a business as a whole often cannot be used to evaluate any department. This is due to the specifics of the work of each structural unit. For example, to evaluate the head of the responsibility center, the indicator of profit remaining at the disposal of the organization before taxes and interest (EBIT - earnings before interest and tax) is suitable. However, this indicator is completely inapplicable for evaluating the work of the account manager. The fact is that EBIT is a purely financial indicator. It characterizes the efficiency of doing business, that is, it directly depends on the income and expenses of the company. The account manager does not directly influence these figures. Another, non-financial indicator should serve as an assessment of his work. For example, the number of customer claims resolved, or the percentage of that number to the total number of claims.

Basic requirements for KPI

The value of a scorecard is not in monitoring data on a “count-compare-forget” basis. The main thing is that it allows you to identify patterns in the development of a business as a whole or individual business processes. In addition, KPIs are used in short-term and long-term budgeting. After all, the budget in its essence is a set of financial indicators that lead the company to the fulfillment of predetermined strategic and tactical goals. Moreover, usually the main one is making a profit, the same EBIT, in accordance with which the work of a top manager is evaluated. This is the relationship between the KPI system and budgeting. But the system of key indicators is not limited to the binding function of budget support. In addition, KPIs perform other functions, for example:

allow you to evaluate the work of each employee or group;
contribute to motivating staff for results;
increase the responsibility of each employee for his area of work;
provide an opportunity to develop and improve the most promising areas of business;
provide a basis for management to find "weak" places in business
in an accessible and visual form show the impact of a particular process on the result;
give meaning to every management decision.

When developing a KPI system, certain requirements that apply to each of the coefficients should be taken into account:

Each coefficient must be clearly defined, then any user can measure it. Including the employee whose results are evaluated by this indicator. For example, the organization of the simplest accounting at the workplace of an account manager contributes to the fact that he can easily calculate "his" KPI using data that is always at hand.

Approved indicators and standards must be achievable. The goal should be realistic, but at the same time be an incentive.

Each of the indicators should be the responsibility of those people who are being evaluated.

Indicators should contribute to the motivation and growth of staff efficiency, and this is directly related to setting goals. So, when the sales department fulfills the plan to attract new customers (KPI - the number of new customers attracted over the period), the department can count on an additional bonus. If the plan is not fulfilled, on the contrary, the bonus is not paid.

The indicators should also be comparable, that is, the same indicators can be compared in two similar situations. For example, the average check (KPI - the ratio of average daily revenue to the number of checks per day) cannot be compared in a store located in a regional-scale city and a store of the same format, but located in the outback.

The dynamics of the coefficient change should be able to be presented visually (graphically) so that conclusions and decisions can be made based on the results.

And, finally, each indicator should carry meaning and be the basis for analysis. At first glance, the principle is banal, but it is fundamental. For example, let's take such a KPI as the ratio of the amount of expenses for the maintenance of the administrative apparatus to the total mass of profit. Formally, oddly enough, such an indicator satisfies all of the above characteristics: it can be quantitatively measured, can be normalized, presented graphically, shows dynamics, and so on. But let's think for a second, what is its meaning and what does such a coefficient show? Of course, this example in a grotesque form shows the operation of the principle of conformity of form to content. However, in practice, when developing KPIs, such incidents can occur. Particular attention should be paid to the introduction of new indicators, involving experts in the analysis process. They can be managers, as well as the most trained specialists in the financial and commercial structures of enterprises.

Examples of using indicators

In addition to generally accepted indicators (usually financial ones), each company will also have to develop its own. This is due to the fact that there are different specifics of the business and different goals that the owner determines. So, a growing business can be valued by the already mentioned EBIT ratio. But a company that has already passed the period of its formation can be assessed by the level of gross profit (Gross profit) or, alternatively, by the level of profitability (Gross Margin). At the same time, of course, other “related” components of the activity are also analyzed: administrative, general, marketing expenses, etc.

In conclusion, it makes sense to give a few of the most common KPIs (see table). They can be used to evaluate a particular manager or department. By filling out a similar table for each of the indicators being developed, a manager of any level will be able to find an answer to the question of what he wants to improve in his work or how to use existing resources more efficiently.

Examples of performance measures

Indicator	What does	Who is assessed	Possible frequency of calculation	What can be used for
EBIT, profit remaining after taxes, interest and dividends	Profit remaining after taxes, which is affected by the levels of income, expenses, investments (depreciation)	CEO, directors of branches responsible for the revenue and expenditure side of their budget		Calculation of bonuses, self-financing reserve, obtaining loans, evaluating the return on investment, etc.
Gross Margin , profitability level (usually as a percentage)	The ratio of gross profit to revenue (total sales)	Heads of departments, business lines developing a product or service	Annually, monthly, and also up to the product or technologically completed process	To assess the prospects for product development, the impact of demand for a product or service, the impact of competition
Turnover ratio, frame rotation	The ratio of the total number of dismissed for the period to the average number of employees for the same period	HR Director, heads of structural divisions of the company with a separate staffing table	monthly, quarterly annually	To assess the impact of staff turnover on business results, predict the periods of the most active search for personnel, determine the loyalty of each category of employees, to identify hidden savings reserves, evaluate the effectiveness of the personnel apparatus
Average sales	Sales volume (in pieces, monetary units) that each seller brings	Sales department, sales manager	Daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, yearly	Planning the revenue side of the subdivision budget, measuring the performance of each person or department and, as a result, distributing the bonus fund, identifying seasonality
The ratio of the periods of turnover of receivables and payables (as well as each of the periods separately)	The ratio of the average payment period for buyers to the average payment period for suppliers	Customer service department, financial department, commercial department, sales department	Monthly, quarterly, yearly	Planning cash flows and cash gaps, obtaining loans, calculating deferrals of payments under contracts, setting discounts for early payment, identifying internal sources of financing

Motivation of employees based on the results of work

With the help of key indicators, you can evaluate the effectiveness of each employee - from the cleaner to the top manager - and calculate their bonus accordingly. This contributes to the development of motivation among employees, because they understand that the size of the bonus depends on their efforts. However, when implementing KPIs, or rather, when determining key performance indicators, you may encounter some difficulties. It is not easy to single out the parameter of success "in its purest form", and the higher the position of an employee, the more difficult it is to separate the factors that depend only on him. Then, each parameter must be valued in terms of money.

19. Formal and informal groups in organizations.

In any organization there are groups - formal and informal.

Formal groups are groups that arise at the initiative of the administration and are included by a certain unit in the organizational structures and staffing of the enterprise. There are different types of formal groups:

Group of managers (team) - consists of the head of the enterprise (its division) and immediate deputies and assistants to the head

Functional group - combines the head and specialists of a functional unit (department, bureau, service) who implement a common management function and have close professional goals and interests.

Production group - includes a leader and workers engaged in performing a certain type of work at the lower level of management (link, team, site) Group members working together on one task, the incentive is the end result, and the differences between them are related to the distribution of types of work between members of the group, depending on the qualifications of the employees.

a committee is a group within an enterprise that is delegated authority by senior management to carry out any project or task. The main difference between a committee and other formal structures is group decision-making, which is sometimes the most effective means of solving complex problems and achieving goals.

Informal groups are freely formed small social groups of people who enter into constant interaction to achieve personal goals.

Informal groups are not created by management through orders and formal decisions, but by members of the organization, depending on their mutual sympathies, common interests, identical attachments, etc. These groups exist in all organizations, although they are not reflected in structural diagrams.

Informal groups have their own unwritten rules and norms of behavior; people know well who is in their informal group and who is not. In informal groups, a certain distribution of roles and positions is formed; these groups have an explicitly or implicitly defined leader.

Informal groups usually form spontaneously within formal groups with which they have much in common, namely:

Have a certain organization - hierarchy, leader and tasks;

Have certain unwritten rules - norms;

Have a certain process of education - stages;

Have certain varieties - types of informal groups according to the degree of maturity

The reasons for the formation of informal groups can be different: the desire to belong to a certain social group and have certain social contacts, the ability to receive help from colleagues in the team, the desire to know what is happening around, use informal communication channels, the desire to be closer to those who sympathize .

There are significant differences between formal and informal groups both in the purpose for which they are created and in the forms of influence of their leaders on other members of the group.

The main differences between formal and informal groups

classification	Characteristics
classification	Formal groups	informal groups
	Defined by the organization according to the place of the group in the formal structure	Satisfying social needs that are outside the interests of a formal organization (hobbies, friendship, love, etc.)
Conditions of occurrence	According to a pre-designed project for building an organization	Created spontaneously
	Appointed by the organization	Recognized by the group
Communications	Formal channels with other structural elements and within the group	Mostly informal channels both within and outside the group
Interaction between group members	Based on production tasks	Develop spontaneously
Forms of influence on group members	All forms, but dominated by economic and administrative nature	Mainly methods of personal psychological influence

There are informal groups in every organization and a serious aspect in the activities of a leader is the need to understand the importance of the existence of these groups and manage them.

One of the first scientists who began to pay attention to these issues was the group research theorist George Homans, who created a model that came to be called the Homans model.

The essence of this model lies in the fact that in the process of joint activity people enter into interactions, which in turn contribute to the manifestation of feelings - positive and negative emotions towards each other. These emotions affect how people will carry out their activities and lead to an increase or decrease in its effectiveness.

The optimal state of the team is when formal and informal groups coincide as much as possible. Such a coincidence of formal and informal structures ensures the cohesion of the team and increases the productivity of its work.

One of the most important tasks of the leader is the convergence of formal and informal structures, the positive orientation of informal groups and the fight against negative manifestations in the team.

A community that communicates regularly and constantly interacts with each other is called a group. There is no place on earth where this phenomenon does not exist. People everywhere create a certain plan of community, which can be divided into formal and informal groups. Within each such community there should be two or more people, and the influence of all of them on each other should be mutual.

Definition

A formal group is a small separate team created specifically by management and purposefully within a common team, which is aimed at organizing the production process. That is, it is an organization with certain functions, specific tasks and clearly defined goals. Unlike formal groups, informal groups arise spontaneously and have no status.

The organization itself and each of its divisions are also groups whose members have common values, attitudes, rules, standards of behavior. If employees value their organization, they behave appropriately. This means that a formal group is a community, held together by an understanding of a behavioral norm. The internal communications of each organization are also formed into groups - both formal, that is, created by the head and documented, and informal, which have developed spontaneously through interpersonal relations and are not officially designated anywhere.

Main differences

According to the criteria of difference, the following analysis can be carried out. A formal group is one that was created by an organization purely for its needs, its behavioral traits can be influenced by a certain position in the job description, and the influence itself extends only from top to bottom. The characteristics of the group are clearly defined by the use of official channels, even interpersonal relationships are prescribed by the organization, and the leader is appointed by the will of the superiors.

Informal groups arise spontaneously, goals satisfy needs purely within the group, individuals influence each other, and not from top to bottom, but more often vice versa. Characteristics are unstable, variable, relationships arise spontaneously, the leader, if he appears, is only by the will of the group itself. That is, formal and informal groups differ from each other in almost all respects.

Types

Before determining the type of group, it is necessary to find out on what foundation this community is built: friendly relations or production. In any case, the basis for the creation of any group is the organization. A formal group can belong to one of three types:

Leadership group: the main leader and his closest subordinates, also leaders. For example, the president and vice presidents.
Working group (or production or target group): people who perform the same task, planning it independently rather than collectively.
Committee or public organization: an intra-organizational group that makes decisions by a general meeting, since it was created to coordinate the actions of various departments. There are committees that work on a permanent basis and are created to perform a specific task, that is, temporary

Interaction

A formal organization created by the will of the authorities is also for all kinds of interaction between people, and not always in accordance with the instructions of the leadership. Such social relationships sometimes give rise to numerous friendly groups within the general one, but on the whole they represent one organization. Formal and informal social groups also have their similarities and differences.

Each person in the community necessarily influences others and, in the process of communication, is influenced, both positively and negatively. This is how the personality traits of each member of the group and the behavioral norms within this community are formed. An individual can influence the entire group as much as he wants, it depends on the authority, which is determined by both the informal part of the team and the official one.

Purposes of creation

A community formed within an organization is people interacting spontaneously for certain common goals, and a community created for production is based on a well-thought-out plan. However, formal and informal groups in an organization are similar in many ways. And there, and there can be tasks, leaders appear and a hierarchy can be built.

The difference is that informal groups are an unintended reaction to some individual needs that are not satisfied by the organization, while formal ones are created according to a certain plan.

The purpose of the formal group is also clear and understandable: people join it for the sake of professional interest, prestige or income. The reason for the emergence of an informal group is usually more "spiritual": it is close communication and interest, common interests, mutual protection, mutual assistance, and so on.

Reasons for joining

First of all, the reason for joining formal and informal groups is the social need to belong to it. This is how self-knowledge, self-affirmation, self-determination is acquired, needs are activated, and an environment for their satisfaction is created. In second place is the reason for seeking trust and mutual assistance. In case of any difficulties, people turn to colleagues rather than to managers. With such relationships, group interaction appears. The goal of a formal group is a healthy, efficient team, and therefore the creation of informal groups is usually monitored by the leader, and if necessary, relations in them are regulated.

To protect personal or group interests, for example, harmful conditions, problems with wages, and so on, they also most often turn to the group. in a formal group, they usually contribute to the cohesion of the team. Often the basis of communication in groups is a common interest, the same hobbies, shared spiritual values, as well as obtaining information of various kinds, not necessarily only industrial. And, of course, a huge role in the creation of the group is played by friendly communication, mutual sympathy. So people can avoid loneliness, feelings of uselessness, loss, and also receive moral help in cases of personal dramas.

Characteristics

In informal organizations there is always over all members of the group. First of all, it is the strengthening of behavioral norms. If changes in the team threaten a peaceful existence, that is, common interests, positive emotions or common communication experience suffer, then the informal group will actively resist all formal formations of the organization.

Any formal group structure and any unstructured informal group can have a leader. The formal leader will have official powers, while the informal leader will have authority in the team. In the case of a struggle of priorities, it is difficult to predict the winner, since the stake on people and the presence of good relationships is almost more expensive than any official status. Smart leaders understand this and direct the energy of the informal group in the right direction, usually production.

Informal group management

All group formations within the team necessarily interact, and dynamically. The general emotional mood greatly affects both the interaction and the fulfillment of the tasks facing the team. The effectiveness of a formal group depends entirely on the mood of informal groups. Therefore, their rapprochement is the main goal of any leader, so negative manifestations in the relations of team members to each other will disappear, "informals" will be positively oriented, they will easily fit into the social production space.

The cohesion of the team is the result of the coincidence of the interests of formal and informal groups, it is in such conditions that labor productivity is highest. On the contrary, if interests, rules and norms do not coincide, even an authoritative leader will find himself in a difficult position, the struggle between the structures of the team always hinders the growth of productivity. Informal relations can help here, for this purpose personnel management techniques are created.

Formation mechanisms

If formal groups are created according to plan, then informal ones always organize themselves. Sometimes it also happens that an informal group receives the status of an amateur collective or public organization. In each team there are contacting formal and informal groups, and the interaction has both positive and negative aspects. A smart leader will always be able to dispose of informal groups competently so that they help achieve the goals set by the company.

The problems associated with the emergence of informal groups in the team most often relate to the spread of false rumors, resistance to change, and a decrease in labor efficiency. But the benefits are much more interesting: this is the appearance of devotion to this enterprise, the spirit of collectivism. Performance increases significantly if they begin to exceed the officially established ones. Negative manifestations must certainly be fought by listening to the opinions of informal leaders, dispelling rumors with official full information, and positive beginnings must be supported by allowing members of informal groups to participate in decision-making.

Small formal group

This is too flexible a phenomenon to have a standard definition. But formal small groups, of course, have characteristic features. A separate association of people, which is a small group, is characterized by frequent interaction with each other, the mandatory definition of oneself as members of one group, the division of almost all interests as common. All members of a small group take part in the distribution of roles, they identify themselves in the same objects and ideals. A small group cooperates with all its members in interdependence in order to experience the most complete unity. Regarding the environment, the small group coordinates its actions.

In a small formal group, the number of members rarely reaches ten people, which helps to coordinate joint actions for quite a long time. These groups are incredibly resilient. They will not only do the work for which they have united, but they will also receive a result, coupled with a reward. In addition to performing a certain task, it is positive here that an environment arises for self-affirmation and self-knowledge, which is a completely objective need of any person.