Psychology of feelings 

Photonic devices for optical signal processing. Application of photonics in neurosurgery. What are they

Optics is one of the oldest and most respected sciences that studies the creation, distribution and registration of light.

Modern stage of development of optics

In the scientific world, it is believed that three major discoveries of recent years have largely updated optics as a science and contributed to the strengthening of its role in the development of modern technologies:

  1. the invention of the laser;
  2. creating an optical fiber that has low losses;
  3. construction of semiconductor lasers.

These inventions gave birth to new scientific disciplines, such as:

  • electro-optics;
  • optoelectronics;
  • quantum electronics;
  • quantum optics and others.

The term "electro-optics" is used to designate a branch of science that considers the principles of operation, phenomena and design features of optical devices in which electrical effects play the most significant role. These optical devices include, for example:

  • lasers;
  • electro-optical modulators;
  • switches.

Optoelectronics considers devices and systems connected in one way or another with light, in which the electronic nature is essential. Examples of such devices are:

  • LEDs;
  • liquid crystal displays;
  • matrix photodetectors.

The section of quantum electronics is devoted to devices and structures, the basis of which is the interaction of a light wave with matter. Quantum electronics devices include lasers and nonlinear optical devices that are used to amplify and shift waves.

Quantum optics is devoted mainly to the quantum and coherent properties of light.

The term "optical technology" is now used to describe devices and systems that are used in optical communications and optical information processing.

Photonics as a follower of optics

The term photonics reflects the connection between optics and electronics. This relationship is reinforced by the growing role of semiconductor materials and devices in optical systems.

In this regard, electronics investigates the processes of controlling the flow of electric charges in vacuum and matter, while photonics is responsible for controlling photons in free space or a material medium. The subject fields of both scientific sections overlap, since electrons are able to control the flow of photons, and photons can control the flow of electrons.

The name "photonics" indicates the importance of understanding the particle nature of light in describing the principles of operation of many devices in optics.

Photonics studies the following processes and phenomena:

  • The processes of generating coherent light using lasers and incoherent light using luminescent sources, such as LEDs.
  • Transmission of light in free space, through the "classical" elements of optics (lenses, diaphragms and imaging systems) and waveguides (for example, optical fibers).
  • Modulation, switching and scanning of light are used with devices controlled by electricity, acoustically or optically.
  • Amplification and frequency conversion of a light wave during the interaction of a wave with nonlinear materials.
  • Light detection.

The results of photonics research find applications in optical communications, signal processing, sensing, information display, printing, and power transmission.

    Four theories of light, each of these theories is more general than the previous one:

    • beam optics;
    • wave optics;
    • electromagnetic optics;
    • photon optics.

  1. The theory of interaction with matter.

    Theory of semiconductors and their optical properties.

Beam optics in photonics is used to describe imaging systems, explaining why it is limited when considering processes in waveguides and resonators.

Scalar wave theory is used by photonics in considering optical beams, it is necessary for understanding processes in lasers and Fourier optics and is useful in describing coherent optical systems and holography.

The electromagnetic theory of light is the basis for considering the polarization and dispersion of light, guided wave optics, fibers and resonators.

Photon optics describes the interaction of light and matter. It explains the processes of generation and registration of light, the displacement of light in non-linear media.

Remark 1

Photonics deals with the design and use of optical, electro-optical and optoelectric devices.

Photonics as a science

Remark 2

Photonics is a science that explores the fundamentals and application of optical signals as photon streams in various devices and systems.

Photonics can be defined as the science of creating, controlling and detecting photons in the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum, propagating them in the ultraviolet part, the infrared part with long wavelengths. Quantum cascade lasers are currently being created in these areas.

The history of photonics as a science has been counted since 1960 (then the laser was invented). Photonics was formed on the basis of many sciences (in addition to optics), for example:

  • solid state physics;
  • materials science;
  • informatics;
  • semiconductor physics, etc.

Remark 3

The term “photonics” itself first appeared in the work of A.N. Terenin "Photonics of dye molecules". In 1970, photonics began to be defined as a science that considers processes and phenomena in which photons serve as information carriers.

The scientific interests of photonics are wide. If in the past she considered issues related mainly to telecommunications, now her areas of interest include:

  • lasers;
  • technologies in the field of semiconductors;
  • research in biology and chemistry;
  • environmental issues;
  • nanoobjects;
  • informatics, etc.

Being engaged in the creation, control and regulation of optical signals, the results of photonics research are widely used: from the transmission of information using optical fiber to the design of sensor devices that modulate light signals that occur when the environmental parameters change.

Sales of civilian photonics products manufactured in Russia, billion rubles in year

Sales volume of civil photonics products produced in the Russian Federation (for the domestic market/for export) (billion rubles per year)

Order of the Government of the Russian Federation dated July 24, 2013 No. 1305-r the Action Plan ("road map") "Development of optoelectronic technologies (photonics)" was approved

Order of the Ministry of Industry and Trade of Russia dated October 27, 2016 No. 3385 changes were made to the composition of the working group on photonics to coordinate activities for the development of the industry within the framework of state programs, innovative development programs of state corporations. companies with state participation and programs of the technological platform "Photonics", approved by order of the Ministry of Industry and Trade of Russia dated November 29, 2013 No. 1911

The Republic of Mordovia On February 18, 2008, the joint-stock company "Optic fiber Systems" (hereinafter referred to as JSC OVS) was registered. The company's investors are OJSC RUSNANO, LLC GPB - High Technologies, Republic of Mordovia.

The main goal of JSC OVS is the implementation of a project to create the first plant in Russia for the production of optical fiber. The construction and launch of the plant is being carried out by JSC OVS in partnership with Rosendahl Nextrom (Finland). Rosendahl Nextrom supplies equipment for the project and transfers production technology, including patents and know-how, as well as training and training of personnel.
The project provides for the industrial production of telecommunications and technical optical fibers, the introduction of the latest achievements in the creation of nanostructures in optical fibers and the use of nanotechnologies to improve the properties of the fiber. Optical fiber is a key raw material for the production of fiber optic communication cables used in the construction of fixed optical communication networks.
JSC OBC plant has in its current configuration the production capacity of 2.4 million km of optical fiber per year, which will provide 40-50% of the demand of Russian cable factories in optical fiber and 100% satisfy the need of domestic cable factories in optical fiber for production purposes cable products sold through the public procurement system. It is possible to scale production up to 4.5 million km per year (70-100% of the current market volume) at the same production site through the modernization of process equipment.
The organization of serial production of optical fibers will not only provide 14 Russian factories for the production of optical cables with domestic raw materials, but also organize the export of fibers to the CIS countries and far abroad.
On September 25, 2015, the opening of the plant took place. The launch ceremony was attended by Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation Arkady Dvorkovich, Head of the Republic of Mordovia Vladimir Volkov and Chairman of the Board of RUSNANO Anatoly Chubais.
Until October 2016, the plant carried out fiber optic testing and certification, including with PJSC Rostelecom, which confirmed the quality of domestic fiber. On October 15, 2016, the industrial production of JSC OVS products began.

Kaluga region. In Obninsk, within the framework of the international (Russia-Germany) project, a regional laser innovation and technology center was created - a center for collective use (Kaluga LITC-CCU). The mission of the Center is to promote the promotion of laser technologies and equipment in the industry of the region. To do this, the Center carries out consulting activities, demonstrations of modern laser equipment, and conducts training and training of personnel. The Kaluga LITC-CCU is part of the innovation structure of the region and enjoys the support of the regional government in the form of subsidies, as well as invitations to participate in marketing campaigns in the form of business missions.

Perm region. The project "Creation of science-intensive production of photonic integrated circuits for navigation instrumentation" (JSC "Perm Research and Production Instrument-Making Company") with the support of the Government of the Perm Territory received a grant from the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia in the amount of 160 million rubles

Perm region. The project "Creation of the production of optical cable built into the ground wire" (LLC "Inkab") with the support of the Government of the Perm Territory is included by the Ministry of Industry and Trade of Russia in the list of priority complex investment projects that receive subsidies to compensate for interest paid on loans taken from Russian credit institutions, the estimated amount of the subsidy about 100 million rubles

Perm region. According to the results of the regional competition under the program of the Umnik Innovation Promotion Fund, young scientists of the Photonics cluster, organized by the regional representative office of the Fund with the support of the PC Government, received two grants in 2014 with a total amount 800 thousand rubles:

  • “Development of an onboard fiber-optic measurement and communication system.
  • “Development of an integrated optical gyroscope based on the effect of the “whispering gallery mode”;

Samara Region. The development of the most important fundamental and applied research and development in the region is carried out in priority areas for the development of laser technologies:

  • fundamental research in the field of laser technologies: SF IRE RAS, Scientific and Educational Institute of Optics and Biophotonics SSU. N.G. Chernyshevsky, NPP Inzhekt LLC;
  • applied research in the field of laser technologies: Scientific and Educational Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, SSU N.G. Chernyshevsky, Federal State Unitary Enterprise NPP Almaz, Research and Production Company Pribor-T SGTU, CJSC Kantegir, JSC TsNIIIA, Scientific and Production Company Piezon, Research Institute of Sign Synthesizing Electronics Volga, LLC NPP Inzhekt, LLC Nanostructural technology of glass”, LLC “Erbiy” and others;
  • development of the material and technical base and infrastructure of laser technologies: NPP Inzhekt LLC, NPF Pribor-T SSTU, CJSC Kantegir;
  • training in the field of laser technologies: Scientific and Educational Institute of Optics and Biophotonics, SSU N.G. Chernyshevsky, NPF "Pribor-T" SSTU and others.

I. Definition of radio photonics

Over the past decades, in the field of ultra-wideband transmission systems, we have been observing the process of replacing "electronic" systems with "photonic" ones. This is due primarily to the different physical nature of the photon. The absence of charge and mass endows it with properties impossible for an electron. As a result, photonic systems (compared to "electronic") are not subject to external electromagnetic fields, have a much greater transmission range and signal bandwidth.

These and many other advantages already realized on the basis of photonics in the field of telecommunications give the right to speak about the emergence of a new direction - radio photonics, which arose from the merger of radio electronics, integrated and wave optics, microwave optoelectronics and a number of other branches of science and industrial production.

In other words, under radio photonics (microwave photonics) we will understand, uniting a wide range of areas of science and technology, mainly related to the problems of transmitting, receiving and converting a signal using electromagnetic waves in the microwave range and photonic devices and systems.

II. Radiophotonics is easy!

  2. .
  3. Download the archive with the presentation and transcript of the report.

III. Fundamentals of radio photonics

  1. A new trend in photonics is microwave optoelectronics. M.E. Belkin, A.S. Sigov. // Radio engineering and electronics, volume 54, No. 8, pp. 901-914. 2009 // .
  2. Fundamentals of microwave photonics. Vincent Ju Urick Jr., Jason D. McKinney, Keith J. Williams. // Moscow. Technosphere. 2016 // .

IV. Photonic and radio photonic components, devices and systems

lasers

  1. Principles of lasers. 4th ed. O. Zvelto. // SPb. Doe. 2008 // .

Optoelectronic generators

  1. Optoelectronic generator - the first device of microwave optoelectronics. M.E. Belkin, A.V. Loparev. // Electronics: Science, Technology, Business No. 6. 2010 // .
  2. Tunable spin-wave optoelectronic microwave generator. A.B. Ustinov, A.A. Nikitin, B.A. Kalinikos. // All-Russian Conference "Electronics and Microelectronics Microwave". 2015 // .

Electro-optical modulators

  1. Electro-optical materials based on thin films of molecular crystals - advantages and prospects for use. I.Yu. Denisyuk, Yu.E. Burunkova, T.V. Smirnova. // Optical journal, v. 74, p. 63-69. 2007 // .
  2. Low-voltage electro-optical modulator based on DAST molecular thin-film crystals. I.Yu. Denisyuk, Yu.E. Burunkov. // CriMiCo. 2007 // .
  3. Integral electro-optical Mach-Zehnder modulators and other passive component base of radio photonics. A.A. Belousov, Yu.N. Volkhin, A.V. Gamilovskaya, A.A. Dubrovskaya, T.V. Smirnova. // Russian scientific and practical conference "Development and production of domestic electronic component base" ("Component-2014"). 2014 // Download the archive with the presentation and transcript of the report.
  4. Electro-optical modulator according to the scheme of the Mach-Zehnder interferometer. V.M. Afanasiev. // Applied photonics. T3. No. 4. 2016 // .

Radiophotonic ADCs and analog processors

  1. Analog-to-Digital Converter Survey and Analysis. Robert H. Walden. // IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 17, no. 4, April. 1999 // .
  2. Prospects for the implementation of ADC using methods of microwave photonics. Yu.N. Volkhin.// Scientific seminar "Modern problems of radiophysics and radio engineering" 29.01.2011. 2015 // Download the archive with the presentation and the transcript of the report.
  3. Overview of possible ways to implement radiophotonic ADCs. E.V. Tikhonov, Yu.N. Volkhin.// V All-Russian scientific and technical conference "Exchange of experience in the field of creating ultra-wideband radio-electronic systems" (SHF-2014). 2014 // .
  4. Review and study of possible options for the implementation of ultra-wideband analog processors in the microwave range using methods and means of radio photonics. A.V. Gamilovskaya, A.A. Belousov, E.V. Tikhonov, A.A. Dubrovskaya, Yu.N. Volkhin.// Electronic equipment. Series 2: Semiconductors. No. 5 (239). pp. 4-11. 2015 // .

Radar. AFAR

  1. Towards the implementation of radio photonics technologies in AFAR radar systems. M.B. Mityashev. // Bulletin of SibGUTI. No. 2. 2015 // .
  2. The concept of building a radar station based on elements of radio photonics. A.V. Shumov, S.I. Nefedov, A.R. Bikmetov. // Science and education. MSTU im. N.E. Bauman. Electron. magazine No. 05, pp. 41–65. 2016 // .
  3. On the prospects for the use of methods and means of microwave photonics in ultra-wideband radar and ultra-wideband radio communications. Yu.N. Volkhin, A.M. Mandrik, Yu.I. Nosov. // Scientific seminar "Modern problems of radiophysics and radio engineering". November 27, 2010 // Download the archive with the presentation and the transcript of the report.

Radio photonic paths and analog FOCL microwave

  1. Analog FOCL microwave with positive transmission coefficients. Yu.N. Volkhin, T.A. Gomzikova. // IV All-Russian scientific and technical conference "Exchange of experience in the field of creation of ultra-wideband radio-electronic systems" (SHF-2012). 2012 // Download the archive with the presentation and the transcript of the report.
  2. On the possibility of implementing ultra-wideband analog radio-photonic paths of the microwave range with positive transmission coefficients. Yu.N. Volkhin, A.V. Gamilovskaya. // XVIII coordinating scientific and technical seminar on microwave technology: materials. Nizhny Novgorod region, p. Khakhaly. 2013 // .
  3. Analog FOCL microwave with positive transmission coefficients. Yu.N. Volkhin, A.V. Gamilovskaya. // XXXX Scientific seminar "Modern problems of radiophysics and radio engineering" 27.04.2013 // Download the archive with the presentation and the transcript of the report.
  4. Ultra-wideband multifunctional radio-photonic receiving path for analog signal processing of decimeter, centimeter and millimeter wavelength ranges. A.A. Belousov, Yu.N. Volkhin, A.V. Gamilovskaya, A.A. Dubrovskaya, E.V. Tikhono. // All-Russian Conference "Electronics and Microelectronics Microwave" 2015 // .
  5. Radio photon receiving channel of the microwave range with optical heterodyning. S.F. Boev, V.V. Valuev, V.V. Kulagin, V.A. Cherepenin. // Journal of Radioelectronics No. 2, 2015 // .

Fiber gratings

  1. Fiber gratings of the refractive index and their application. S.A. Vasiliev, O.I. Medvedkov, A.S. Bozhkov. // Quantum Electronics, 35, no. 12. 2005 // .

delay lines

  1. Fiber optic delay lines. V.A. Kuznetsov, V.N. Tsukanov, M.Ya. Yakovlev. // ??????????. ???? G. // .

Optical waveguides

  1. Planar and fiber optical waveguides. HG Unger. // Moscow. PEACE. 1980 // .
  2. Special fiber light guides. Tutorial. D.B. Shumkov. // Permian. PNRPU. 2011 // .
  3. Theory of optical waveguides. A. Snyder, J. Love. // Moscow. Radio and communication. 1987 // .
  4. Introduction to the theory of optical waveguides. M. Adams. // Moscow. PEACE. 1984 // .
  5. Waveguide photonics. Tutorial. N.V. Nikonorov, S.M. Shandarov. // St. Petersburg. ITMO. 2008 // .
  6. Waveguide transmission lines. I.E. Efimov, G.A. Shermina. // Moscow. Connection. 1979 // .
  7. Optical solitons. From light guides to photonic crystals. Yu.S. Kivshar, G.P. Agrawal. // Moscow. FizMatLit. 2005 // .

V. Modeling and calculation of parameters of photon and radio-photon systems.

Modeling. Numerical methods. CAD.

  1. Computational photonics. E.D. Ka. // ??????????, ???? G. // .
  2. Numerical simulation of an electro-optical modulator based on a Fabry-Perot microresonator for a microwave optical receiver. A.K. Aharonyan, O.V. Bagdasaryan, T.M. Knyazyan. // Izv. NAS RA and SEUA. Ser. TN., vol. LXIV, No. 3. 2011 // .

VI. Measurement of parameters of photonic and radio photonic systems

Measurements. Metrology

  1. Measurement methods in fiber optics. Tutorial. A.I. Tsaplin, M.E. Likhachev. // Permian. PNRPU. 2011 // .
  2. Reflectometry of optical fibers. A.V. Listvin, V.N. Listvin. // Moscow. LESARart. 2005 // .

VII. Fundamentals of photonics, optoelectronics, fiber and integrated optics, fiber technology, digital fiber-optic communication and transmission lines (FOCL, FOCL)

Photonics and nanophotonics

  1. Nanophotonics and its applications. D.F. Zaitsev. // Moscow. Actaeon. 2011 // .
  2. Elements of photonics. Volume I. In Free Space and Special Media. Keigo Iizuka. // John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2002 // .
  3. Fundamentals of photonics. Bahaa E.A. Saleh, Malvin carl Teichh. // John Wiley & Sons Inc. 1991 // .

Optoelectronics

  1. Optoelectronics. E.D. Karikh. // Minsk. BGU. 2002 // .
  2. Optoelectronics in questions and answers. S. Gonda, D. Seco. // Leningrad. Energoatomizdat. 1989 // .

Fiber and integrated optics

  1. Fiber optics: forty years later. EAT. Dianov. // Quantum Electronics, 40, No. 1. 2010 // .
  2. Introduction to fiber optic system. second editon. John Powers. // McGraw - Hill. 1996 // .
  3. Nonlinear fiber optics. G. Agrawal. // Moscow. PEACE. 1996 // .
  4. Fiber Optics Technical Guide. 2nd edition. Donald J. Sterling. 1998 // Moscow. Lori. 1998 // .
  5. Materials and technologies of integrated and fiber optics. Tutorial. A.I. Ignatiev, S.S. Kiselev, N.V. Nikanorov, A.I. Sidorov, A.S. Rohman. //
  6. Materials and technologies of integrated optics. Tutorial. N.V. Nikanorov, A.I. Sidorov. // St. Petersburg. ITMO. 2009 // .
  7. Optics and Lasers, including fiber optics and optical waveguides. Matt Young. // Moscow. PEACE. 2005 // .

Fiber technology and digital fiber-optic communication and transmission lines (FOCL, FOCL)

  1. Fiber-optic technology: current state and prospects. 2nd edition. Ed. S.A. Dmitrieva, N.N. Slepova. // Moscow. Fiber-optic technology. 2005 // .
  2. Fiber-optic technology. Practical guide. V.N. Tsukanov, M.Ya. Yakovlev. // Moscow. Infra engineering. 2014 // .

VIII. Fundamentals of electronics and semiconductor circuitry

  1. Pocket guide to electronics. M. Tooley. // Moscow. Energoatomizdat. 1993 // .
  2. The art of circuitry. 4th ed. P. Horowitz, W. Hill. // Moscow. PEACE. 1993 // .
  3. Semiconductor circuitry. 12th ed. W. Tietze, K. Schenk. // Moscow. DMK. 2008 // .

The international industrial exhibition "Innoprom-2015" was held in Yekaterinburg. This year, plenary sessions and meetings, international conferences and expert panels covered a wide range of topics and issues. Dozens of specific agreements and major contracts have resulted from this communication.

The future belongs to photonics. One of the most productive was the discussion at the round table "Photonics - the driving force behind the innovative development of industry", which discussed the development of photonics in Russia, the prospects for its application in science and industry. The partners of the event were industry leaders: Shvabe, Laser Center and Skolkovo. The term "photonics", formed by analogy with the word "electronics", appeared not so long ago, 5-7 years ago. Russia occupies a priority place in the world in photonics. Outstanding scientists of our country stood at the origins of this direction: Academicians Nikolai Basov, Alexander Prokhorov, Nikolai Vavilov. The leading position in the photonics market is now occupied by the school of Valentin Pavlovich Gapontsev. IPG Photonics, which he heads, makes 40 percent of the world's fiber lasers.

“In Russia, we have hundreds of enterprises and organizations involved in photonics. They conduct scientific research and publish scientific articles, produce products that can be ordered and bought, and train specialized personnel,” says Ivan Kovsh, President of the Laser Association of Russia. - This includes academic and branch institutes, universities, enterprises, design bureaus, but in general our area is small enterprises. About 350 small enterprises produce 70 percent of all civilian photonics in Russia, about two thousand models are optical elements, some kind of radiation sources and other types of products.”

One of the essential tasks for the industry is not only the creation, but also the promotion of technology into practice, and a very powerful tool for this is the regional industry centers of competence. Now they are used all over the world, and we also have such experience in our country. For example, five Russian-German centers have been established in Russia over the past ten years under the Russian-German agreement on scientific and technical cooperation in the field of lasers and optical technologies. The Germans supplied the latest equipment, the centers operate in five cities, they are small, 5-8 people each. For ten years, 1.5 thousand enterprises passed through them. And every third of them has become today a user of laser technologies in material processing.

What are the main trends in the global market today? The main one is the rapid increase in the number of photonics technologies and techniques that have a purely economic application. An increase in the production of photonics products in those areas where it is already actively used, which is associated both with the development of technologies and with the development of new materials and equipment. The main directions of development today are production technologies, since advanced countries have embarked on the path of reindustrialization and are actively demanding new technologies. How laser photonic technologies affect innovation can be judged by this example. Today, in microelectronics, the most important problem is the reduction of the element - the chip. The best size so far is 20 nanometers. It is impossible to do this without photonics. This process uses lithography, either shortwave or ion. So, $1 million spent on lithography allows you to produce $100 million worth of chips. These chips, which cannot be made otherwise than with lasers, can be used for $1.5 billion of final products: computers, digital cameras, telephones, and so on. Here are the prospects for the use of photonics: invested 1 million dollars - received 1.5 billion as a result!

Or, say, such a burning topic as “photonics and medicine”. Today, the world's population is rapidly aging, and many new diseases are emerging. Health issues come to the fore. For example, the United States spends 1 trillion 800 billion dollars a year on public health, Germany - 225 billion euros. These are huge numbers. According to Japanese experts, the introduction of photonics technologies in diagnostics and treatment alone reduces healthcare costs by 20 percent. That's about $400 billion a year.

Another aspect is lighting technology, more precisely, lighting with LEDs. 15 percent of the world's electricity production today is spent on lighting. This figure is likely to double in the next 20 years due to the rapid urbanization of Asia, which comes at an enormous cost and pollution, because the waste generated by energy generation is enormous. The only way out is to use LEDs with high efficiency. This will reduce power consumption by half. As you know, the creators of the LED were awarded the Nobel Prize.

Interestingly, in recent years there has been a sharp increase in the role of China in the development of photonics. He made this direction one of the priorities of the state policy in the field of science and technology. China is developing photonics at a rate of 25 percent per year, and 5,000 enterprises in this industry have been established in 15 years. And today the Chinese produce more photonics than the entire European Union. The United States, China and the European Union are very actively using state influence on the development of photonics.

Read the full version of the article in the new issue of the journal "Rare Earths".

Ministry of Communications of the Russian Federation

State educational institution of higher

vocational education

Volga State University of Telecommunications

cations and informatics»

Glushchenko A.G., Zhukov S.V.

_________________________________

Fundamentals of photonics. Lecture notes. - Samara.: GOUVPO

PGUTI, 2009. - 100 p.

Department of Physics

(Abstract of the discipline).

A.G. Glushchenko, S.V. Zhukov

LECTURE NOTES

FOR ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

Reviewer:

Petrov P.P. – Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department “………..

BASICS OF PHOTONICS

» GOUVPO PSUTI

In the direction of preparation: Photonics and optoinformatics ()

Samara - 2009

Name

section of the discipline

sources of continuous

heat sources, gas

and line spec-

discharge lamps, LED

odes, laser spark;

main types of lasers

(solid state, gas,

ionic, semiconductor

you, continuous and im-

sources of coge-

pulsed, with restructuring

X-ray radiation

radiation frequency and duration

impulses), ge-

harmonic generators, WRC and

SMBS converters,

spectral generators

supercontinuum;

photocathodes and photomultipliers, semi-

radiation receivers

conductor receivers,

photosensitive mats

ribs, microbolometers;

electro-optical and acu-

stooptic light

control devices

valves, liquid

characterization

crystalline and semi-

coherent sticks

conductor transpa-

beams:

welts, devices based on

ve photorefractive media,

Faraday isolators;

electron beam and,

liquid crystal

display devices

displays, laser projectors

information:

systems, holo-

graphic displays, si-

volume formation systems

Name

section of the discipline

a little image;

principles of creating micro-

electromechanical

microelectromecha-

devices and photolithography

fia, optical micro

nic devices

electromechanical elements

cops, application of micro

electromechanical

devices;

fiber components

control devices

optical lines, module -

tori, multiplexers and

leniya light in op-

demultiplexers, isolation

tic hair

tori, connectors,

horse light guides:

focusing drivers

elements;

planar dielectric

control devices

waveguides, non-linear

transducers

leniya light in in-

readings, channel wave-

integral optics:

dy, input-output elements

radiation;

optical circuits, opti-

control devices

chesky transistor, micro-

shining light on

chip, optical limits

based on photonic

readers, photon-

crystals:

crystalline fibers

Introduction

Photonics is a science that studies different forms of radiation that are created by particles of light, that is, photons.

Definitions of the term

Interestingly, there is no generally accepted definition of the term "Photonics".

Photonics is the science of generation, control and detection of photons, especially in the visible and near infrared spectrum, as well as their propagation in the ultraviolet (wavelength 10-380 nm), long-wave infrared (wavelength 15-150 microns) and ultra-infrared part of the spectrum (for example, 2-4 THz corresponds to a wavelength of 75-150 μm), where quantum cascade lasers are actively developing today.

Photonics can also be characterized as a field of physics and technology related to the emission, detection, behavior, consequences of the existence and destruction of photons. This means that photonics deals with the control and transformation of optical signals and has a wide field of application: from transmitting information through optical fibers to creating new sensors that modulate light signals in accordance with the slightest changes in the environment.

Some sources note that the term "optics" is gradually being replaced by a new generalized name - "photonics".

Photonics covers a wide range of optical, electro-optical and optoelectronic devices and their varied applications. Primary areas of research in photonics include fiber and integrated optics, including nonlinear optics, physics and technology of semiconductor compounds, semiconductor lasers, optoelectronic devices, high-speed electronic devices.

Interdisciplinary directions

Due to the high global scientific and technical activity and the huge demand for new results

Within photonics, new and new interdisciplinary areas are emerging:

Microwave photonics studies the interaction between an optical signal and a high frequency (greater than 1 GHz) electrical signal. This area includes the basics of optical microwave interaction, the operation of photonic devices in microwave, photonic control of microwave devices, high-frequency transmission lines, and the use of photonics to perform various functions in microwave circuits.

Computer photonics combines modern physical and quantum optics, mathematics and computer technologies and is at the stage of active development, when it becomes possible to implement new ideas, methods and technologies.

Optoinformatics is a field of science and technology related to the research, creation and operation of new materials, technologies and devices for transmitting, receiving, processing, storing and displaying information based on optical technologies.

Relationship of photonics with other fields of science

Classic optics. Photonics is closely related to optics. However, optics preceded the discovery of light quantization (when the photoelectric effect was explained by Albert Einstein in 1905). The instruments of optics - a refractive lens, a reflecting mirror, and various optical units that were known long before 1900. At the same time, the key principles of classical optics, such as the Huygens rule, Maxwell's equations, and the alignment of a light wave, do not depend on the quantum properties of light, and are used in both optics and photonics.

Modern Optics The term "Photonics" in this field is roughly synonymous with the terms "Quantum Optics", "Quantum Electronics", "Electro-Optics", and "Optoelectronics". However, each term is used by different scientific societies with different additional meanings: for example, the term "quantum optics" often denotes basic research, while the term "Photonics" often denotes applied research.

The term "Photonics" in the field of modern optics most often means:

Particular properties of light Possibility of creating photonic processing technologies

signals Analogy to the term "Electronics".

History of photonics

Photonics as a field of science began in 1960 with the invention of the laser, and also with the invention of the laser diode in the 1970s, followed by the development of fiber optic communication systems as a means of transmitting information using light methods. These inventions formed the basis for the telecommunications revolution at the end of the 20th century, and helped fuel the development of the Internet.

Historically, the beginning of the use of the term "photonics" in the scientific community is associated with the publication in 1967 of the book "Photonics of dye molecules" by Academician A. N. Terenin. Three years earlier, on his initiative, the Department of Biomolecular and Photon Physics was established at the Faculty of Physics of Leningrad State University, which since 1970 has been called the Department of Photonics.

A. N. Terenin defined photonics as "a set of interrelated photophysical and photochemical processes." In world science, a later and broader definition of photonics has become widespread, as a branch of science that studies systems in which photons are information carriers. In this sense, the term "photonics" was first mentioned at the 9th International Congress on High Speed ​​Photography.

The term "Photonics" began to be widely used in the 1980s in connection with the widespread use of fiber optic transmission of electronic data by telecommunications network providers (although fiber optics were used in narrow usage earlier). The use of the term was confirmed when the IEEE community established an archival report

from title "Photonics Technology Letters" at the end 1980s

IN During this period until about 2001, photonics as a field of science was largely focused on telecommunications. Since 2001, the term

"Photonics" also covers a huge field of science and technology, including:

laser production, biological and chemical research, medical diagnostics and therapy, display and projection technology, optical computing.

Optoinformatics

Optoinformatics is a field of photonics in which new technologies for transmitting, receiving, processing, storing and displaying information based on photons are created. In essence, the modern Internet is unthinkable without optoinformatics.

Promising examples of optoinformatics systems include:

Optical telecommunication systems with data transfer rates up to 40 terabits per second over one channel;

ultra-large capacity optical holographic storage devices up to 1.5 terabytes per disk in standard sizes;

multiprocessor computers with optical interprocessor communication;

an optical computer in which light controls light. The maximum clock frequency of such a computer can be 1012-1014 Hz, which is 3-5 orders of magnitude higher than existing electronic counterparts;

photonic crystals are new artificial crystals with giant dispersion and record low optical loss (0.001 dB/km).

Lecture 1 Topic 1. The history of photonics. Problem-

we are electronic computers.

Section 1.1. History of photonics.

The use of light to transmit information has a long history. Sailors have used signal lamps to transmit information using Morse code, and beacons have warned sailors of dangers for centuries.

Claude Chapp built an optical telegraph in France in the 1890s. Signalmen were located on towers located from Paris to Lille along a chain 230 km long. Messages were transferred from one end to the other in 15 minutes. In the United States, an optical telegraph connected Boston to Martha Vineyard Island, located near that city. All these systems were eventually replaced by electric telegraphs.

English physicist John Tyndall in 1870 demonstrated the possibility of controlling light based on internal reflections. At a meeting of the Royal Society, it was shown that light propagating in a stream of purified water can go around any corner. In the experiment, water flowed over the horizontal bottom of one chute and fell along a parabolic trajectory into another chute. The light entered the stream of water through a transparent window at the bottom of the first trough. When Tyndall directed the light tangentially to the jet, the audience could observe the zigzag propagation of light within the curved part of the jet. A similar zigzag distribution

The light conversion also occurs in an optical fiber.

A decade later, Alexander Graham Bell patented a photophone (fig.), in which a directional

Using a system of lenses and mirrors, the light was directed to a flat mirror mounted on a horn. Under the influence of sound, the mirror oscillated, which led to the modulation of the reflected light. The receiving device used a selenium-based detector, the electrical resistance of which varies depending on the intensity of the incident light. Voice-modulated sunlight falling on a sample of selenium changed the strength of the current flowing through the circuit of the receiving device and reproduced the voice. This device made it possible to transmit a voice signal over a distance of more than 200 m.

IN At the beginning of the 20th century, theoretical and experimental studies of dielectric waveguides, including flexible glass rods, were carried out.

In the 1950s, fibers designed for image transmission were developed by Brian O'Brien, who worked at the American Optical Company, and Narinder Kapani and colleagues at the Imperial College of Science and Technology in London. These fibers found application in light guides used in medicine for visual observation of human internal organs Dr. Kapani was the first to develop glass fibers in a glass sheath and coined the term "fiber optics" in 1956. In 1973, Dr. Kapani founded Kaptron, a company specializing in fiber optic splitters and switches.

IN In 1957, Gordon Gold, a graduate of Columbia University, formulated the principles of the laser as an intense light source. The theoretical work of Charles Townes with Arthur Shavlov at Bell Laboratories helped to popularize the idea of ​​the laser in the scientific community and caused a rapid surge of experimental research aimed at creating a working laser. In 1960, Theodor Mayman created the world's first ruby ​​laser at Hughes Laboratories. In the same year, Towns demonstrated the work helium-neon laser. In 1962, laser generation was obtained on a semiconductor crystal. This type of laser is used in fiber optics. Very belatedly, only in 1988, Gold managed to get four

new patents based on the results of work performed by him in the 50s

The US Navy has implemented fiber

years and devoted to the principle of laser operation.

optical line aboard the Little Rock ship in 1973. IN

The use of laser radiation as a carrier of information

1976 as part of the Air Force ALOFT program

tion was not disregarded by communication specialists

replaced the cable equipment of the A-7 aircraft with fiber

nications. The possibilities of laser radiation for the transmission of information

optical. At the same time, the cable system of 302 copper cables

formations are 10,000 times higher than the capabilities of radio frequency

lei, which had a total length of 1260 m and weighed 40

th radiation. Despite this, laser radiation is not completely

kg, was replaced by 12 fibers with a total length of 76 m and a weight of 1.7

suitable for outdoor signal transmission. To work

kg. The military was also the first to introduce fiber

this kind of lines are significantly affected by fog, smog and rain,

optical line. In 1977, a 2 km system was launched with

as well as the state of the atmosphere. The laser beam is much

information transfer rate of 20 Mb / s (megabit per second -

it is easier to overcome the distance between the Earth and the Moon than between

du) that connected the ground satellite station with the center

du opposite boundaries of Manhattan. In this way,

management.

Initially, the laser was a communication

In 1977, AT&T and GTE established commercial

a light source that does not have a suitable transmission medium.

cal telephone systems based on optical fiber.

In 1966, Charles Kao and Charles Hockham, who worked in

These systems have surpassed in their characteristics those considered

English laboratory of telecommunication standards,

previously unshakable performance standards, which

lo to their rapid spread in the late 70s and early 80s

use as a transmission medium when achieving transparency,

years. In 1980, AT&T announced an ambitious hair-

providing attenuation (determines transmission losses

horse-optical system linking Boston and

signal) less than 20 dB/km (decibel per kilometer). They came to

Richmond. The implementation of the project has personally demonstrated the

the conclusion that the high level of attenuation inherent in the first

growth qualities of the new technology in serial high-speed

loknam (about 1000 dB/km), associated with those present in the glass

systems, and not only in experimental setups. By-

impurities. A way was also indicated for creating suitable for those

after that, it became clear that in the future the stake should be placed on the

fiber communication associated with a decrease in the level

horse-optical technology, which showed the possibility of

impurities in glass.

rocky practical application.

In 1970, Robert Maurer and his colleagues from

As technology advances, it expands just as rapidly

Corning Glass Works received the first attenuation fiber

elk and strengthened production. Already in 1983, a single

it is 20 dB/km. By 1972, under laboratory conditions,

modal fiber optic cable, but its practical use

a level of 4 dB/km, which corresponded to the Kao criterion and

use was associated with many problems, so on

Hockham. At present, the best fibers have a level

for many years, fully use such cables

loss of 0.2 dB/km.

succeeded only in some specialized developments.

No less significant success has been achieved in the field of semi-

By 1985, the main organizations for the transmission of data on

conductor sources and detectors, connectors, techno-

long distances, AT&T and MO, not only implement-

transmission theory, communication theory and other related

whether single-mode optical systems, but also approved them as

curl optics areas. All this, together with a huge interest

standard for future projects.

som to use the obvious advantages of fiber op-

Although the computer industry, technology

tics caused in the middle and late 70s significant

computer networking and production management are not so

progress towards the creation of fiber-optic systems.

quickly, like the military and telecommunications companies, took

However, in these areas, experimental work was also carried out to research and introduce new technology. The advent of the information age and the resulting need for more efficient telecommunications systems only spurred the further development of fiber optic technology. Today, this technology is widely used outside the field of telecommunications.

For example, IBM, a leader in computer manufacturing, announced in 1990 the release of a new high-speed computer that uses a link controller for communication with disk and tape external drives based on fiber optics. This was the first use of fiber optics in commercial equipment. The introduction of a fiber controller, called ESCON, made it possible to transfer information at higher speeds and over long distances. The previous copper controller had a data rate of 4.5 Mbps with a maximum line length of 400 feet. The new controller operates at 10 Mbps over a distance of several miles.

In 1990, Lynn Mollinar demonstrated the ability to transmit a signal without regeneration at a rate of 2.5 Gb / s over a distance of about 7500 km. Typically, a fiber optic signal needs to be amplified and reshaped periodically, approximately every 25 km. During transmission, the fiber optic signal loses power and is distorted. In the Mollinar system, the laser operated in the soliton mode and a self-amplifying fiber with erbium additives was used. Soliton (very narrow range) pulses do not scatter and retain their original shape as they propagate through the fiber. At the same time, the Japanese company Nippon Telephone & Telegraph achieved a speed of 20 Gb / s, however, over a significantly shorter distance. The value of soliton technology lies in the fundamental possibility of laying a fiber-optic telephone system along the bottom of the Pacific or Atlantic Ocean, which does not require the installation of intermediate amplifiers. However, since

Since 1992, soliton technology remains at the level of laboratory demonstrations and has not yet found commercial application.

Information Age The four processes involved in manipulating information

formation, based on the use of electronics: 1.Sbrr

2. Storage

3. Processing and analysis

4. Transfer

To implement these processes, fairly modern equipment is used: computers, electronic offices, branched telephone networks, satellites, television, etc. Looking around, you can find a lot of evidence of the onset of a new era. The annual growth of services in the information industry is now about 15%.

The following are facts about the importance

And prospects of electronics in modern life.

IN USA in 1988, there were 165 million telephone sets, while in In 1950 there were only 39 million. In addition, the services provided by telephone companies have become much more diverse.

From 1950 to 1981, telephone system wires increased from 147 million miles to 1.1 billion.

IN In 1990, the total length of optical fibers in US telephone systems was about 5 million miles. By the year 2000 it will increase to 15 million miles. At the same time, the capabilities of each fiber correspond to the capabilities of several copper cables.

IN In 1989, about 10 million personal computers were sold in the US. Back in 1976 there were no personal computers at all. Now it is a common element of the equipment of any office and industrial production.

IN Currently in the United States, thousands of computer databases are available through a personal computer and a conventional telephone network.

Fax messages (faxes) began to predominate in business correspondence.

First fiber optic telephone system

Telecommunications and computers

cable, installed in 1977, allowed the transmission of information

Until recently, there was a clear delineation

formation at a speed of 44.7 Mb / s and negotiate

between what was part of the telephone system and

simultaneously on 672 channels. Today the Sonet system is

with regard to the computer system. For example, tele-

standard system in optical telephony, allows

background companies were prohibited from participating in the computer market

transfer information at a maximum speed of 10 Gb / s,

thorn technology. Today the ban formally remains in force,

which is approximately 200 times greater than the capabilities of the first opti-

but its effect is significantly weakened. Computers

chesky system. Achievement and standardization expected

can now transmit data over telephone lines, and those

significantly higher speeds, which are not yet available

based on modern electronic components.

computer) signal before transmission. Telephone and com-

All of the above examples feature

Computer companies are increasingly competing in the IT market.

sources of information and means of their association. Under information

mation technologies.

tion here can be understood as the content of a telephone conversation

The reasons for the relaxation of this prohibition are

thief with a friend, and any project. Means of transmission of information

clear. The development of electronic technology implies a close

transfers from one place to another are important in terms of having

interaction of its various directions. Difference between

full amount of information anywhere in the country. In quality-

computer and telephone technology weakened even more in

An example of the transmission of information can be given as a television

1982 after the collapse of AT&T, the largest corporation

background conversation with a subscriber at the other end

portions on a global scale. The information network is becoming

countries, and the conversation between neighboring offices, separated by

single system. It is now increasingly difficult to determine for what

by a pair of doors. Telephone companies are increasingly using

part of the network is responsible for telephone companies, which part of the network

use the same digital technologies as for transmission

belongs to computer companies, and which one is in

homeowner's property.

obviously, but from the point of view of digital technologies for the transfer of information

The development of the cable network in the United States, along with the inclusion

transfer of computer data to the services provided

phone companies are the best proof

digital impulses or numbers, the form of which corresponds exactly

benefits associated with the advent of the information age.

corresponds to computer data. This kind of transformation

Previously, telephone companies provided two-way communication

audio signal to digital allow telephone companies to

between subscribers, called POTS (Plain Old Telephone Ser-

pits with less distortion to transmit the conversation. In most-

vices - plain old telephone services). At present,

In the new telephone systems, it is digital

many other services appeared, such as automatic

technology. In 1984, about 34% of central telephones

sky dialer, answering machine, etc. (these services are called PANS

stations used digital transmission equipment. TO

Pretty Amazing New Services - simply amazing new

In 1994, this figure increased to 82%. fiber optics

services). Telephone companies are aiming to create integration

extremely convenient for digital telecommunications. By-

rovannyh digital networks (Integrated Services Digital Network,

higher requirements for efficiency, reliability, speed and

ISDN), intended for transmission over the telephone network of go-

the efficiency of data transmission is ensured by the characteristic

voice, data and video. This kind of network is

kami fiber-optic systems.

make it possible to transfer any kind of information where

anywhere and at any time.

Fiber Optic Alternative

The WAN discussed in this chapter requires an efficient medium for the transmission of information. Traditional technologies based on the use of copper cable or microwave transmission have disadvantages and are significantly inferior in performance to fiber optics. For example, copper cables are characterized by a limited information transfer rate and are subject to the influence of external fields. Microwave transmission, although it can provide a fairly high data transfer rate, requires the use of expensive equipment and is limited to the line of sight. Fiber optics allows information to be transmitted at significantly higher speeds than copper cables and has a much more affordable cost and fewer restrictions than microwave technology. The possibilities of fiber optics are just beginning to be realized. Even now, fiber optic lines are superior in their characteristics to analogs based on copper cable, and it should be taken into account that the technological capabilities of copper cables have less development potential than fiber optic technology that is beginning to develop. Fiber optics promises to be an integral part of the information revolution, as well as part of the worldwide cable network.

Fiber optics will affect everyone's life, sometimes almost imperceptibly. Here are some examples of the inconspicuous entry of fiber optics into our lives:

cable to your house; connecting electronic equipment in your office with

equipment in other offices; connection of electronic units in your car;

industrial process control.

Fiber optics is a new technology that is just beginning its development, but the need for its use as a transmission medium for various applications has already been proven.

dachas, and the characteristics of fiber optics will allow in the future to significantly expand the scope of its application.

1.2. Problems of electronic computers.

The first mass-produced universal computers based on transistors were released in 1958 simultaneously in the USA, Germany and Japan. In the Soviet Union, the first tubeless machines "Setun", "Razdan" and "Razdan 2" were created in 1959-1961. In the 60s, Soviet designers developed about 30 models of transistor computers, most of which began to be mass-produced. The most powerful of them - "Minsk 32" performed 65 thousand operations per second. Entire families of machines appeared: Ural, Minsk, BESM. The BESM 6 became the record holder among computers of the second generation, which had a speed of about a million operations per second - one of the most productive in the world.

The priority in the invention of integrated circuits, which became the element base of third-generation computers, belongs to the American scientists D. Kilby and R. Noyce, who made this discovery independently of each other. Mass production of integrated circuits began in 1962

year, and in 1964 the transition from discrete to integral elements began to be carried out rapidly. ENIAC, mentioned above, with dimensions of 9x15 meters in 1971 could be assembled on a plate of 1.5 square centimeters. In 1964, IBM announced the creation of six models of the IBM family (System 360), which became the first computers of the third generation. The models had a single command system and differed from each other in the amount of RAM and performance.

The beginning of the 70s marks the transition to fourth-generation computers - on very large integrated circuits

(VLSI). Another sign of a new generation of computers are abrupt changes in architecture.

The technology of the fourth generation gave rise to a qualitatively new element of the computer - a microprocessor or a chip (from the English word chip). In 1971, they came up with the idea to limit the capabilities of the processor by laying in it a small set of operations, the microprograms of which must be entered into read-only memory in advance. Estimates have shown that using 16 kilobit read only memory will eliminate 100-200 conventional integrated circuits. This is how the idea of ​​a microprocessor appeared, which can be implemented even on a single chip, and the program can be written into its memory forever.

By the mid-70s, the situation in the computer market began to change dramatically and unexpectedly. Two concepts of the development of computers have clearly stood out. Supercomputers became the embodiment of the first concept, and personal computers became the embodiment of the second. Of the fourth-generation large computers based on ultra-large integrated circuits, the American machines "Krey-1" and "Krey-2", as well as the Soviet models "Elbrus-1" and "Elbrus-2", especially stood out. Their first samples appeared about

at the same time - in 1976. All of them belong to the category of supercomputers, as they have the maximum achievable characteristics for their time and a very high cost. By the early 1980s, the performance of personal

computers amounted to hundreds of thousands of operations per second, the performance of supercomputers reached hundreds of millions of operations per second, and the world's fleet of computers exceeded 100 million.

published the now famous article by Gordon Moore (Gordon Moore)

"Overflow of the number of elements on integrated circuits"

(“Cramming more components onto integrated circuits”), in which the then director of research and development at Fairchild Semiconductors and future co-founder of Intel Corporation predicted the development of microelectronics for the next ten years, predicting that the number of elements on the chips of electronic circuits would further double every year. Later, speaking to an audience at the International Electron Devices Meeting in 1975, Gaudron Moore noted that over the past decade, the number of elements on chips had indeed doubled every year, but in the future, when the complexity of chips increases, doubling the number of transistors in microcircuits will occur every two years. . This new prediction also came true, and Moore's law continues in this form (doubling in two years) to this day, which can be clearly seen from the following table (Fig. 1.4.) and graph

Judging by the latest technological leap that Intel managed to make over the past year, preparing dual-core processors with twice the number of transistors on a chip, and in the case of the transition from Madison to Montecito - quadrupling this number, then Moore's law is returning, albeit briefly, to its original form - doubling the number of elements on the chip in a year. It is possible to consider the consequence of the law for the clock frequency of microprocessors, although Gordon Moore has repeatedly stated that his law applies only to the number of transistors on a chip and reflects