Where do millstones for windmills. Mill. History of invention and production. The main thing in mills is their mechanisms

How does a windmill work? No one knows when and by whom windmills were invented. The boats could sail at right angles to the wind with their sails tilted slightly. The wings of a windmill act in a similar way, moving in a circle when they fall under a straight line.

Municipal budgetary educational institution Mukshinskaya secondary school School NPK "Step into the Future" Research work We will say a word about mills in the past Author: Vakhrushev Zakhar Sergeevich, 4th grade student MBOU Mukshinskaya secondary school Head: Abrosimova Valentina Viktorovna, primary school teacher MBOU Mukshinskaya secondary school YakshurBodya 2018 Contents Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 2 Chapter 1 1.1. Mill - what is it? .............................................. .............................. 4

1.2. Watermill………………………………………………….. 4 1.3. Windmill………………………………………………… 5 1.4. When did mills appear? .......... 5 Chapter 2 2.1. Mills of our region…………………………………………….. 7 2.2. Hand mill device…………………………………….. 8 2.3. From the history of one mill……………………………………… 9 Conclusion……………………………………………………………….12 Sources of information…… …………………………………………………13 Applications …………………………………………………………………………………………15 roots, people have a past. Cut off the roots - the tree will dry out. The same happens with people if they do not want to know the life of their fathers and grandfathers. A person comes to earth and leaves, but his deed - evil or good - remains, and from what deed is left, the living joy or burden and grief. In order not to increase hardships and not multiply grief, the living must know where everything comes from. The wonderful words of Isai Kalashnikov can serve as a motto for every person who is interested in the history of their ancestors, the way of life, the way of life of their distant ancestors. Gradually, many household items are leaving our everyday life. Today, not only city children, but also 1

many villagers no longer see in action such items as a yoke, a tong, a poker, a cast-iron, and even spinning wheels, on which "three girls under the window were spinning late in the evening." And the tub in which Moidodyr offered to splash around? It is good that many schools have museum rooms or museums. Unique items, documents, collected over a long period of time by children and teachers throughout the village, as well as in nearby villages, have found their corner in these repositories of antiquity. When you visit a museum, you involuntarily ask questions. To whom did they belong? What is the history of these things? And why were they needed? How few people remain today who have seen these objects in action with their own eyes. How difficult it is today to find out who they belonged to and who made them. In the museum of our school there is a unique thing, which, as my grandmother told me, belonged to our family, or rather, my great-grandmother on my father's side, Serebryannikova Lyubov Alekseevna. (Attachment 1). This is a hand mill. Looking at this exhibit, I could not understand how, with the help of two seals, you can grind flour or get cereal? I wanted to study the history of this object, its device, who used it, and how the mill ended up in our museum, i.e. study the biography of this exhibit, also learn about other types of mills. (Appendix 2) So, the object of research is various types of mills. The subject of the study is a hand mill - a grain mill. Purpose: to study local history material related to the history of various types of mills used on the territory of our region, including a hand mill - a groater. Tasks: to study local history literature on the history of the origin of mills; to collect information about hand mills, groats, operating in the private farms of peasants; 2

meet people who can talk about the subjects being researched. Based on the foregoing, we put forward a hypothesis: meeting with people of the older generation, working with scientific local history literature, you can establish the history of the emergence of things and describe them. The work used the materials of the museum MBOU Mukshinskaya, materials published in the application of the regional newspaper "Oshmes" Yakshur of the Bodinsky district, also used reference and local history literature, Internet resources. Practical significance: my work can be used in local history lessons, class hours, during excursions. Chapter 1. 1.1. Mill - what is it? We are well aware that the time of mills has long passed. This ancient symbol, which contains the elements of water, wind and air, and also personifies harvesting and fertility, still keeps all its secrets and mysteries, and never ceases to fascinate the hearts and souls of the older generation, and we, the younger generation, perceive windmill as a fabulous item. For example, from the fairy tale "Puss in Boots" by Charles Perrault. The mill is a mechanism designed to grind various materials. Mills differ from crushers in finer grinding of the material. The mill can be water, wind and manual. Why were mills created? The mills provided the energy needed for pumping water, making paper, grinding grain, sawing timber, and 3

many other industrial tasks, but still the main work of the water wheel was the grinding of grain. What are mills? 1.2. Water mill During the construction of the water mill, the same standard design was mainly used, the principle of operation of which is very similar to that of a windmill, only the wheel is driven by water. Previously, there was rarely a mill on any river. She was something special in the countryside. The following types of work were carried out here: grinding grain into flour and groats, crushing oatmeal, obtaining linseed oil. A quick-witted miller could arrange both flour sifting and a fuller in the mill barn. Carts with grain were drawn from the nearest district to the mill, and back the same carts with fresh flour - drivers and horses a little white from flour dust. The road often went through the mill dam. It was always possible to catch fish from the pool under the dam, ducks and geese swam in the pond, the grass was lush green in the floodplain meadows. The pond and dam enlivened the rural landscape. (Appendix 3) Basically, the people used a water mill, but in those places where their installation was not possible, windmills already appeared. 1.3. Windmill. Russian carpenters created many different and ingenious variants of windmills. Already in our time, more than twenty varieties of their constructive solutions have been recorded. Of these, two fundamental types of mills can be distinguished: “pillars” and “shatrovki”. The first were common in the North, the second - in the middle lane and the Volga region. Both names also reflect the principle of their device. Windmills were built on the territory of Udmurtia. 4

At the mill-pillars, the mill granary rotated on a pillar dug into the ground. The support was either additional pillars or a pyramidal log house. The principle of the mills was different - their lower part was fixed, and the smaller upper part rotated under the wind. And this type in different areas had many options. (Annex 4) 1.4. When did mills appear? Water Mill. In a poem dated 98 - 90 years. BC, Antipart welcomes the appearance of the first mills: “Give rest to your hands, O workers, and sleep peacefully! In vain will the rooster announce to you the coming of the morning! Deo entrusted the work of the girls to the nymphs, and now they easily jump on the wheels, so that the shaking axles rotate along with their spokes and make the heavy millstone rotate. In the era of Charlemagne, in 340, as a borrowing from Rome, a water mill appeared in Germany, on the Moselle River. At the same time, the first water mills appeared in Gaul (France). In Russia, water mills appeared no later than the 12th century. On flat rivers, the pressure of water necessary for the operation of the mill was provided by dams. The blades of the water wheel are lowered into the water and set in motion by the flow of the river. The water mill was used not only for grinding grain into flour, but in the production of paper for grinding raw materials, in the production of gunpowder. So in the middle of the 16th century, paper mills worked on the rivers, a blacksmith's hammer was adapted to the water wheel - it turned out to be “females”. In 1655, two powder mills were built on the Yauza River by decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The creation of a water mill is considered an important step in the history of the development of technology. This was the first step towards machine production. Windmills appeared at the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries. in France and England, and then in Holland. Now the landscape of this country is impossible 5

imagine without windmills. Many improvements to windmills were made in Holland. So, here peculiar braking devices appear, with the help of which it was possible to stop the rotating millstones very quickly. Mills appeared in Russia at the end of the 15th and the middle of the 17th centuries. Due to the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols in Russia, the development of the country and the beginning of the technical revolution were delayed compared to Western countries. Chapter 2. 2.1. Mills of our region Today, models of mills, often windmills, can be seen in the design of garden plots, parks, and even in the Izhevsk Zoo. (Appendix 5) But there is a unique object for our republic - a water mill, which is located in the Uva district, in the village of Turyngurt. Even in Russia, few such historical monuments have been preserved. As usual, there is a picturesque large building on the edge of the village near the pond. High log walls, a couple of small windows and a dam. And all this against the backdrop of an overgrown pond. It looks impressive and even fabulous. The mill is almost 100 years old, but it can still work. You can grind flour or connect to a drying or sorting unit. If you connect it to a generator, then the water mill will produce electricity. (Appendix 6) In addition, more recently you could see it in action. Unfortunately, in 2013, the last miller, Boris Ivanovich Obukhov, passed away. 6

The operating windmill can be seen at Ludorvae, an open-air museum. The mill was built back in 1912, but it got to the territory of the museum only in 1994, where it was transported from the village of ChemoshurKuyuk, Alnash district. The height of the mill is 12 meters and has 3 floors. The tent type of mills, to which this exposition belongs, was widespread on the territory of southern Udmurtia. For a long time the mill was closed, but since 2009 visitors have been allowed in here. This mill is the only surviving windmill in Udmurtia. (Appendix 7) According to local residents, in the middle of the 20th century there were 4 water mills on the territory of Mukshinsky municipality. In the village of Kikva on the pond near the farm, on the Pukhovka pond between the villages of Mukshi and Dmitrievka, in the village of Kutonshur, in the village of Mukshi on the upper pond. In addition to water mills, there was a windmill in the village of Druzhny, because the village was located far from the river. In addition to windmills and watermills, handmills were often used in villages, especially if the settlement was located at a distance from the mills. In the next paragraph, we will consider how a hand mill works. 2.2. Device of a manual mill The manual mill is made of a whole log, consists of two separate parts. About 2 thousand small cast-iron plates were driven into the inner sides of the upper and lower parts of the mill, thanks to which the grain was crushed and turned into flour during the rotation of the upper part of the mill. A tray is attached to the side at the bottom of the mill, along which the ground grain slowly poured into the prepared container. There are three holes in the upper part: one served for filling grain, the other for a handle with which the mill rotated. Handles were inserted differently, depending on the amount of grain and on the number of people working. If one person worked, then the handle was inserted short, if several, then long. For 7

strength and greater pressure, a pole was inserted into the third hole and attached to the ceiling. In order for the flour to flow in the right direction, the edges of the lower part of the mill were often upholstered in a circle with iron. The height of the mill was made different, it depended on the master or on the customer, and the dimensions reached 1 meter in height and half a meter in width. (Appendix 8) But how did the grain on this unit turn into flour? The grain, through the hole in the upper part, fell on the contacting surfaces of the logs, broke, entered the box through the slotted grooves, then swept into the bag through the hole. After the first skipping of the grains, they turn into cereals; with repeated grinding, flour could be obtained. Subsequently, it was sifted through a sieve. This product was used to make porridges and stews. In the resulting crushed grain, sawdust from wooden millstones often came across. Considering that such aggregates were used in difficult lean years, it is quite reasonable that sawdust remained in the product as a filler, to which nettle and quinoa were also added. In the post-war years, peasants used a slightly improved model of a hand mill on their farms. On the contact surfaces of the millstones, radially, from the center to the periphery, “cast iron” fragments from split cast iron and pans were hammered, polished flush with each other. The rye grain was crushed twice and then sifted through a sieve and sieve. From one bucket of grain, up to ¾ buckets of “large” flour were obtained. Wooden millstones were installed so that there was a certain gap. In this variant, sawdust from wood did not get into the crushed product. Similar grain grinders were also used at favorable times for making sprinkles for pets. Peasants received grain for workdays for work on the collective farm. 8

Such a mill was not in every peasant household, only among wealthy peasants, for whom it was made by craftsmen. Making a grist mill required certain skills and time. 2.3. From the history of one mill A hand mill, a grain mill, recently appeared in the museum of our school and took pride of place here. The mill was handed over to the museum by a resident of the village of Mukshi Vakhrusheva Liya Borisovna, my grandmother, a native of the Debessky district of the UR. (Appendix 10) The history of the appearance of this exhibit in our museum is interesting because it came to us not from our neighboring villages, but from the Debes region. The mother of Liya Borisovna Serebrennikova, Lyubov Alekseevna, brought a hand mill when she moved to her daughter's permanent place of residence. She was born in 1936 in the village of Starye Siri, Kezsky district of the UR. Lyubov Alekseevna was left an orphan very early and, together with her brother, went around the villages, helped people with the housework, thereby earning a living. At the age of 18, she married in the village of Berezovka, Debessky district, Boris Timofeevich Serebrennikov. The family lived in abundance, and there for the first time she saw this hand mill, on which she later had to work herself. The water mill was far away, and it was inconvenient to go every time. Then the grist came to the rescue. More often it was used for grinding flour for animals and making cereals. They ground rye, barley, wheat, peas. Although this work is not easy, children were often forced to grind, and the children took turns turning the mill. As mentioned above, not every family had such mills, so the mill was often asked for use 9

fellow villagers. And father-in-law Timofey Stepanovich and mother-in-law Matrena Vasilievna were kind people, ready to help their fellow villagers, and always shared their property, which is why they were highly respected in the village. But at the same time, they treated her with care. According to their stories, this mill was made for the family of Timofey Stepanovich's parents at the end of the 19th century by a wandering craftsman (unfortunately, no one knows the name of the master). This craftsman walked around the villages and, by order of the inhabitants, made cereals, while working he lived in a family, became its member. Lyubov Alekseevna loved the thing, she inherited it from her husband's parents, so when she moved to her daughter, she decided to take the mill with her in order to pass on the living memory of her ancestors to her grandchildren and great-grandchildren through the memory of things. This is the legend of this exhibit, and after the death of her mother, Liya Borisovna decided to transfer the grain mill to the school museum, because in the private sector, except for family members, no one sees it and loses its value, and in the museum it regains this value. The museum receives a unique thing that will give the opportunity to tell children about life, the life of our ancestors of the past centuries, to plunge into the world of our ancestors. (Annex 9) 10

Conclusion From childhood to the end of our lives, everything that surrounds us on our earth is dear and dear to our hearts. The names of lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, villages and villages, lanes and outskirts caress our hearing and feelings. These historical information, legends and were, telling about the life of our ancestors, are unique monuments of our antiquity, cultural centers of past eras, partly embodied in such a concept as a mill. But the mills themselves have always acted as such cultural centers for all people, at any time and in any country where, in anticipation of grinding, peasants from different villages met and exchanged news, and economic discussions flared up. Unusual for a modern person, a household item that belonged to my ancestors gave impetus to the search for new knowledge. As a result of the search work, I confirmed the hypothesis that meetings with people of the older generation, work with scientific local history literature, allow us to establish the history of the emergence of things and describe them. Today there are about 300 exhibits in the museum, many of them do not have a history of the legend of their appearance in the museum, and it is hardly possible to restore the belonging of some things. But all the same, it is possible to establish where and how certain antiquities were used, for example, how much an exhibit called “flail” can tell us, with the help of which peasants knocked grain out of spikelets. Our goal, as long as there is an opportunity, is to fix everything, to leave it for future generations. Mills have always been surrounded by mystery, covered with poetic legends, tales and superstitions. For example, "There are devils in every pool" and the water one, as it should be in fairy tales, also lives in the pool. Sources of information 11

1. Kalashnikov I. Cruel age. Publisher: EksmoPress, 1998 2. Shlyakhtina L.M. "Fundamentals of Museum Affairs". Publisher: higher school, 2009 3. "Oshmes" application of the regional newspaper "Rassvet" Yakshur-Bodyinsky district, No. 10, 2012 4. Image of a sieve. [Electronic publication] // Based on materials from the site ru.yandex.net/i? https://im0tub id=7ada8d452399fdfbe1e2751e940d8bf3&n=13, 5. Image of a hand mill. [Electronic publication] // Based on materials from the site https://im0tubru.yandex.net/i? id=09bb6949e429944d03be0f4e63c52adc&n=13 12

6. Ludorvai - an open-air museum. [Electronic publication] // Based on http://liveudm.ru/ludorvaymuzeypodotkryityim materials from the site nebom/ 13

7. Turingurt - an old water mill. [Electronic publication] // Based on materials from the site http://loveudm.ru/turyingurtstarinnayavodyanaya melnitsa/ 8. Interesting about mills. [Electronic publication] // Based on materials from the site http://vaddoronin.narod.ru/WindMill_WindMill.html 03/22/2018 9. Sazonov D.A. Mill and groat business [Electronic publication] // Based on materials from the site http://davaiknam.ru/text/konkurs issledovateleskihk10. Model of a windmill [Electronic publication] // Based on materials from the site http://www.domechti.ru/wpcontent /uploads/2013/05/dekorativnaya melnicadlyasada08.jpg 11. Model of a windmill. [Electronic publication] // Based on materials from the site http://mobilizacia.kiev.ua/uploads/posts 12. Model of a water mill. [Electronic publication] // Based on materials from the site https://www.kursdela.biz/upload/medialibrary/0b5/0b5af287fedc15ac1bcec0 ded2f04351.jpg 13. Model of a water mill. [Electronic publication] // Based on materials from the site https://i.artfile.me/wallpaper/09102014/2048x1366/raznoemelnicy lesrekamelnicavodyanay874265.jpg Informants: 14. Abrosimova Valentina Viktorovna, born in 1955. 15. Vakhrusheva Liya Borisovna, born in 1966 16. Serebrennikova Lyubov Alekseevna, 1932 14

Appendix 1 Alekseevna born in 1932, resident of the village of Turnes, Debesskogo Serebrennikova Lyubov district Appendix 2 15

Manual mill. Exhibit of the local history museum MBOU Mukshinsky secondary school Appendix 3 16

Water mills Annex 4 17

Windmill 18

Appendix 5 Models of windmills for decorating garden plots Appendix 6 Water mill, Turingurt, Uvinsky district, Udmurtia Appendix 7 19

Windmill Ludorvay - Open Air Museum of Udmurtia Annex 8 Device of a hand mill Annex 9 20

Transmission of living memory of ancestors to grandchildren and great-grandchildren through the memory of things. Annex 10 Vakhrusheva Liya Borisovna, resident of the village of Muksha 21

Elisha, not discouraged, rushed to the wind, crying out:

"Wind, wind! You are powerful, you drive flocks of clouds,

You excite the blue sea, everywhere you blow in the open.

You are not afraid of anyone but God alone.

A.S. Pushkin

It is known that the ancient Egyptians 7 thousand years ago used the wind to cross the Nile in a sailboat. The first windmill was built in China long before our era. In Babylon, under King Hammurabi (circa 1750 BC), windmills were used not only to grind grain into flour, but they made the organ sound. The Persians also used windmills to grind grain around 200 BC.

But in Western Europe, windmills appeared later, the crusaders spied their device from the Arabs and, returning from campaigns to the east, built the first windmills in their homeland in the 12th century. From 1180 such mills were known in Flanders, South East England and Normandy.

In the 13th century, in the Holy German Roman Empire, mill designs appeared in which the entire building turned towards the wind. In the 14th century in Holland, windmills began to be used to pump water from polder (below sea level) fields. By 1900 there were approximately 2500 windmills in Denmark. In addition to pumping water, mills in Western Europe were used for other purposes. For example, the Spanish nobleman Don Quixote managed to fight them, bravely rushing with a spear at the "devil's creatures".

Persian mills differed from Western European mills in that the axis of rotation (rotor) was located vertically, i.e. perpendicular to the plane of the wings. Mills with a vertical axis of rotation were also used in ancient China - they are known as the Chinese windmill. But in China they built windmills with a horizontal rotor.

But there is no information about when windmills appeared in Russia. It seems that Russian historians are not interested in the development of technology in their own country. Those sources that talk about mills in Russia report that we already had them under Catherine II, and under Peter I either appeared or already existed, but before Peter I there was, most likely, there was no bread it was: Russian people cooked porridge from unrefined grain.

After all, grain was grown even before Peter.

It's a strange thing, but many believe this, it has long been hammered into the Russian brains that everything advanced came to us from Western Europe. From childhood, we are driven in by educators, teachers, professors, the media, that we are orphans and miserable, that our patriotism is leavened, and wooden rubles. But I will try to prove that in Russia water and windmills were built and used already in the 9th century, and they appeared much earlier, probably even before the new era.

As a child (in 1952) I had the good fortune to visit a working windmill and observe how flour is made from grain in millstones.

I saw how my grandmother made dough out of flour and water in a kneader, baked bread, pies and pancakes.

I saw how fields were plowed in spring, how grain was sown into the ground, how rye, oats and wheat grew in the fields, and in autumn they harvested, threshed sheaves with ears and received new grain, and they received much more new grain than they sown in spring. They said, for example, that this year the harvest was "itself 15", which meant that each sown grain gave 15 new ones.

Cereals with ears were cut until the grain in the ears was not quite ripe, tied into sheaves, and the sheaves were placed in wort. In the wort, the grain in the ears quickly ripened. Then sheaves of wort were taken to barns, where they were dried in a special room and then threshed with flails on the threshing floor (cleared rammed area under the roof).

The structure in which grain was dried, stored and threshed was called a nagumennik. Now the headdresses have not been preserved anywhere, but before in the villages in northern Russia there were many of them - almost every family. I remember a beanbag behind our garden, built by my great-grandfather. But in the 50s of the last century, it was not used for its intended purpose, then the sheaves were threshed on threshers using a mechanical drive. Such threshing was faster, required less time and effort, but when it was used, not all grain was threshed from the ears - up to 20% of the crop was lost.

When threshing with a threshing machine was finished on the field, my grandmother walked with a bag and collected chaff at the work sites of mechanical threshers. There was a lot of grain in this chaff, and then grandmother fed chickens all winter with it, steamed this chaff in hot water in a Russian stove and fed it to a cow and a pig. But most of the chaff with discarded unthreshed grain in Soviet times rotted in the fields. Mice and granivorous birds fed grain from this chaff in the fields in autumn.

After threshing, the collected grain was dried, winnowed in the wind from debris and poured into bags. The principle of winnowing is simple: heavy grains thrown up by the wind are blown closer, and light scales and other debris are blown away by the wind. Fresh grain was dried on a Russian stove. 5-6 bags of raw grain were brought to each house, and it had to be dried and then handed over to the collective farm. I still remember the smell of drying grain, which soaked the house for a long time.

Later, expensive collective farm dryers were built - and the grain began to be dried there, for which considerable energy was expended from burning firewood in the huge oven of this dryer. But before, in peasant farms, drying grain on Russian stoves did not require additional fuel costs, because the Russian stove was heated in the houses anyway. And the smell of drying grain was more pleasant and, most importantly, safer than the smell of the most expensive modern deodorant.

Windmill.

The weather vane at the very top made it possible to follow the direction of the wind and in time to turn the upper head of the mill with its wings to meet the wind. The wings of the windmill are the propeller. And after all, the one who first invented it once lived. And today this ancient invention is used in many of our machines and other mechanisms, up to a propeller-driven aircraft.

Windmills rarely looked alike. This mill is put on a row - a frame made of logs, it is called "mill on goats".

Those holes in the wings are not the result of the windmill being destroyed. So, removing some boards, the wings were adjusted to the strengthening of the wind, and the speed of their rotation was regulated. And during a storm, they generally took out all the planks so that the wind would not break the wings. Here are just bags of grain when using the mill on the goats had to be raised quite high. But for this, blocks and lifts were usually arranged.

Today, wind energy is practically not used in Russian villages, and even at the time of my childhood, the ruins of 3 windmills were preserved in our village. One of them, as my grandmother told me, belonged to my great-grandfather. In the 50s of the last century, there was only one windmill in our area, located in the neighboring village of Esipovo. This is how I saw her work.

In the room of this mill, everything was covered with white flour dust, the miller's clothes and beard were also in this dust. From time to time he went outside, and if the wind changed direction, he turned the head of the mill with a special rule with wings towards the wind. The rule was made of two rather thick poles (poles), with their upper ends attached to the "head" of the mill. In the lower part, the legs were interconnected, and the whole structure was actually an acute-angled triangle with an acute angle at the bottom.

Millstones creaked, the main central axis creaked, turning, which was rotated by a horizontal shaft coming from the wings. All gears were made of wood, and they were literally polished from friction. But the main thing - everywhere was flour dust.

Here is another brilliant invention - the transfer of rotation from one plane to another - parallel to the original one. And this invention was not patented, because. was made at least 4 thousand years ago. Its author is unknown, we don't even know his nationality. The angular speed of rotation of the drum (wheel) with a smaller diameter in this mill is 3.5 times greater than that of the large drum (wheel). Therefore, the vertical axis rotates 3 times faster than the horizontal one. As a result of this transmission, the millstone rotated at high speed.

The plane of rotation of the wings of this mill is inclined to the surface of the earth. This reduces the loss of energy from friction when the rotation is transferred from a larger drum to a smaller one. The length of each blade (wing) of windmills varied from 5-6 to 7-8 m. At this mill, rotation was transmitted from the central axis to two millstones. When transferred to the millstones, the rotation speed increased several times.

Grain and flour at the Esipov mill were weighed on scales in the form of a metal beam suspended from the ceiling. 2 sheets of iron measuring 1.5x1.5 m were suspended from the rocker on chains. Sacks of grain were placed on one sheet, and weights on the other. Weights were with handles - two-pood, one-pood, half-pood and very small, weighing several pounds. For grinding grain, the miller was paid by whoever could - money, grain, flour, meat, milk, eggs.

Then, for workdays on the collective farm in late autumn, the collective farmers were given 2-3 bags of grain, which they ground for themselves at this mill. When the miller died, the mill in Esipovo was also quickly destroyed, and grain had to be ground on hand millstones at home. Oh, and it's hard work - to twist a heavy stone millstone with one hand, and pour handfuls of grain into the hole in its center with the other! But then, thanks to these trainings, I defeated all the students of the institute in arm wrestling competitions.

Later - in the early 60s - they stopped giving out grain to collective farmers for workdays, they replaced it with money, however, this money was ridiculous, and it was impossible to buy an equivalent amount of bread in a store with it. But my grandmother was very inventive: from the fields where the grain was threshed, she brought home several bags of chaff, winnowed it in the wind, and at the same time one bag of grain was obtained from 10 bags of chaff. These were the crop losses on the collective farm fields. But it was forbidden to collect chaff, although there it rotted, no one needed it. Grandmother took a large basket, put a bag in it, and went, as it were, into the forest to pick mushrooms. She collected chaff in a bag, and covered it with mushrooms or medicinal herbs on top. As they say among the people: "The need for inventions is cunning."

When grain is threshed with modern combines, grain losses are even greater than when threshing with stationary threshers. Why? Yes, because spikelets that have just been cut are threshed. And the grain in spikelets does not ripen at the same time. In some spikelets it is already ripe and at the first shaking it falls out and falls to the ground, while in others it is not yet ripe and goes into chaff when threshed.

In northern Russia, where it constantly rains in autumn, grain losses during threshing by combines amount to up to 30% of the harvest. In the "primitive" peasant economy, grain losses were no more than 5%, so much grain remained in the chaff on the threshing floor (on the current). But even this grain was used by chickens and geese, which in autumn fed on nagutens. It is no coincidence that one of the types of wild goose is called the bean goose. When migrating south in autumn, these geese fed on the threshing floors - places for threshing bread.

Yes, today there are electrically driven mills, as well as electric coffee grinders, meat grinders, etc. But what is the energy efficiency of this? But when generating electricity, considerable harm is done to the environment, while ancient windmills did not harm nature. The wings rotated rather slowly, they could not even kill flies and mosquitoes. There was no smoke or noise pollution. A respiratory bandage saved the miller from flour dust.

A dilapidated windmill in the village of Zakharyino near the village of Kukoboy in the north of the Yaroslavl region.
This mill was built in the 20s of the twentieth century by women from the women's commune. N.K. Krupskaya. In fact, it was a convent disguised as a commune, which was liquidated by the Bolsheviks.

The upper part of a dilapidated windmill in the village of Zakharyino near the village of Kukoboy in the Yaroslavl region.

It is hard to imagine that this mill was made by young women nuns. I have not seen a single mill decorated with ornaments. This case with the Kukoboy commune is worthy of world fame. But so far there has not been a smart journalist or director who would write a story about this story or make a film. And you can create a very interesting feature film about this! Maybe then the Russian soul will not be so mysterious to foreigners. And where are the local authorities of the Pervomaisky district and the Yaroslavl region, why didn’t they make this story widely known? The Zakharya commune is no less interesting for tourists than the Kukoboy Baba Yaga.

Windmill.

In the questionnaire of the owner of the windmill Ivan Timofeevich Zavershinskiy for 1920, it is said that his mill “on stones”, that is, with stone millstones, had a daily output with a good wind, on average, about 25 pounds of flour per day. This is approximately 400 kg. Almost half a ton of grain per day was ground by this rural mill.

Windmills in Ukraine.

The number of windmills in Russia in the 19th century reached 200 thousand pieces. (official statistics), in total they grinded about 34 million tons of grain a year, supplying flour to the entire population of what was then Russia. The average power of the windmill was about 3.5 kW. But there were windmills and more powerful ones, they developed a power of about 10-15 kW. At the same time, all the windmills were built by the peasants themselves (the information was borrowed from the book by V.I. Zavershinskiy “Essays on the history of Tarutino”).

From the diploma work "Restoration of the mill in the village of Chirshi in the structure of the grain museum", KSUAE, 2009.

The internal structure of a tent mill with two millstones.

Most often, the mills had 4 wings, but there were also mills with six wings - such as in this picture. The power of such a mill, of course, was greater. The power of the mill also depends on the width of the wings and their angle of inclination to the plane of rotation. When transferring rotation from a horizontal rotor to a vertical shaft, the angular speed of rotation increases by about 5-6 times. When transferring rotation from a vertical shaft to a millstone, the rotation speed increases again by 5-6 times. Consequently, the angular velocity of the millstones is 25-30 times greater than that of the wings of the mill.

This windmill has a mechanism by which it adjusts itself to the direction of the wind. The principle of operation of this mechanism is the principle of a weather vane. As soon as the wind changes direction, it blows on the blades of the mechanism and turns them in accordance with the direction of the wind. This shift is transmitted by a lever to a star wheel which turns an axle, at the other end of which is a smaller star wheel, and the smaller star wheel turns a very large wheel on which the top of the mill is fixed along with wings and a horizontal rotor. To facilitate the rotation of the upper rotary part of the mill, the upper and side parts of the hoop, the roller axles were lubricated. (http://brunja.livejournal.com/26061.html)

Millstone.

The principle of operation of the millstone is simple. Two round canoes are placed on top of each other. The upper stone rotates, while the lower one is fixed and motionless. A hole is made in the middle of the upper stone, into which grain is poured. Getting between the stones, the aerno is crushed - it is ground, pounded into flour. As the upper stone rotates, the flour advances with each revolution to the outer edge of the stone disk and is thrown out of the millstone. In order to prevent the upper disk from jumping off the lower one, a hillock is made in the lower one. On the upper and lower stone of the millstones, special notches are made that direct the movement of flour inside the millstone. Both stones in the photo on the left are granite.

Millstone manual.

In the photo we see a manual millstone. It also consists of two stone disks. The upper one must be rotated by the wooden handle, and grain should be poured into the hole in the middle.

Broken millstone.

In the millstone, the upper disk rotates, which is attached to the rotating shaft with iron pins. The post at the back of the millstone is the main vertical shaft, rotated by a horizontal rotor shaft located at the top of the mill, which rotates the wind blowing on the wings of the mill.

This photo shows the transmission of rotation from the main vertical shaft to the millstone shaft. The millstone is below the floor.

The upper rotating stone of the millstone with an interesting notch for the movement of flour inside the millstone.

Millstone (lower fixed stone) with a notch that ensures the movement of flour from the center of the millstone to its edge.

This millstone was once used to grind grain in a mill. Now it lies on the porch as a souvenir. The grooves were supposed to direct the flour to the edge of the millstone. Previously, there was an elevation in the center of this stone, which kept the upper rotating stone in a certain position, preventing it from moving to one side. At the souvenir, this rod was sawn off, so that when walking, one would not stumble about it.

Pay attention to the fact that the shape of the notches and the nature of their location on the stones of the millstones were not the same. The masters tried to find the optimal shape of the notches; at different speeds of rotation of the millstones, it was different. Millstones for wind, water and hand mills were made by stonemasons. Thus, stone-cutting, along with agriculture and fishing, was widespread among the Veps in the Onega region.

Leading subsistence agriculture, the Vepsian peasants were also engaged in the manufacture of stone millstones for grinding flour.

The best material for the manufacture of millstones is a special stone - viscous, hard and incapable of polishing sandstone, but millstones can also be made of marble, quartzite or granite. The stone is dressed in such a way that one of the sides (grinding) is as even and smooth as possible, and then a number of deep grooves are pierced on this surface, and the gaps between these grooves are brought to a roughly rough state.

Improved hand mill.

The handle for rotating the upper stone disc is attached to its very edge. It is much easier to rotate such a millstone. Flour is poured into a tight box, from which it can be poured into a bag through a special hole.

Mortar with pestle.

The most ancient device for obtaining flour from grain was a mortar with a pestle. Approximately in such a stupa Baba Yaga flew. Therefore, this invention is at least 10 thousand years old. It was then, even under matriarchy, that a woman was in charge of everything: she gave birth, kept the fire in the hearth, collected roots and ears, crushed roots and grain in a mortar and baked cakes. Mortars, however, are porcelain, and today they are used in chemical and culinary laboratories. The oldest invention lives - and brings considerable benefits to people.

In the village of Sernur there is a museum where a unique exposition "Nolkin Stone" was created. There are tools, records of legends and legends, photographs, a large archival material related to the stone industry, incl. with the manufacture of stones for millstones. In 1820, up to 600 people worked in this industry and up to 3,000 millstones were produced annually. During the season, the family artel produced 15-20 pairs of stones for millstones.

Nolkin millstones for mills were sold not only to the surrounding villages, but also to the Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Vladimir provinces, and some stones even went to Persia. The craft was passed down from generation to generation, the faces and adits were also passed down from generation to generation, this craft was worth its weight in gold. Today, near the entrance to the adits, there are millstones covered with mosses and lichens. They are hundreds of years old. Every 30-40 steps there are entrances to adits. Some adits have collapsed, the entrances to others are hidden by thick bushes. The walls and ceiling of the adits keep traces of soot, because the stone in the face was mined with the help of fire. Just think - when mills began to be built on the territory of today's Russia.

A woman rotates hand millstones.

Until the middle of the 20th century, the peasants (smerds) did not need training halls for fitness. People lived with a constant payload for all muscle groups, as well as with a constant load for the mind, and the mind is not abstract, but constructive. Then, to one degree or another, everyone was a craftsman and inventor. One invented a device for stitching leather, the second improved the dressing of leather, the third came up with the shape of an ax handle for hewing logs, the fourth figured out how to fold and strengthen logs into walls.

People worked constantly, and labor was not at all hard labor for them. He brought joy. The peasant will make a basket of twigs, look at it and say that it is good. A woman weaves a linen, bleaches it in fresh snow, sews a shirt out of it for her husband - and both rejoice, and the neighbors admire the work of the wife, other men envy her husband. Some fervent impulses of optimism emanated from that life of the ancestors. The life of our ancestors, even in the most difficult times, was filled with a sense of joy and significance.

Therefore, they were all physically developed and spiritually healthy. Having lived my life and seen a lot, I came to the conclusion that God created rural life, and the devil created urban life. The devil was able to convince many that city life is better, but he deceived, do not believe him.

Today in the training halls they lift something, pull something, twist something, but the energy expended does not produce any useful work, except that it burns fat and slightly strengthens health. But this health is immediately undermined by sitting in offices, food of dubious quality, dirty air and water.

And first, the guy will chop firewood, turn a hand millstone, bring 10-12 buckets of water and 2 armfuls of firewood - and he doesn’t need any training room with treadmills and expanders. And health benefits - and a useful thing to do. In the meantime, the arms and legs work, the head thinks different thoughts, and sings songs.

In my homeland at the end of the XIX century. windmills stood on top of each hill, the ruins of many of them could still be seen in the 50s and 60s of the last century. On average, for every 15-20 houses in the villages in our area there was then 1 mill (wind or water). There was not a single hilltop in the vicinity of villages and villages, on which there would not be one, or even several windmills.

We should take a closer look at the technologies used by our ancestors. A lot of information about this is carried by Russian fairy tales and epics. I think that there is even more truth in them than in the annals. Fortunately for us, many legends were recorded by enthusiasts from the words of folk narrators in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Disregard for oral folk art for several centuries was imposed on the Russian people by churchmen. Do you think why the epics were preserved in the Arkhangelsk and Vologda regions? It seems to me that only because Christianity came there 3-4 centuries later than in Kyiv - not in the 10th, but in the 15th-16th centuries.

I remember how my grandmother sang over my bed: "Hush, hush, hush, the priest is sitting on the roof, or maybe higher, or maybe on the pipe itself." I thought for a long time: what a ridiculous song. And then there is a pop on the roof and hits on the pipe. Much later I learned that if you climb onto the roof of a village house and put your ear to the pipe, you will hear everything that is said in the hut. The priests spied on the parishioners - do they perform pagan rituals in the evenings? Then they reported about the secret pagans to the princes, and they severely punished the pagans - with fire and sword, eradicating the filthy.

But the people, contrary to the church, still sang their pagan songs, told ancient tales and epics, and danced traditional dances. Subsequently, the church had to come to terms with many things, and some pagan rites were changed into Christian ones. For example, meeting the summer, Russian pagans painted eggs in honor of the summer god of the Sun - Yarila. Today, Christians celebrate the day of the resurrection of Christ with painted eggs. Fortune-telling of girls on a sacred evening is also a custom contrary to Christian teaching. "All fortune-telling is an appeal to Satan," the Orthodox Church believes. But until now, all the girls are guessing. More recently, I learned that the Russian Orthodox Church tried to cancel the "homeland of Baba Yaga" in Kukoboy, created to attract tourists, since this character is pagan.

But why, at the end of the 19th century, Russian people began to depart from traditions and rushed into a bright technocratic future? At this time, the rural population began to decline rapidly, overflowing into the cities. There are several reasons for this phenomenon, I will name one of them, about which no one has written yet. In the 19th century, the pampered, compassionate noblemen-raznochintsy expressed their condolences to the peasants and workers for the fact that they had to work hard physically. At the same time, they put themselves - pampered - in their place and were horrified by such a share. But what was a burden to the nobles and raznochintsy was a joy to healthy and physically developed peasants.

The serf poet Alexei Koltsov proudly wrote: "Is my shoulder wider than my grandfather's, my mother's chest is tall. On my face, my father's blood in milk lit a red dawn." But the poet nobleman Nikolai Nekrasov mournfully exclaimed: "The village suffering is in full swing ... You are the share! - the Russian share of the female! It is hardly more difficult to find. No wonder that you wither until the time, the long-suffering mother of the Russian tribe!". But for the time being, it was not peasant women who were sluggish, but lazy noblewomen - ladies.

However, it was impossible for the nobleman Nikolai Nekrasov, suffering from hemorrhoids, to believe that physical labor for a healthy person could be a joy. Of course, there were sick and crippled among the peasants, but to see only the sick and crippled for a poet and artist is, excuse me, some kind of pathology. But "whining" in art in the 19th century quickly became fashionable. Unfortunately, at the beginning of the 20th century, these same raznochintsy, and later pragmatic Bolsheviks, imposed on the people the idea of ​​the severity and intolerance of their lot. As a result, a revolution took place, and as a result of this revolution, the lot of the people really became unbearable, including for the majority of the peasants.

Look at the paintings that the Wanderers painted. These are, as a rule, miserable slanting and crooked huts, miserable villages. And where did they look for only such a nature! Why didn’t they draw normal, strong five-wall houses with barns, barns, winds, and headboards? In the photographs of the late XIX - early XX centuries, we see a completely different rural Russia than in the paintings of the Wanderers. In my opinion, if the 18th century was the century of Russia's flourishing, then the 19th century was the century of the beginning of its decline, and the first decadents were the nobles and intellectuals of the commoners, who came from undernourished students.

Galanin A.V. Energy of ancient Russia

Millstone is one of the most ancient inventions of mankind. It is possible that it appeared even earlier than the wheel. What do millstones look like? What functions do they perform? And what is the principle of operation of this ancient mechanism? Let's figure it out!

Millstone - what is it?

According to scientists, our ancestors began to use this simple device in the Stone Age (10-3 millennium BC). What are millstones? This is a primitive mechanical device, consisting of two rounded blocks. Its main function is to grind grain and other vegetable products.

The word comes from the Old Slavonic "zhurnve". It can be translated as "heavy". The unit really could have a fairly solid weight. Millstones are mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years. In particular, the following phrase can be found in the annals:

“Krupyasche zhito and with his own hands izml”.

The word is often used in a figurative sense. Suffice it to recall such phrases as "millstones of war" or "millstones of history". In this context, these are cruel and fatal events in which a person or an entire nation can find themselves.

The image of millstones can be found in heraldry. For example, on the coat of arms of the small town of Höör, in southern Sweden.

A bit of history

In ancient times, people grinded grains, nuts, shoots, rhizomes in millstones, and also ground iron and dyes. Once they could be seen in almost every rural house. Over time, flour-grinding technologies improved, water mills appeared, and even later - windmills. Difficult and exhausting work was shifted to the shoulders of the forces of nature - wind and water. Although the basis of the work of any mill remained the same millstone principle.

Previously, in the villages there was a special caste of artisans who were engaged in the manufacture of millstones, as well as the repair of individual parts. During constant work, the millstones were worn away, their surfaces became smooth and ineffective. Therefore, they had to be sharpened periodically.

Today millstones are already history. Of course, few people today use these bulky units in everyday life. Therefore, they gather dust in museums and at various exhibitions, where curious tourists and lovers of antiquity can stare at them.

The design and principle of operation of millstones

The design of this mechanism is extremely simple. It consists of two round blocks of the same size, laid on top of each other. In this case, the lower circle is immobilized, and the upper circle rotates. The surfaces of both blocks are covered with a relief pattern, due to which the grain grinding process is carried out.

Stone millstones are driven by a special cross-shaped pin mounted on a vertical wooden rod. It is very important that both units are properly aligned and adjusted. Poorly balanced burrs will produce a poor quality grind.

Most often, millstones were made from limestone or fine-grained sandstone (or from what was "at hand"). The main thing is that the material is strong enough and durable.