French problem solving. Modern Western political schools. This trend reached its greatest development within the framework of the Italian school of political sociology.

Modern political science is represented by dozens of bright names, many schools and directions. They are classified on different grounds, so there are several classifications of political science schools.

First of all, schools are distinguished geographically.

The most representative of them are:

Anglo-American. She is busy developing the problems of political modernization, stability, political conflicts, foreign policy, applied political science. This school is represented by such names as S. Huntington, G. Morgenthau, R. Dahrendorf and others;

French. Investigates typologies of political regimes, party structure (M. Duverger, M. Crozier, R. Aron, etc.);

German. This school is engaged in a comparative analysis of political systems, problems of the relationship between civil society and the state.

All schools and directions can also be placed between two approaches - positivist(behavioral - from English behavior - behavior) and anti-positivist. According to the first approach, the task of political science is to study empirically observed facts, the behavior of people in the field of politics. Here the attention of the researcher is fixed on the description and explanation of the existing reality, specific political processes, for example, elections. This direction in political science is closely connected with the implementation of applied tasks.

According to the second approach, political science should be able to critically assess the existing reality and indicate ways to improve. This can be done only from the standpoint of a general theory, not reducible to empirical facts, and from the point of view of a political ideal.

The classification of political science directions is also given according to their ideological orientation. To date, the main ideological and doctrines are liberalism, socialism, conservatism.

Liberalism- an ideology in which the main value is the individual. Society is only a means for realizing the interests of the individual. Therefore, liberal theorists are characterized by increased attention to the study of the role of a person in politics, his behavior, the study of the importance of civil society in the formation of political institutions, and the search for ways to regulate conflicts in politics, which they consider a prerequisite for social progress.

Socialism how the ideology proceeds from the fact that all social problems must be solved on the basis of the paramount importance of public interests. Socialist-minded theorists assign a decisive role to the population in the formation of political institutions and are looking for ways for a broader participation of the masses in the management of society.

Conservatism is an ideology that calls for caution in any transformations. Conservatist researchers are suspicious of the participation of the broad masses in politics, considering it to be a matter for the elites. They call for realism in politics, justify political means of maintaining stability and order in society, and highly appreciate the role of the state.

Political science- a science that studies the patterns and features of the political process.

Primarily object The study of political science as a science is political power, the foundations of its legal system, the definition of the foundations of its legitimacy (the consent of the people with the authorities), the elucidation of the mechanisms for ensuring its stability and optimality from the point of view of government. In addition, the object of study of political science is politics, the political sphere of public life.

Subject political science are:

Politics and its signs;

Political power;

State and political parties as elements of the political system;

Political leadership, political elites, political conflicts, political culture, etc.;

Features of foreign policy.

Political science has a large arsenal of research methods, since it is an interdisciplinary science and uses the methodological base of all related disciplines.

General scientific (general logical) methods characteristic of all sciences (analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, analogy, modeling, abstraction and ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc.);

General Method of Dialectics, revealing causal relationships between elements of the political process;

Special scientific methods- comparative historical, comparative legal, systematic, static, etc.

Functions political science:

Cognitive, which allows you to find out certain problems and serves as a solution to various issues.

Applied - helps to implement the results of the study in watered. practice.

Methodological - is to develop methods and techniques for analyzing political phenomena and processes.

Theoretical concentration is the explanation, replenishment and enrichment of the existing political science knowledge, the development of laws and categories of this science.

Descriptive - study, accumulation, description, systematization of facts, phenomena of political life, determination on their basis of trends and patterns of political development.

Explanatory is the search for answers to emerging questions of political life;

Prognostic - the development of forecasts regarding the development of processes in the political sphere.

Worldview - the function is expressed in the search for an answer to questions about the place political phenomena occupy in the system of human ideas about society, the world as a whole, about their place in the system of social relations and their role in political processes;

Ideological - the development, justification and protection of a certain political ideal that contributes to the stability of a particular political system.

Political doctrines of the period of antiquity (Plato, Aristotle).

Plato, the author of such outstanding works devoted to political issues as "The State", "Politics", "Laws". The state is interpreted by him as the realization of ideas and the maximum possible embodiment of the world of ideas in earthly social and political life - in the policy.

For Plato, the ideal form of the state was the aristocracy as the rule of several wisest and oldest philosophers. At the same time, Plato spoke about incorrect, perverted state forms, among which timocracy stands out - the state of honored warriors, who constitute the second estate in society after philosophers; an oligarchy dominated by a few rich; and democracy - the rule of the poor, the people, landowners and artisans as the third estate.

Plato resolutely opposed democracy as the power of the many (majority), to whom neither true knowledge, nor skillful management, nor high morality are available. He considered democracy to be the source of almost all troubles, especially in politics, because it is associated with disrespect for knowledge and merit, with leveling, incompetence, and unpredictability. The tyranny it engenders is the worst form of government. In his opinion, the rampant freedom and democracy inevitably leads to slavery and tyranny of the majority. Nevertheless, in his later work “Laws”, Plato recognized the ideal form of the state, which combines the features of a monarchy and democracy.

Further development and deepening of ancient political and legal thought after Plato is associated with the name of his student and critic - Aristotle. He made an attempt to comprehensively develop the science of politics. Politics as a science is closely connected with ethics. A scientific understanding of politics presupposes, according to Aristotle, developed ideas about morality, knowledge of ethics. The objects of political science are the beautiful and the just, but the same objects are also studied in ethics as virtues. Ethics appears as the beginning of politics, an introduction to it.

The state, according to Aristotle, is a product of natural development. In this respect, it is similar to such naturally occurring primary communities as the family and the village. But the state is the highest form of communication, embracing all other forms of communication. In political communication, all other forms of communication achieve their purpose and completion. Man is by nature a political being, and the development of this political nature of man is completed in the state.

Aristotle developed the ideas of his teacher about the forms of the state. His classification of these forms is based on, on the one hand, a quantitative criterion, that is, the number of persons exercising government in the state, on the other hand, a qualitative criterion, that is, the goals of public administration. As a result, the forms of the state were divided by him into three “correct” and three “incorrect” ones. “Correct” is a monarchy (rule by one), aristocracy (rule by a few) and polity (rule by the majority), in which power pursues the goal of achieving the common good; The “wrong” forms are tyranny, oligarchy and democracy, when those in power are those who rule in the interests of personal gain. Oligarchy (the power of the rich) and democracy (the power of the poor) were considered in this connection as the main forms of government, the various combinations of which create other forms of government.

Aristotle's sympathies are on the side of polity, because, as a mixed form (“golden mean”), it combines the advantages of other forms: virtues from the aristocracy, wealth from the oligarchy, freedom from democracy. The power in the polity belongs to the warriors.

Political doctrines of the era of the birth and development of capitalism (N. Machiavelli, T. Jefferson, C. Montesquieu).

Niccolo Machiavelli. His judgments are built into a certain concept, which explains the nature of the state, its essence, forms of government, as well as ways of exercising state power and other political problems.

Machiavelli explains the origin of the state on the basis of the nature of man, moreover, not only from his natural, but also social nature. After all, many positive and negative qualities of a person are formed in the course of his life and activities in society.

The need to curb the negative qualities of people led, according to Machiavelli, the emergence of the state as a special apparatus or mechanism with which it would be possible to establish order and peace in society. For this, the state may use violence against individuals or groups of people.

Machiavelli identifies three main forms of government and, accordingly, "three types of governments": "monarchy, aristocracy and popular government." Machiavelli attached great importance to the republican form of government. Machiavelli shows the advantages of a republican form of government. Machiavelli also pointed out the positive features of a mixed form of government, combining the features of a monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, personifying strong power, nobility and freedom.

For the sake of strengthening the state, Machiavelli considered it possible to use any means and called for acting on the principle: "The end justifies the means."

Thomas Jefferson criticized capitalism, which was gaining strength in the United States, leading to the ruin and impoverishment of large sections of the population. However, he considered the development of large-scale capitalist production to be the main cause of these disasters and idealized small-scale farming. His ideal was a democratic republic of free and equal farmers. This ideal was utopian, but Jefferson's active promotion of it played a large role in attracting the broad masses of the people to actively participate in the Revolutionary War.

He devoted his largest work to the history and state structure of his native state of Virginia (“Notes on the State of Virginia”, 1785). His famous political creation is the draft of the US Declaration of Independence (1776).

Jefferson does not leave the hope that mankind will soon "learn to profit from every right and power that it owns or can assume." But he is convinced that soon corruption, both in the state being created and in where Americans come from, will take hold of the government and spread to the bulk of the American people, when the government buys the votes of the people and makes them pay the full price.

Republican principles in the state should consistently permeate all levels - the federation (on foreign and general federal policy), the state (in relation to citizens), as well as the district, district and separate parish (on all minor, but at the same time important local issues) . The principle of majority rule was upheld. The cure for the evils of democracy is more democratization, since injustices can be expected from the people and generally less than from the ruling minority.

Charles Louis Montesquieu. Major works: "Persian Letters" (1721), "Reflections on the Causes of the Greatness and Fall of the Romans" (1734), "On the Spirit of the Laws" (1748).

Montesquieu distinguishes three forms of government: republic (there are two types: democracy and aristocracy), monarchy and despotism.

Each form of government has its own nature and principle of government. The nature of the republic is the rule of the whole people (democracy), or part of it (aristocracy). Monarchy is the rule of one man, but by means of firmly established laws. In despotism, everything is determined by the will and arbitrariness of one person outside of any laws and regulations. The principle of republican government is virtue, in monarchy - honor, in despotism - fear.

Montesquieu is a supporter of moderate government, by which he understands a constitutional monarchy. Moderate government means having political freedom and is based on laws. Montesquieu distinguishes two types of laws on political freedom:

1) establishing political freedom in its relation to the state structure. It is supported by the principle of separation of powers.

2) establishing political freedom in its relation to the citizen. It consists in ensuring security, primarily through the good quality of criminal laws and legal proceedings.

The separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial branches is necessary to avoid abuse of power.

Laws, according to Montesquieu, must first of all correspond to the nature and properties of the people for whom they are established. Only in rare cases can the laws of one people be applicable to another people as well. The factors determining the laws are the form of government, geographical conditions, the education of the people, religion, the will of the legislator.

Montesquieu pays special attention to the methods of drafting laws, legislative techniques. The fundamental principle of legislation is moderation: "the spirit of moderation must be the spirit of the legislator."

Socio-political thought in Russia. Her features.

Russian political thought arose from the desire to comprehend the nature and specifics of the Russian state, the desire to preserve and strengthen its cultural and historical existence and national identity. As an independent area of scientific knowledge, Russian political thought is a system of views on power relations in society, the essence of the state and forms of political organization that are optimal for Russia. It developed in conjunction with Russian statehood, Russian philosophy and the moral intensity of national culture, peculiarities of ideological and spiritual traditions, patterns and zigzags of Russian political history.

From the moment of its inception, Russian thought faced two main problems of the cultural and state development of Russia: freedom and power, that is, the problem of the liberation of the individual and the problem of streamlining state power, introducing it into the framework of legality and compliance with the needs and desires of the population.

At first, Russian political thought as a whole developed in a religious form, but from the 18th century. it is dominated by secular (secular) and educational tendencies associated with the era of "Europeanization" of Russia, begun by Peter I (the political teachings of F. Prokopovich, M. M. Shcherbatov, S. E. Desnitsky, etc.).

The political development of Russia is belated compared to Western Europe. In European states, civil rights are being formulated, political parties are emerging, and the political ideology of liberalism is being substantiated. In Russia, from the XV to the beginning of the XX century. there were no signs of a full-fledged constitutional state (representative institutions, political equality, individual freedom, etc.). Russia did not go through the "school" of classical bourgeois liberal democracy and until the February Revolution of 1917 remained an autocratic authoritarian-bureaucratic state.

That is why in Russian political thought of the XIX century. conservatism was widely represented. The symbol of Russian conservatism was the idea of state integrity, national unity based on strong power, order and "Orthodox-cathedral" consciousness.

Until 1861, serfdom existed in Russia, so all areas of Russian political thought were focused on solving social problems and the agrarian issue; in the XIX-XX centuries. in political views, various currents of revolutionary radicalism were represented, dating back to the revolutionary democratic ideas of the 18th century. A. N. Radishcheva. Revolutionary democracy was one of the main trends in the political thought of Russia in the 19th century. and covered the socio-philosophical and political concepts of Decembrism, revolutionary democracy of the 40-60s, revolutionary populism and Marxism. If in the West the radical idea of social and political revolution began to lose its significance in the second half of the 19th century, then in monarchical and feudal Russia it always existed, reviving during periods of counter-reforms, and at the beginning of the 20th century. developed into the ideology of Leninism (Bolshevism).

The specifics of the development of statehood, political traditions and teachings of Russia were largely determined by its “middle” position between the two main civilizations: liberal-democratic, Western (with republican and constitutional traditions, developed institutions of civil society, priorities for individual freedom and property) and traditional, Eastern civilization. Asian (with the dominance of communal relations, features of oriental despotism, subordination of the individual to religion and the power of the state).

A feature of Russian political thought, continuing the tradition of Russian philosophy, is its anthropological orientation, “the idea of the individual as a bearer and creator of spiritual values” (S. L. Frank), understanding the problems of the essence and existence of a person, the meaning of his life.

Russian thinkers of the early XX century. did not satisfy Marxism, which absolutizes the mass approach and "proletarian messianism" up to the dictatorship of the proletariat, reducing morality to "revolutionary expediency", ignoring the problems of spirituality and human psychology.

Finally, a distinctive feature of Russian political thought, in comparison with European and American, was its emphatically ethical orientation. For representatives of all areas of domestic political science (with the exception of P. N. Tkachev’s Russian Blanquism and the ideology of Bolshevism and Stalinism), the analysis of political institutions, processes and relations was unthinkable outside of morality, which was a criterion for assessing the political behavior of those in power and subject, the content, goals and objectives of the politicians. The starting point here was a strong tradition of Russian philosophy - the ethics of Christianity, Orthodoxy. Even the problem of socialism, widely discussed at the turn of the century, was an ethical problem for many thinkers.

Modern political science schools in Western political science.

American School of Political Science

In the United States, political science has a particularly high prestige among the humanities, a large number of researchers work in this area, and in many universities political science is taught as a compulsory academic discipline.

The basis of modern political science is American political science, the main areas of which are:

1. systematic study of managerial "suitability" in the context of the functioning of the entire political system

2. analysis of the effectiveness of political decisions, methods of selection and reasons for the change of political elites, clarification of the levels of support for the political system by civil opinion

3. studying the effectiveness of democracy and its institutions

4. Study of the problems of socio-political development of underdeveloped countries within the concept of "political modernization"

Today, the study of the traditions and problems of political power, the study of its constitutional foundations and principles is central to the modern political science school in the United States today. Much attention is paid to the consideration of the activities of the administrative apparatus and political parties, the development of a new theory of political management, political modernization.

English School of Political Science

The American School of Political Science has had a significant impact on political science in England. In its modern form, English political science is a new branch of humanitarian knowledge, in which the economic, sociological, socio-psychological orientation of political research is increasingly being strengthened. At the same time, special attention is paid to the analysis of the English political system, the institution of elections, the mechanism of political pressure on the government and parliament by various formal and informal groups, the psychology of the political behavior of voters, etc. The central problems of modern English political science are: the theory of conflict; consent theory; theory of pluralistic democracy.

German School of Political Science

In modern political science in Germany, three areas can be distinguished:

1. Normativist political science, based on a philosophical analysis of the moral norms of political activity;

2. Positivist-behavioristic empirical sociology;

3. "Practice-critical science" about socio-political power.

The German School of Political Science holds a special place in the world today. It is characterized by a theoretical and philosophical nature, combined with political and social research. The political and legal thought of the German political science school develops in 3 main directions:

1. The direction of philosophical politics; the use of categories of philosophy, methods of psychoanalysis.

Political school of France

As for France, political science is comparatively young here. As an independent branch of knowledge, it took shape only after the Second World War. For political science in France, the following are more characteristic:

1. theoretical, state studies aspects;

2. study of political processes within the framework of constitutional law.

The state of modern political thought in the West largely determines the development of political science in France. The most common areas in political science are: the study of voter behavior and the study of political parties.

Public opinion is widely studied and the positions of political science in the study of constitutional law and state institutions are very strong.

As well as strong political science schools have developed in Italy and Canada. The study of political science intensified in Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Poland, Australia.

And yet, at this time, there are four main foreign political science schools. These include Anglo-American, French, German and Polish.

1. ANGLO-AMERICAN - development of problems of political modernization, stability of political conflicts, foreign policy.

2. FRENCH - development of problems of the typology of political regimes, the legitimacy of the party-political infrastructure.

3. GERMAN - comparative analysis of political systems, the problem of the functioning of civil society and the rule of law.

4. POLISH - a conceptual study of the political life of society, the main directions of political democratization.

Political life. Features of the political life of Russia.

Important the sphere of life of people is half-ka. It is a special form of life, which is associated with power relations, the state and the state. device. It includes those institutions, principles, norms that ensure the viability of this or that community of people, the realization of their common will, interests and needs. To the world of politics, regarding state-but-legal, party, electoral systems, mech-we decision-making, gender. processes and relationships, gender. culture, etc. Naib. important to the floor. the life of any society-va yavl-Xia floor problems. domination and government, domination and cooperation, the relationship of people with the mechanism of power, gender problems. socialization, etc. Politics is the activity of the state. organs, gender parties, societies. movements, org-tions of their leaders, in the sphere of relations between large social. groups, nations, states-you, aimed at mobilizing their efforts in order to strengthen the floor. power or its conquest by specific methods. According to the criterion of orientation, the policy is divided into internal. and ext. Int. half-ku can be divided into economic, social, political. and spiritual. Economical politics is the conscience of scientific provisions, means, and practical. measures, with the help of which-th implemented-Xia regulation of relations between the g-mi in the field of economic. community life. According to the sectoral criterion in the economic field, they usually distinguish: policy in the field of industry, transport, finance, and agricultural policy. Foreign policy is a purposeful activity of the state to implement the interests of society in the system of international relations (social policy, investment policy, etc.). The state floor occupies Ch. place in society. As a type of activity, it is considered at several levels: local, regional, national and international. The functioning of political life is carried out at 3 levels:

1st level - the institutional level - this is the state-legal sphere of the floor. life. At this level, the floor activity focuses on the approval and distribution of gender. values: national security, constitutional order, progress, rights and freedoms of citizens.

2nd level - representative. Here the subjects of the floor. life are interest groups, different societies. associations and organizations.

3rd level - individual. Here the subjects of the floor. life are independent gr-not. Floor feature. life at this level is: spontaneity, free formation of interests, opinions of unorganized people.

The main features of political life, which is manifested in democratic societies, are the following:

1) Pluralism - as a form of expression of the relationship and consolidation of gender. interests.

2) Openness - is the form of societies. floor control. power.

3) Democracy - implies a high degree of gender. activity and involvement in the discussion and adoption of managerial decisions.

4) Inconsistency - due to the diversity of interests and the complexity of the floor. relations. From time to time coming into collision and generating a floor. conflicts.

5) Culture - acts as a way to comprehend, explain, or change in gender. reality. The most important indicators in the floor. life are: stability, dynamism, variability. Floor. the stability of the state of society, characterized by a relative collection of basic social and gender. forces about the goals and methods of societies. development. It includes civil peace, legitimacy, efficiency and strength of power.

Conditions for economic stability include:

1. Sustainability of economy. development.

2. Formation of the mass average. class.

3. Ensuring free access to the floor. institutions of non-traditional social. groups that have not previously participated in the floor.

4. The presence of at least an elementary consent of the nation with respect to Ch. principles of functioning and development of society-va.

5. Restrained position of the media, capable of both inflaming passions and shaping the sex. culture.

6. Efficiency of state. management. There are a number of methods used by the government to maintain stability: a) sex. maneuvering, the implementation of compromises with other sex. forces. b) gender. manipulation by means of a targeted impact on the general opinion through the medium of mass inf-tion. c) integration of the counter-elite into the system and its involvement in the exercise of power. d) power pressure, the scope of which narrows as the democratization of society-va.

Political modern mode. Russia can be characterized as democratic with stable authoritarian-oligarchic features and political elements. corporatism. Authoritarianism is in the traditions of the Russians. total Islands. As a result of those reforms, a huge gap has formed in the country between the rich and the poor, which, in the absence of a stabilizing "middle class", leads to an increase in authoritarian sentiments. On the other hand, in modern Russia's character is becoming more and more pronounced. features of democracy: the foundations of legal statehood are being built and the foundations of civil society are being created. total Islands; power on the federation. and locally selectable and replaceable. To strengthen the democratic in Russia. trends need to carry out reforms that have positive. result for most people: the reform of the administrative state. apparatus, creating conditions for the effective functioning of small and medium-sized businesses, pension reform, etc.

Definition and content of politics as a social phenomenon.

Politics can be viewed from the point of view of the class and from the point of view of the activity approach. The class approach characterizes politics as a sphere of class struggle associated with the state. The activity approach is more modern than the class approach and characterizes politics in the following way. Politics is an activity related to the management of the state. This is the skill, the art of governing the state. The role of art in politics is predetermined by the probabilistic nature of the political process. Therefore, politics as an art presupposes a wise solution of issues, subtle maneuvering, correct psychological calculation, and flexibility in political decisions. However, the art of political activity is impossible without measure. If there is no measure, politics can develop into politicking, the dominance of ambition, lust for power and intrigue. The element of the game is also present in politics. Strictly speaking, play is an imitation of activity, not the activity itself. In domestic political science, politics is divided into external and internal. Domestic policy is a set of activities of the state, its structures and institutions related to solving problems that exist in the state (creating jobs, solving health problems, education, etc.). Foreign policy is a purposeful activity of the state to implement the interests of society in the system of international relations (social policy, investment policy, etc.).

In foreign political science, politics is divided into four components:

1. Extraction policy draws human and material resources from society for state purposes (taxes, etc.).

2. Regulatory policy has an impact on social strata, political institutions and the political situation as a whole with the help of legal norms and control actions.

3. The distribution policy is aimed at the distribution of material and spiritual wealth in society, including the program of social security and charity.

4. Procedural policy defines the structures and procedures associated with public administration and the political system.

Properties, types and functions of the policy.

Policy properties:

Inclusiveness or the ability to limitless penetration into other areas of society.

Functioning in the form of complicity and interaction between managers and managed. It is due to the existence of population groups, of which some perform the functions of managing society (elite, leaders), while others obey, but at the same time influence the choice of elite groups and the content of their course.

Unity in the political process of conscious and spontaneous actions and forms of political behavior.

Functionality - the ability to serve society, which allows politics to deeply influence other areas of society and interact with them comprehensively.

By areas of life society can be identified as follows policies:

Economic - regulation of relations between citizens and social groups in the economic sphere;

Social - regulation of relations between citizens, social groups about their place in society;

National - regulation of relations between nations, national groups;

Cultural - regulation of relations between citizens, social groups in the spiritual life;

State-administrative - regulation of relations in the power-political sphere, the policy of state-administrative construction;

By levels:

Local - regulation of issues of local importance related to the development of a municipal association (village, city, district);

Regional - regulation of issues related to the development of the region (subject of the federation);

National - regulation of issues related to the development of society as a whole;

International - regulation of relations between states, groups of states in the international arena;

World (global level) - regulation of issues related to the solution of global problems of our time;

By volume:

Strategic (long-term) - choosing the most significant priorities for the development of society, strategic long-term goals, determining ways and means to achieve them, the general course;

Tactical (short-term, current) - solving current issues, developing and implementing operational decisions;

According to the functions of the state(by area of distribution):

Internal policy - regulation of relations between citizens and social groups in various areas within the state;

Foreign policy is the regulation of relations between states, groups of states and other subjects of international relations in the international arena.

The main functions of politics in society:

Management (political leadership of society);

Integrative, ensuring the consolidation of society, achieving the stability of society as a whole and its constituent parts, systems;

Regulatory, contributing to streamlining, regulation of political behavior and political relations;

Theoretical and prognostic, the purpose of which is the development of a concept, a course of development of society;

Articulation, contributing to the identification and expression of the interests of various groups of society;

Normative, associated with the development and approval of a system of norms and values in society;

The socialization of the individual is a function of inclusion, inclusion of the individual in public life, a certain political environment.

Origin, essence and features of civil society. Formation of civil society in Russia.

The formation of a legal state is possible only on the basis of a developed civil society. The idea of civil society dates back to the era of antiquity (Aristotle in the Greek polis considered those who participate in the political life of society to be citizens). The first use of the concept of "civil society" by Hobbes: civil society is only an integral part of the state and without the state it will be in chaos. For a long time, the state and society were not distinguished, only in the era of enlightenment did a clear idea of civil society arise. Civil society is an independent system. and independent. from the state of public institutions and relations, which are designed to provide conditions for the self-realization of individuals and groups, the realization of private interests and needs. Civil society is created gradually, growing naturally - it is a self-fulfilling and self-developing system, but it functions more successfully if favorable conditions are created:

1. the presence of multiple forms of ownership

2. the existence of many social groups, interests, requests

3. the presence of a wide network of voluntary associations, movements

4. the presence of a clear and consistent system of laws

5. general civic mentality (belief in oneself, competitiveness, readiness to take political responsibility).

The basis of civil society is the middle class. Civil society acts as a sphere for realizing private interests and needs, and the state, the spokesman for the will of the entire population, reconciles and combines interests on the main issues of public life.

In a democracy, the state and society are equal and independent, and problems are solved through compromises. The structure of civil society is divided into areas:

1. Economic - structural e-you civic. community: non-judgment. enterprises and associations.

2. Socio-political - family, classes, political, party, organized movements, public self-government bodies.

3. Spiritual - traditions, customs, education, science, culture, unions of composers, national creative organizations.

The main element of civil society is a separate individual, personality. A distinctive feature of society from state structures is the equality of partners. Civil society is made up of:

1. various enterprises of non-state form of ownership.

2. public organizations and institutions

3. various unions, funds, clubs, general movements, civil initiatives

4. local governments

5. political parties are not ruling

6. independent media

7. pressure group.

The basis of social civil society is formed by the middle class. The fundamental conditions for the life of civil society: the possession of members of specific property, the right to use and dispose of at their own discretion.

As features of the formation of civil society in Russia, the following can be distinguished:

1. Russia embarked on the path of building a civil society much later than the countries of Western Europe and the United States.

The revolution of 1905-1907 became a new stage in the formation of civil society: political parties and trade unions appeared. It is believed that later in the period of the USSR, civil society was incompatible with a totalitarian state. However, the family, schools, labor collective, culture, and Soviet corporatism played an important role in raising the level of self-organization and citizenship in society.

After the collapse of the USSR, the Russians were characterized by: the "mood" nature of social discontent, a low level of readiness to unite with other people in order to jointly solve pressing problems, and a low level of mutual trust. However, in the post-Soviet period, there is a liberalization of public consciousness, the establishment of new value orientations, and an active minority appears.

2. The formation of a multi-party system in Russia took place at the beginning of the 20th century - also later than in Western Europe and the USA.

3. Russian traditions of joint, collective solution of problems and problems contributed to the formation of civil society.

4. The totalitarian regime established after October 1917 introduced strict political control by the state over the activities of civil society. Some of its elements remain (trade union and voluntary societies, women's, youth, creative and other organizations), but their activities are regulated and controlled by the Communist Party, which itself becomes part of the state.

5. Lack of democratic experience in the functioning of civil society after the collapse of the USSR.

Subjects and objects of policy.

An object in politics - that part of political reality, the system, which is included and to which the activity of the subject in politics is directed. The object in politics can be political relations, the political system with its institutions, social groups and individuals included in the political process, i.e. all spheres of life of the state-va. Political subjectivity in general is a property of large social groups, only secondary and conditional (within the framework of connection with social groups) inherent in their institutions (political organizations) and members exercising important political roles (ideologists, leaders, etc.).

Subject in politics - a source of purposeful, substantive political activity on the object. The subjects in politics include: individuals, classes, social strata, political institutions, ethnic groups, confessional and demographic groups, etc., having and thus realizing their socio-political interest. The subject and object in politics are reflective (interchangeable) values: the same institution or social group can be both a subject and an object at the same time, and can change places; but also - interdependent concepts: the object has the same influence on the subject, determining the methods and methods of influence, setting the algorithm and matrix of political activity, limiting the space of the active subject, which, in turn, also changes the object. In society, both subjects and objects - people - are carriers of socio-political qualities.

Therefore, one often distinguishes between the "subject of politics" (reflects the activity side of the behavior of an individual or a social group, which may not be aware of the essence of their own activity) and "political subject" (in the case when the activity of the subject pursuing his goals is conscious). This means that the concept of political subjectivity contains two integrally interconnected elements: consciousness (for the practical implementation of political goals and ideals requires knowledge about the object, a value-evaluative scale, etc.) and activity (real action itself). In political activity, two types of relations are distinguished: subject-object and inter-subject (subject-subject).

political leadership.

The leader is the leader, that authoritative member of the organization, whose personal influence allows him to play a significant role in the social. processes, situations. Leadership is one of the mechanisms for integrating group activities when an individual or part of a social group performs the role of a leader, i.e. combines the actions of the entire group that is waiting for this action.

There are three levels of leadership:

Small group leader polit. interests.

General leader movements or polit. parties

A leader who is the head of state.

In political science, there are several theories that explain the formation of a human leader:

The theory of traits is the presence of outstanding qualities.

Situation theory is a confluence of circumstances.

The theory of the inner circle of the leader is the inner circle.

Psychological theory - personality traits.

Political leadership is a way of interaction. leader and mass in the process of cat. The leader has a significant impact on society.

Types of political leaders:

M. Weber's classification:

Traditional leadership is based on the strength of traditions and customs.

Rational-legal - based on the norms of the law.

Charismatic leadership is based on the outstanding qualities of a leader.

R. Tucker's classification: (type of political consciousness)

reform leader

revolutionary leader

Conservative Leader

Classification of Western political science:

standard-bearer leader, who is distinguished by a special vision of reality, an attractive ideal, a dream that can inspire the masses;

a leader-servant who, in his activities, is guided by the needs and requirements of his adherents and voters and acts on their behalf;

a leader-merchant who is able to present his ideas attractively, competently convince citizens of the superiority of his ideas over the ideas of others;

a firefighter leader who focuses on the most pressing, burning problems and whose actions depend on the specific situation.

Russell classification:

Fanatic Enthusiast

soldier of fortune

Administrator

Classification of Russian political science:

Owner - strives for unlimited power

Artist - loves to perform in front of the masses

Excellent student - strives to adhere to the instructions developed for him

Loner - seeks to take the position of an observer from the outside

Functions of a political leader:

R. Tucker identified three leader functions:

Diagnostic

prescriptive

Mobilizing

Ros. political scientists Pugachev and Solovyov identified six functions:

Society integration

Political decision making

Social patronage

Interaction between government and society

Legitimation of the political system

Society Renewal Initiative

political elite.

The political elite is a relatively small layer of people who hold leadership positions in government bodies, political parties, public organizations, etc. and influencing policy making and implementation in the country.

The political elite is the ruling part of society, the ruling stratum. This concept denotes groups of persons with a high position in society, active in political and other spheres of activity, with authority, influence, wealth. Basically, these are high-ranking professional politicians, endowed with power functions and powers. They are also senior civil servants, trained to participate in the development and implementation of political programs, to develop and implement a strategy for social development.

The existence of a political elite is due to the following factors:

Psychological and social characteristics of people, their unequal abilities, opportunities and desire to participate in politics;

The law of the division of labor, which requires professional management, a certain specialization;

The high social significance of managerial work and its corresponding stimulation;

Wide opportunities for using management activities to obtain social privileges (because it is directly related to the distribution of values);

The practical impossibility of exercising comprehensive control over political leaders;

The political passivity of the broad masses of the population, whose main interests lie outside politics.

The political elite is not a simple sum of persons who, by chance, were endowed with power, but a social group that is created from individuals with certain abilities, professional skills, knowledge, and skills. Therefore, the political elite is the central link of state administration, on the activity of which the direction and course of the political development of society, the functioning of the political system depend.

The role of the elite in society, in management, the economy, etc. reflect its functions:

1. elites play a crucial role in determining the political will of the social group, the entire class and in developing mechanisms for the implementation of this will,

2. elites are called upon to form the political goals of their group, class, their program documents,

3. elites regulate the activities of the political representation of a group, class, dosing support, strengthening or limiting it,

4. The elites are the main reserve of leading personnel, the center for the recruitment and placement of leaders in various areas of political and state administration.

In the formation of political elites, the systems of its recruitment are of great importance. These systems determine who, how and from whom carries out the selection, what are its procedures and criteria, the circle of the selectorate (people who carry out the selection), and the motives for its actions. There are two systems for recruiting elites:

1. system of guilds,

2. entrepreneurial system (entrepreneurial).

In their pure form, they are quite rare. The entrepreneurial system is typical for democratic states, the system of guilds - in authoritarian and totalitarian states, although its elements are widely used in democratic states, especially in the economy and the state-administrative sphere.

The concept, functions, types and principles of elections in modern society.

Elections - a method and procedure for the formation of an authoritative body or the empowerment of an official, impl. by voting.

Types of elections:

Direct - the question of election belongs directly to the citizens.

Indirect - between the voters and the elected there is a third party.

General, partial, additional;

National, regional, local;

Initial, repeated, new;

Regular, extraordinary, general, limited;

Equal, unequal;

Elections perform important functions in society. Let's single out main functions of elections:

- formation of public authorities - parliament, head of state, government (in some cases), judicial bodies, local governments;

– expression and representation of the interests of various social groups and strata of the population, the electorate;

- the inclusion of citizens in the political process as its subject, which for the majority of citizens is the only form of real participation in politics;

- legitimation of power as recognition by citizens of its legitimacy and right to govern, as well as consent to obey;

– the formation of a political elite, i.е. bringing to power (with maximum probability) the best representatives of society;

– control over the institutions of power and influence on the content of the political course.

Elections can correspond to their social purpose only if they are based on certain principles. Two groups of such principles can be distinguished: first, suffrage principles that determine the status, position of each citizen in the elections; Secondly, general principles for organizing elections characterizing the fundamental organizational, including social, conditions for their democracy. Democratic principles of suffrage include:

1. Universality - all citizens, regardless of gender, race, nationality, class or professional affiliation, language, income level, wealth, education, religion or political opinion, have an active (as a voter) and a passive (as a candidate) right to participation in elections. Universality is limited only by an extremely small number of qualifications, i.e. conditions for the admission of citizens to participate in elections. The age limit allows participation in elections only from a certain age, as a rule, upon reaching the age of majority. Candidates must be slightly older. The incapacity qualification restricts the voting rights of the mentally ill, which must be confirmed by a court decision. The moral qualification restricts or deprives the electoral rights of persons who are in places of deprivation of liberty by a court verdict. The residency requirement is also widespread, which puts forward a certain period of residence in a given area or country as a condition for admission to elections.

2. Equality - each voter has only one vote, which is evaluated equally, regardless of whether it belongs to one or another person. At the same time, neither property status, nor position, nor any other status or personal qualities should affect the position of a citizen as a voter. Equality of suffrage also implies an approximate equality of electoral districts, which is necessary for the votes of voters to have approximately the same weight in the election of a deputy. In practice, it is quite difficult and expensive to constantly ensure exact equality of constituencies, so some deviations from this principle are allowed. Thus, according to the electoral law of Germany, constituencies may differ in population by one third.

3. Secrecy of elections - the decision of a particular voter should not be known to anyone. This principle ensures freedom of choice, protects citizens from possible persecution, as well as bribery. It applies only to passive suffrage. In practice, the secrecy of elections is ensured by a closed voting procedure, the presence of special voting booths, a standard form, the same ballots for voting, the inclusion of the names of all candidates in them, or the use of special machines instead of paper ballots that preserve the secrecy of the electoral decision and facilitate the technique of voting and counting its results, sealing of ballot boxes, severe punishment for violating electoral secrecy, etc.

4. Direct (immediate) voting - the voter makes a decision directly about a specific candidate for an elective position, votes for a real person. There are no instances between voters and candidates that mediate their will and directly determine the personal composition of deputies. In the event that citizens elect only electors or a special body that directly elects a candidate, indirect (indirect) elections take place. Such elections, due to depersonalization, abstractness of the choice, extinguish the interest of citizens in voting and contribute to the development of absenteeism. They distort the will of the voters in favor of the big parties or blocs, as the votes won by outsider parties are lost at every level of elections. Indirect elections are rarely used these days.

Electoral systems: concept, types. Feature of the electoral system of modern Russia.

Electoral system- this is a set of rules, principles and methods established by law for conducting voting, determining its results and distributing deputy mandates. Electoral systems are interrelated with the form of government and the political culture of each country. They change in the face of major social changes.

The electoral system is an important element of the political system of the state, it is regulated by legal norms, which together form the right to vote.

Types of electoral systems:

proportional electoral system

This system assumes the distribution of seats in parliament in accordance with the percentage of votes received in elections on party lists in a single national constituency (the Netherlands) or in several large regional constituencies. This system is used, as a rule, in parliamentary elections (all continental Western Europe, with the exception of France, half of the deputies of the State Duma of the Russian Federation, etc.).

Seats are allocated either by the largest balance, or by the highest average, or on the basis of an electoral quota.

The advantage of the proportional system is its representativeness, which ensures the most adequate representation of various parties in parliament and gives voters the opportunity to rank their choice. It provides feedback between the state and civil society, promotes the development of pluralism and a multi-party system.

At the same time, the system does not fully meet the criterion of simplicity, since it requires the average voter to be widely aware of the positions of the parties. It can also become a source of destabilization of society in the event of a change in the orientation of the party for which the voters voted, as well as as a result of an intra-party split after the elections.

The advantages of the proportional electoral system are realized with the established multi-party system. In the absence of such a system, this system can lead to the emergence of a fragmented deputy corps and frequent changes of governments, which will weaken the effectiveness of the democratic system.

Mixed electoral system

On the basis of a mixed electoral system, elections are held in Germany and Russia. In a number of countries, in order to combine the benefits of various systems and avoid their shortcomings, or at least significantly mitigate these shortcomings, mixed electoral systems are being created, in which elements of both majoritarian and proportional systems are somehow combined.

The essence of the mixed system lies in the fact that part of the deputies is elected by the majority system, and part - by proportional. The voter gives one vote for a specific candidate running in this constituency, the other for a political party.

Feature of the electoral system of modern Russia:

Electoral threshold -7%, from the next elections (in 2016) - 5%

But he is "floating", because. can be reduced if two parties receive 60% or less or if more than 60% of the votes are cast for 1 list

The sum of the votes cast for the lists is divided by 450 (the State Duma consists of 450 deputies). The result obtained is the first selective quotient. Let's say 100 million voted. Divide by 450 = 222.222

The integer part of the number obtained as a result of such a division is the number of deputy mandates that the corresponding federal list of candidates receives as a result of the initial distribution of deputy mandates

Overcame barrier 3 lists:

Total: 390 mandates. 60 mandates left undistributed

Secondary distribution of the remaining mandates underway

Undistributed deputy mandates are transferred according to one of those federal lists of candidates who have the largest fractional part of the number obtained as a result of the primary distribution (in our case, party M, then party Y, then X)

As a result, each of the three parties will receive another 20 seats in the secondary distribution. But if there were 61 mandates left, then party M would receive 21 additional mandates, and the other two would receive 20 each.

After that, the places are distributed within each list. The federal part of the list has priority over the regional part.

Political power. Its definition and features.

Political power- the ability and ability of the subject of the floor to exercise his will, to influence people with help. authority, law, violence, and other means.

Distinctive signs floor. authorities:

1) Supremacy - binding decisions for the whole society, all its spheres and types of power.

2) Universality - action on the basis of law and on behalf of the whole society.

3) Legality - the monopoly legal use of force and other means of power on a national scale.

4) Monocentric existence of power decision-making bodies.

Sources of power:

1) The difference in the properties of people and their unequal social position in society;

2) Force - in the end, that social group of people who provides itself with support from law enforcement agencies wins;

3) Wealth. The owners of wealth can provide other people with a livelihood, and in return, the obedience of those who depend on them materially;

4) Knowledge, information - those with knowledge attract the attention of people, offer ways and methods for solving problems, enjoy authority;

5) Occupied position, acquisition of more knowledge, information, psychological readiness for management;

6) Organization - unites many people, therefore, the leaders of the org-ii show other people's interests, something that is beyond the power of one to be achieved by common efforts.

Floor. power - rel., in which the subjects of the floor participate, possessing the will or power, and on the other hand, the subordinate objects of the floor, agreeing or disagreeing to connect. Separate communities of people, the state, organizations can be used as ruling subjects. People, social groups, classes act as subordinate objects.

Power rels have 2 levels of rels:

1) Relationships of different or opposing interests and goals;

2) Concerning the general identical purposes.

The essence of power relations is coercion and violence, on a different level is the preservation of the universal interconnection and commitment of all people on the basis of consent and compromise, mutual understanding.

Forms of Power Relations taking into account the power of both parties:

1) consent;

2) compromise;

3) coercion;

4) violence;

5) fight.

With the consent, both sides of the relationship show a sense of belonging to a gender community, positively perceive the state, agree to connect. Attitude of compromise - when the interests of the parties partially coincide and are ready to make counter concessions; in case of discrepancy, the ruling party, relying on the resources of power, imposes its goals and values. Relatives of conflict and violence exist with the complete irreconcilability of the interests of the parties.

resources of political power. Legality and legitimacy of political power.

Power resources- those means with the help of a cat. the subject of power-ty seeks to influence the society-in and the implementation of their goals.

There are several approaches to the classification of resources. According to one of them, resources are divided into:

1) utilitarian - these are material and other social. benefits associated with the daily interests of people; with their help, the authorities can "buy" not only politicians, but also entire sections of the population;

2) coercive measures of administrative punishment when utilitarian resources do not work;

3) normative - include the environment of the impact on the internal. peace, value orientations and norms of human behavior; are called upon to convince by influence on the consciousness of a person in the community of interests of those who hold power and those who are ruled.

Another classification of resources is:

1) economical. - these are material values necessary for public production and consumption; money as their general equivalent, wed-va pr-va, land, minerals, food.

2) political and power - weapons; apparatus of physical coercion; specially trained people (army, police, etc.).

3) cultural and informational - knowledge and information, as well as the means of obtaining and disseminating them, institutions of science, education and the media.

4) social. - the ability to lower or increase social. status, place in social stratification (i.e. position, prestige, education).

legitimacy- this is the legitimacy of power and society. support.

M. Weber identifies 3 ways to ensure the legitimacy of power:

traditional - inheritance by inheritance, monarchy;

constitutional-legal (source-to vl. - the people);

charismatic (the chosen one has special qualities).

In connection with these ways, he identifies 3 levels of legitimacy of power:

ideological - is based on the correspondence of power to the established type of human socialization and its integration into political. system; characteristic of the totality. regime and is achieved through intensive propaganda.

structural - characteristic of stable societies, where the order of formation of power has become familiar; people recognize power, because it is formed by laws.

personal - according to Weber, it lies in the general approval of the ruling person (identified with the ideal of the leader).

Legitimacy must be distinguished from legality - Compliance with legal regulations.

Legal - recognized by law, in accordance with the law.

Separation, belonging and functions of political power.

Political power - it is a special type of power in society. It is carried out in conditions of division of labor and in the presence of a high level of social differentiation of members of society.

The problems of the separation of powers in our time have become one of the top-priority issues of the reorganization of society on a democratic basis. In the 18th century, the outstanding French philosopher C. Montesquieu actively advocated the implementation of the principle of “separation of powers” as a necessary condition for ensuring freedom in society and preventing despotism and tyranny. The essence of the tripartite separation of powers is that the legislative, executive and judicial powers must both perform their functions and mutually complement, restrain and control each other.

Legislature performs the following functions: adoption, amendment and repeal of laws, approval of the budget, control over the activities of the executive branch. In each state, the scope of these functions, defined by the constitution of the country, may be different.

executive power deals with the solution of current issues of state and public life. The main body of executive power is the government. It usually performs two functions. First- direct management of the activities of the entire state apparatus to ensure domestic and foreign policy. Second- regulation, within the limits established by law. The fact is that it is not possible to foresee in the laws all the actions of state and other organizations. In this regard, the government, on the basis of existing legislation, carries out administrative work.

Judicial branch administers justice. The judicial authorities determine the compliance of the actions of organizations, political institutions, people with the norms and regulations established by law and, if necessary, apply sanctions to stop illegal activities. The judicial authorities include courts of various instances, prosecutorial supervision.

A special place in the system of power is occupied by the head of state, which to a certain extent combines some aspects of the legislative, executive and judicial powers.

Functions of political power as a tool of social management:

Formation of the political system of society;

Preservation of social integrity;

Management of the authorities and the state apparatus by the methods and means of their activities;

Managing the affairs of society and the state with the help of various means and methods;

Control and purposeful influence on various structures of society in the interests of the authorities;

Strengthening and maintaining the stability of the existing system of power (the power must take care of itself) in the name of its interests and the goals of the development of the whole society;

Realization of the needs and interests of social groups exercising power functions;

Regulation of social relations

Maintaining the proportions necessary for society between production and consumption in such a way that they do not impede, but stimulate each other's development.

Using its capabilities, the authorities must form the political system of society, create optimal political relations between the state and society, social groups, classes, political institutions, parties, citizens, government bodies. The authorities are called upon to control these relations and, if possible, turn them into conflict-free and organized ones. Thus, political power performs such socially significant functions, as:

Maintaining public order and stability;

Identification, limitation and resolution of conflicts;

Achievement of public consent (consensus);

Coercion in the name of socially significant goals and maintaining stability;

Managing the affairs of society.

Power manifests itself:

At the macro level of governance (higher central political institutions, government agencies, parties and organizations);

At the mesolevel of management (regional, regional, district);

At the micro level of management (direct political communication of people, small groups, self-government).

The effective exercise of power is possible only when there is a clear idea of how it functions.

Power, as a social phenomenon, performs organizational, regulatory and control functions.

In a systemic form, the following can also be distinguished main functions of power:

Analysis of the political and social situation and specific situations;

Definition of own strategy and private, tactical tasks;

Repressive function - supervision and suppression of deviant behavior;

Assignment and disposal of the necessary resources (material and spiritual - will, intellect, solidarity and support of supporters, etc.);

Allocation of policy resources (confidence building measures, agreements, exchange of concessions and benefits, awards, rewards, etc.);

The transformation of the political and social environment of power in its interests and in the interests of its policy.

19. The political system of society. Concept and structure.

The political system is a set of political institutions, public structures in which political power is exercised and political influence is exercised.

The political system of society reflects the interests of social groups that influence political power. These interests are realized through the political process through the adoption and implementation of political decisions.

The political system consists of 4 subsystems:

1.Institutional

Institutions of power - claim power (political parties)

Participatory institutions - non-state associations that accompany the political process (election commission)

2. Normative - a set of legal acts that determine the activities of institutions.

3. Cultural and ideological - traditions of political participation and the main ideas, theories that determine policy.

4. Communicative - a set of relations that arise in the process of functioning of the political system of society. These are relations about the management of society, relations associated with the struggle for political power.

20. Functions of the political system. Typology of political systems. Features of the political system of Russia.

1) determination of goals, objectives, ways of development of society;

2) organization of the company's activities to achieve the set goals;

3) distribution of material and spiritual resources;

4) coordination of various interests of the subjects of the political process;

5) development and implementation of various norms of behavior in society;

6) ensuring the stability and security of society;

7) political socialization of the individual, familiarizing people with political life;

8) control over the implementation of political and other norms of behavior, suppression of attempts to violate them. Political relations and political conflicts.

Types of political systems according to Blondel:

Traditional (African countries): determined by tribal consciousness, a power factor, a political leader plays a leading role

Communist = totalitarian regime

Conservative (China, India, Japan) - based on tradition, a system of rigid power, a combination of traditional and democratic institutions.

Democratic (western countries)

Modern systems are divided into:

1.democratic systems: the institution of power - several political parties.

In Russia, the political system is in its infancy. Peculiarities:

1. In the institutional subsystem, there is a redistribution of power in favor of the executive bodies and a significant restriction of the functions of the legislative institutions of power.

2. features of oligarchism. This concerns the decision-making process that was carried out by a narrow group of people - the president - the head of the presidential administration - the prime minister,

3. weak reactivity - does not always respond in a timely manner and adequately to existing and emerging interests and needs of the population, often late in resolving social conflicts

4. The replacement of political institutions of the former system (CPSU, Soviets) with new ones (President, Federal Assembly) was carried out faster than changes in the political culture of society took place. New institutions did not find support in the society, it is still dominated by old political norms and values, standards of political behavior;

5. The rejection of communist values (equality, justice, collectivism) did not lead to the establishment of liberal values in society (individualism, property, freedom, etc.).

One of the urgent tasks of our time is the study of a foreign language. As a rule, at the beginning of training, students begin to learn any foreign language with great interest.

But in order to memorize words, to bring the use of speech turns to automatism, they need to be repeated many times. And how much rpammatic material has to be memorized, a huge number of irregular verbs ... Cramming, with all the desire, is difficult to avoid. And she, of course, is boring, which often leads to a decrease, and even loss of interest in the subject.

Loss of interest can be avoided by using . Its use is also useful because it contributes not only to maintaining the motivation to learn the language, but also to the development of the child's personality.

When creating a problematic situation, one should not be limited to simply posing problematic questions. The teacher should set himself a more complex task, using problem situations, to move from reproductive to productive, creative teaching methods, in which the independent cognitive activity of students takes an increasing place.

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Department of Education of the City of Moscow

Eastern Department of Education

Gymnasium №1512

Scientific and methodological work

French teachers

Shestakova O.A.

Topic: "Methods of problem-based learning in French lessons"

Moscow, 2012

One of the urgent tasks of our time is the study of a foreign language. As a rule, at the beginning of training, students begin to learn any foreign language with great interest.

Loss of interest can be avoided by usingproblem learning technology. Its use is also useful because it contributes not only to maintaining the motivation to learn the language, but also to the development of the child's personality.

For example, here are some provisions of the theory of problem-based learning, which are offered by L.I. Lerner, M.I. Makhmutov, M.N. Skatkin.initial ideasproblem-based learning theories are;

The non-judgmental nature of the reaction to the statements of students in the course of training. (Does everyone agree? Who wants to argue? Express a different point of view?)

The leading pedagogical idea of this system of work is the idea of cooperation. The teacher himself becomes the assistant of the student and the organizer of his independent educational knowledge.

Thus, the goal problem-based learning technology is to promote:

The development of critical thinking in children, the experience of teaching and research activities, the ability to creatively approach the problems posed;

Search and definition by students of their own values;

Creation of a favorable socio-psychological atmosphere,

The educational process is organized by the teacher so that students have a need to acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities. Good are those problem-based teaching methods that are aimed at organizing the search cognitive activity of students.

The task of students when discussing a problem situation is to express (if possible) their own judgment, which leads to the development of the student's colloquial speech, as well as the development of the individual.

Therefore, the main principles of the pedagogical activity of a teacher using problem-based learning technology are:

Problematic nature ensures the intellectual development of students;

Independent knowledge of the world around;

Individualization and differentiation make it possible to eliminate the difficulties that arise in individual students and develop the abilities of students;

Stimulation of creative activity and cognitive independence ensures the creation of a favorable environment for solving new problems and quickly adapting to new conditions.

Where in the system of lessons is it most expedient to use problematic questions?

A student-oriented lesson involves the rapid inclusion of students in cognitive activity, the activation of their thinking through an unusual beginning of the lesson, which immediately mobilizes the attention of children. The solution of this problem is facilitated by active teaching methods and techniques, which include an intriguing announcement of the topic.

The wording of the topic should contain a problem, a riddle that students have to solve in a series of lessons, a question that needs to be answered. The topic can be a lexico-grammatical model of the statement, which each student could transform using his own vocabulary. In addition, from the topic of the lesson, the student must isolate for himself the vital and practical value of the educational material proposed for study.

For example, some options that can be used in the classroom.

Topic-Question (To the topic "School")

Pourquoi apprendre? (Why study?)

Est-ce faci1e d "etre e1eve aujourdhui? Les devoirs: une ga1ere? (Is it easy to be a student today)

L "eco1e: un lieu de stress? (School is a place for stress)

Encrypted topic

For example, before declaring the theme "Family"students solve a crossword or rebus containingactive vocabulary. You can offer a proverb, saying, aphorism for translation, show slides depicting a family, pictures, collages.

self-formulated theme

There can be a lot of options for self-formulation of the topic. For example, when studying the topic "Travel", you can start the lesson with an unfinished phrase: "In the summer I ...,"

In the first lesson of studying this big topic, students are invited to brainstorm an associative array (holidays, rest, sea, swim, sunbathe). Then these associations are classified, all kinds of phrases are compiled, from which students are invited to choose the most appropriate ones. Thus, the phrase that the student will compose becomes his motto when studying this topic, and his task is to prove his thesis during the study of the section. The same phrase can become the name of a future monologue statement on the topic. Self-voicing of the topic of the lesson encourages students to express their understanding of the studied phenomena, events, facts, texts and attitude towards them.

Theme and its subsections

For example, students are offered the general name of the block of lessons "Traditions et coutumes (Traditions and customs)". In pairs or groups, there is a discussion about what issues could be covered in this topic. Then the proposed questions are combined into sections. After that, the study of the topic goes through the proposed sections, and the questions compiled by the students help to plan each subsequent lesson and reveal the topic. It is also possible that the teacher directly asks: “De quoi aimeriez-vous parler? "," Qu "est-ce qu" il faut discuter en etudiapt ce sujet? (What would you like to talk about? What should be discussed when studying this topic?) "

Mystery theme -

In the topic “Television”, the teacher offers to listen to musical screensavers of the most popular TV shows, show videos and the students themselves must guess what the lesson will be about.

Theme-aphorism or quote

When studying various topics, you can use the phrase of the Little Prince Exupery "Op deviept pour toujours respopsable d celui qu" op a apprivoise (We are responsible for those we have tamed).

Successful use of problematic questions is possible when working with text, at the stage of “leaving the topic”, for developing speaking skills on the topic, when working on

dialogic speech, when holding round tables, discussions, when formulating creative tasks of various kinds, including project topics.

When teaching foreign languages, social, everyday, educational, labor, socio-cultural spheres of communication are distinguished. Discussion of problems within these areas, firstly, contributes to the development of the social properties of the individual. Secondly, the use in solving problems of the intellectual properties of the individual: perception, memory, thinking, attention, imagination, as well as the life experience of students, creates conditions for the development and self-determination of students. At the same time, a two-pronged task is solved: the search for a solution to the problem is carried out in a foreign language and at the same time the author's position of the student is formed.

As a rule, problem situations do not have a final solution, everyone has their own. It is necessary that all the problems under consideration be of interest to students and correlated with their inner world.

In recent years, much attention has been paid to the authenticity of educational material. When formulating questions for discussion, the teacher should strive to ensure that the question is truly problematic. Unfortunately, the problem situations offered by the educational program material are often not interesting. Only when a problematic issue interests the student does the desire to speak arise in him as a natural reaction.

Very handy for use as a problem statement by readers' letters. They can be found in teen publications or Internet forums.

Cher Okapi! Dear Okapi!

J'ai un big problem. J'ai 14 ans et je ne sais pas danser. Si je suis envitee a un boum je trouve une exuse pour ne pas y aller. (I have a big problem. I'm 14 and can't dance. If I'm invited to a party, I look for an excuse to refuse.)

Missou

************

J'ai 13 ans et je ne sais pas ce que je vais faire comme métier plus tard. Eat-ce normal? (I'm 13 years old and I don't know what I'll do in the future. is this normal?)

Anna

************

Depuis quelques temps je ne supporte plus quand mes parents viennent m "embrasser, cherchent a me caIiner ou veulent me consoler parce que je suis triste. C" est un peu bete, mais j "ai honte. For some time now I don't like it when my parents kiss me, caress me and want to console me if I'm sad.It's stupid and I'm ashamed.

Sebastian.

Some problematic questions that can be used in the lessons.

Social sphere of communication

Qu" est ce qui te stresse Ie plus a I ecole? (What worries you the most at school?)

Si tu pouvais changer l" ecole, qu" est-ce que tu changerais avant tout? (If you have to change schools, what would you change first?)

Selon toi, est-ce que l "ecole peut fonctionner sans notes? (Can a school exist without grades?)

Decris une ecole ideale ! (Describe your ideal school)

En France les coUeges portent les noms et non pas les numeros. Su tu devais donner un nom a notre ecole, quel serait ton choix, motive-Ie! (In France, schools have names, not numbers. How would you name your school?)

Fais Ie portrait d "un prof ideal! (Give me a portrait of an ideal teacher)

Fais Ie portrait d "un eleve type moderne! (Give me a portrait of a modern student)

Laisser de la liberte aux adolescents ou pas? (Is it necessary to give freedom to teenagers)

Faut-il, selon toi, avoir obligatoirement l "instruction superieure aujourd" hui ? (Is it necessary to have a higher education today)

Que veut dire pour toi "faire une carriere"? (What does it mean to you to have a career)

Comment comprends-tu I" expression « connaltre Ie monde » ?

Les etrangers appeUent souvent la Russie "mysterieuse". Qu "en penses-tu, pourquoi? (Foreigners call Russia mysterious. Why?)

Quelle fete fran

Est-ce qu"il t"arrive souvent de ne pas savoir par quoi occuper ton temps libre? (Do you always know what to do with your free time?)

La Terre a beaucoup de problemes ecologiques. Es-tu optimiste ou pessimiste face a l "avenir de notre planete (The earth has many problems. Your idea of the future of the planet)

Qu "en penses-tu, qui a plus de problemes: Ies ados ou Ies adultes? (Who do you think has more problems: the old or the young?)

QueUes propositions tu pourrais faire pour ameliorer l" enseignement des Iangues a l" ecole ? (Your suggestions for improving the teaching of foreign languages at school)

Partages-tu l "opinion que les adultes ont toujours raison? (Adults are always right)

Les vraies vacances ce sont des vacances OU on ne fait rien. (Real holidays when you do nothing)

Comment se faire des amis? (How to become friends?)

II faudrait interdire de fumer partout sauf a Ia maison.

Comment eviter les conflicts? (How to avoid conflicts)

Que veut dire etre moderne? (What is it like to be modern)

Quel est ton ideal de jeune fille (de jeune homme) ? (your ideal)

Comment est une family ideale? (Perfect family)

De quoi se compose Ie bonheur pour toi? (What is happiness)

Educational labor sphere of communication

Si tu etais directeur (ministre), que changerais-tu a l "ecole? (If you were a director, what would you change at school?)

Que faire pour ne pas se tromper dans Ie choix du metier?

Voudrais-tu etre millionaire? Pourquoi? (Do you want to be a millionaire)

QueUe profession on peut appeler prestigieuse ? (Prestigious professions)

L "argent de poche: faut-il en donner aux enfants? (Should children be given pocket money?)

Socio-cultural sphere of communication

Par quoi commence la Patrie? (Where does the Motherland begin?)

Que veut dire: etre ami de la nature? (Which means friend of nature)

Est-ce que Ie reve peut changer Ie monde ? (A dream can change the world?)

Comment vivra le monde dans 20 ans ? (What will happen to the world in 20 years)

Qu "est-ce que c" est le caractere national? (National character)

Quelle est l "influence de la musique sur l" homme? (The influence of music on a person)

Est-ce que les gens ont besoin des monuments? (People need monuments?)

In order to consider (solve) a problem situation, students must have an idea of what they have to talk about, but in order to express what they want to say in a foreign language, they need language material, certain language means, using which they and will be able to speak. That is why, when preparing a conversation, the task of the teacher is to select speech samples that will not only help to speak out, but will serve as arguments for or against. Speech samples will also come in handy to help build an evidence-based statement.

Reading plays a big role in finding a solution to a problem situation. These can be texts containing a description of some event, act, controversial statement, mass phenomenon, “abnormal” state of affairs. This type of activity can become the basis for improving other types, including speaking. The use of text is especially effective at the senior stage of learning, when students can read at the level of advanced communicative competence.

Reading-based speaking is a prerequisite for situational (unprepared) speaking. At the senior stage, the interconnected teaching of reading and speaking seems important because the problems of speech become more complicated, and the text is an incentive to discuss a wide variety of problems related to modern youth, history, culture of the country of the language being studied and one's own country. Thus, conditions are created for the transition of lexical units from the passive to the active stock.

Interrelated teaching of reading and speaking means the use of each of these types of speech activity both as a goal and as a means of learning, which ensures a positive mutual influence on the development of each of them.

Considering problematic topics, one cannot but take into account the degree of openness of the sincerity of the teacher and students in the classroom.

Anyone who strives to adhere to problem-based learning cannot but direct his efforts to ensure that the student thinks, reasoned aloud, lagged behind his opinion. Let him first formulate thoughts “clumsily”, but let him think, look for arguments, defend his position. When students are too lazy to think in a lesson, they are often ready to say: “Je suis d" accord avec ... - I agree with ...", And this is the easiest way. But the teacher may not accept such an answer, and ask to clarify his opinion.

Problem-based learning has a high educational potential, since, by expressing his attitude to problems, the student forms a system of his views and beliefs, builds his own scale of moral values. The task of the teacher is to build the educational component of the lesson as thin and delicate as possible.

From the point of view of education, a foreign language lesson occupies a very special place in the hierarchy of school subjects. Language opens the way to the knowledge of the culture of another people. And new knowledge always allows a person to compare, compare, teach to think and make their own moral choice. The job of a teacher is not to teach to adopt, copy someone else's culture, form and way of thinking and life, but to help them get to know and understand them as best as possible, learn positive traits, learn to get along with it.

Grishukova V.V.

foreign language teacher

Municipal budgetary educational institution

"Secondary school No. 66" Bryansk

Methodical development of a French lesson in grade 9

Subject: D.S. Likhachev - the genius of the Russian nation

Equipment:

A laptop;

Handout didactic material;

Related illustrations;

Portraits of scientists;

Drives C D

Bilingual dictionaries

Target: The development of socio-cultural competence is the familiarization of students with the culture, traditions and realities of their native country.

Tasks:

Educational:

activation of the use of vocabulary on the topic

developing the ability to answer questions

formation of search and research skills

acquaintance with the works of D.S. Likhachev

Educational

development of reading, listening, speaking skills on the topic

development of literary translation skills

development of educational and cognitive interests

development of skills and abilities of independent work, the ability to analyze, synthesize, compare

Educational

education of patriotism, pride in a compatriot

education of such human qualities as kindness, mercy, humane attitude towards each other, broadening the horizons of students.

During the classes

I . Beginning of the lesson.

Teacher: Bonjour! Vous êtes de bonne humeur et vous allez bien travailler pendant toute la leçon. Nous allons parler de Likhatchev. Notre sujet: Likhatchev est le genie de la nation russe. Finissez la phrase: « Likhatchev est un... »

Notre jeu “Passe la parole” homme, savant, écrivain, propagandiste, publiciste, humaniste, philologue, académicien, critique, traducteur.

Student responses

Teacher : Pendant la leçon il faut faire la recherche et éprouver qu`il est un grand homme. Pour ça nous allons travailler sur les textes, consacrés à ses oeuvres, écouter des textes biographiques, causer et discuter des questions problématiques. L`étude de la vie de n`importe quelle personne commence par l`étude de sa biographie. Nous avons déjà appris les biographies de différents hommes illustres de toutes les époques: des savants, des écrivains, des poètes

II. listening text .

“Les biographies des savants connus”

Teacher : Je vous propose d'écouter le texte. Soyez très attentifs et puis vous allez remplirces tables. Enumerez-les.

The teacher distributes the cards

Students listen to the text and fill in the blanks.

Louis

Pasteur

Dmitri Mendeleev

Dmitri

Likhatchev

Jean Frederic Joliot Curie

Mikhail

Lomonossov

Teacher: Etes-vous prêts?

Student responses

III .Monologic statements on the topic: “ L a biography de Likhatchev ”

Teacher : Vous avez bien choisi, mais je pense que vous connaissez mieux la biographie de Likhatchev. Voilà la biographie que vous venez d'écouter. Regardez-la et tachez d'ajouter quelque chose d'intéressant.

Student responses

Test for understanding the content of texts,

Teacher : Il y a un devoir intéressant pour vous. C'est pour savoir si on a bien compris les textes. Choissez la phrase. Lisez-la et dites vraie ou faux?

test

Vrai ou faux

1.En 1923 il est entré a l`Université de Petrograd.

2. En 1920-1931 il s`est trouvé à la construction du canal Belomoro-Baltique.

3.En 1941 il a soutenu la thèse "Les codes des annales de Novgorod de 12 siècle"

4. Des le 1954 il a dirigé le secteur de l'histoire

5. En 1953 il est devenu le membre correspondant de l`Académie des Sciences de l`URSS

6. En 1968-1991- le president du gouvernement du Fond soviétique de la science

7. Il a recu 3 prix d'Etat de l'URSS

8. En 1986 il est devenu le Heros de l'URSS

9. Il a eté décoré de l`Ordre du Drapeau Rouge du Travail

10. Il est le premier chevalier de l`Ordre de Saint-André Pervozvannyï

V . Completing a task

“Find a match”

Teacher : Vous avez compis que Likhatchev a beaucoup travaillé, a beaucoup réfléchi sur l`humanité, a écrit beaucoup de chef d`oeuvres. Lisez ces textes et trouvez la correspondance

The teacher distributes leaflets with the titles of the works and their descriptions.

Trouvez la correspondence

1. C'est un livre amusant, sage, adresse aux adultes et aux

enfants. Ce sont de différentes lettres consacrées à la

nature russe, à la littérature, à la langue, aux monuments,

aux traditions historiques. Certaines lettres contiennen A. Le monde comique

des conseils "Comment écrire", "Comment être"

orateur", "Comment parler", "L'amour à la lecture",

"Apprendre à é tudier"

2. Ce livre est consacré aux gens contemporains et aux

descendants. Là il y a des mémoires et des vues faites B. Le passé à l`avenir

aux années de 90. Ces materiaux sur la Russie ancienne

de différentes étapes du development de la Russie C. La terre natale

sont vraiment riches de faits interessants.

3 . Dans ce livre l'auteur nous a montre le rôle de

l'humour dans la vie sociale de cette époque. cela lui

permet de révéler certain secrets de la vie du tsar russe D. Le mot du

Ivan le Terrible aux travaux du 17 siècle d'Avakkoum régiment d'Igor

4 . Ce livre est consacré à la jeune generation. Dans ce E. Les lettres sur la

livre il s'agit des besoins d'étudier l'histoire de son bonté et la beauté

propre pays et de l'amour à sa partie. Il s'agit aussi de

l`inanimité des gens russes et de la terre russe.

5 . Ce livre était traduit par l'auteur en langue F. Les reflexions

contemporary. C`est le chef-d`oeuvre ancien de la sur la Russie

literature russe. C`est son oeuvre fondamental,

le monument de la litterature du Moyen Age

Teacher : Vous avez bien choisi les titres. Qu`est-ce qui vous a fait devine?

Student responses

Teacher : Quelles oeuvres de Likhatchev connaissez-vous encore?

Student responses

Teacher : O ù avez-vous pris la connaissance de ces oeuvres?

Student responses.

Teacher : A la leçon de francais nous allons apprendre un de ces oeuvres: Les lettres sur la bonté et la beauté?

Dites qu`est-ce que c`est que la bonte ?

VI .Linguistic research,

Checking homework

Teacher : Vous avez suit la signification du mot “bon” dans de différents dictionnaires.

Student responses.

Teacher : Savez-vous les opinions des hommes illustres sur la bonte?

Student responses

VII . Making a Good Situation

Teacher : Qu'en pensez-vous s'il y a de la bonte dans notre vie? Citez les exemples de votre propre vie. Il y a des mots qui vous aideront.

Situation 1

Adopter, la famille, l'orphelinat, un enfant, soigner les fleurs, les filles, la cour, les salles.

Situation 2

Aider, faire le ménage, acheter des provisions, préparer le repas, sauver, fidèle, mourir de faim, un chien.

Situation 3

Aider, traverser, une personne, aveugle, pauvre, donner, les gens, le vêtement, la nourriture.

Situation 4

Etre malade, passer chez, expliquer le devoir, tenir au courant, aider, une personne âgé, porter les sacs, les garçons.

Student responses

Teacher : Je suis sûr que vous avez de la bonte.

VIII. results questioning

Teacher : A la lecon précédente je vous ai donné un questionnaire “Si j`ai de la bonté”. A ma joie j'ai appris que vous avez de la bonte

IX . Studying the letter of D.S. Likhachev

Teacher : On parle beaucoup de la bonte. La bonte gagne. Et Likhatchev comment a-t-il parlé de ça ? Voilà une des lettres sur la bonté et la beauté "Le plus grand"

Lisez attentivement et puis vous allez poser des questions à un de vos copains. Il y a des mots nouveaux.

Ecoutez et repetez après moi. Ces mots vous aideront.

Teacher : Etes-vous prêts? Posez vos questions.

Student responses

X . Studying the commandments of D.S. Likhachev

Teacher : Vous avez bien lu et vous avez bien compris cette lettre. Je voudrais vous souvenir les testaments d'esprit de Likhachev. Travaillons en groupes. 10 testaments pour vous. Lisez-les et traduisez en russe. Vous pouvez poser des questions et consultez les distionnaires.

Teacher : Etes-vous prêts? Lisez-les. Quelle est la tradition?

Student responses

Teacher : Votre devoir: je vous prie d`ajouter vos testaments. Puis ala leçon prochaine nous allons faire les testaments de notre classe.

XI . The final stage of the lesson.

Teacher : Notre lecon est fine. Votre opinion: Est-ce que nous avons eprouvé que Likhatchev est le génie de la nation russe?

Qu`est-ce que vous avez aimé le plus?

Student responses

Vous avez bien travaille. Je suis tres contente de vos reponses. Vos notes. Merci pour votre travail.