Geography of Libya: relief, climate, population, flora and fauna. The geographical position of Libya Characteristics of Libya according to the geography plan

Geographical position of Libya.

LIBYA, Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (arab. Al-Jamahiriya al-Arabiya al-Libia ash-Shaabiya al-Ishtirakiya), a state in the North. Africa. The area of ​​Libya is 1759.5 thousand sq. km. The population of Libya is 5.7 million people (2004); Libyan Arabs - St. 80%, Tuareg Berbers, Tubu. The official language is Arabic. The state religion is Islam.

Government of Libya.

The governing body of Libya is the "Revolutionary Leadership" (officially located outside the system of state power). The Libyan legislature is the General People's Congress.

Administrative-territorial division of Libya.

According to the administrative-territorial division, Libya consists of 13 municipalities.

Libyan population.

The population of Libya is 5.7 million people (2004), including Libyan Arabs - St. 80%, Tuareg Berbers, Tubu. The official language in Libya is Arabic. The state religion of Libya is Islam.

Climate, relief and natural resources of Libya.

Most of the surface of Libya is a plateau, an altitude of 200-600 m, in the east - the Libyan desert, in the south - the forts of the Tibesti highlands (height up to 2286 m).

The climate is tropical, desert, subtropical in the north. The average temperatures in July are 27-35 °С, in January 11-18 °С. Precipitation 100-600 mm per year in the north and south, 25 mm in the Libyan desert.

There are no rivers in Libya; significant reserves of groundwater. Deserts, on the coast - subtropical semi-desert vegetation. Kuf National Park.

Libyan economy and industry.

The basis of the Libyan economy is the oil and oil refining industry. Share in GDP (1992,%): industry 48 (including mining 25), agriculture 7. Cement, textile, metallurgical, food and flavor industries. Electricity production 18 billion kWh (1995).

Cultivate cereals, vegetables, peanuts, tobacco. Fruit growing (dates, citrus fruits), viticulture. Extensive animal husbandry. Fishing. There are no railroads. The length of roads is 81.6 thousand km (1996). Export: oil, oil products and gas (96%), chemical products, citrus fruits, etc. Main foreign trade partners: Italy, Germany, Spain, etc.

The monetary unit is the Libyan dinar.

History of Libya.

In the 1st floor. 1st millennium BC e. Phoenician colonies were founded in the west of Libya, in the 7th century. in the east - the Greek city-colonies. All R. 5th-2nd centuries a significant part of Libya (in the west) under the rule of Carthage, in the 2nd century. BC e. - 5 in. n. e. - Rome.

After the arrival of the Arabs (seventh century), Islam and the Arabic language spread. In the 11th century Libya was subjected to a devastating invasion of nomads. In the 16th century - 1912 as part of the Ottoman Empire.

In 1912-1943 an Italian colony. In December 1951-1969 an independent kingdom. On September 1, 1969, the royal regime was overthrown and a republic (LAR) was proclaimed. In 1977, a decree was adopted establishing in Libya a "regime of people's power" (the so-called direct people's democracy); The country was renamed the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. In 1979, the revolutionary leadership in Libya was headed by M. Gaddafi (in 1969-1977, chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council). From con. 1980s steps are being taken to liberalize the economic and political spheres. Encourage cooperative forms of ownership, private trade while maintaining the public sector.

Formerly an Italian colony, since 1951 an independent monarchy. As a result of a military coup in September 1969, King Idris I was overthrown, and Libya was proclaimed a republic. Until 1963, when Libya became a unitary state, the country had a federal structure and consisted of three historical regions - Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan. The capital is Tripoli. Although Libya is one of the largest countries in Africa in terms of area, its population in 1998 was only 5.7 million people. Most of the country's territory is occupied by desert. Thanks to the exploitation of rich oil resources, which began in 1961, the once impoverished Libya has become a prosperous state with the highest per capita income in Africa.

NATURE

Terrain relief.

The coastline of Libya in the central part of the coast goes deep into the land, forming the Gulf of Sidra (Greater Sirte), where the barren desert meets the Mediterranean Sea. In the northeast of the country is the higher and more populated plateau of Barqa el-Bayda, which forms the core of Cyrenaica. In the northwest is Tripolitania, and in the south is the Fezzan depression, hundreds of kilometers away from the coast.

Tripolitania.

The coastal plain of Jefar is developed here, where several areas of irrigated agricultural land are located. However, even this part of Libya, the most favorable for life and economic activity, is an arid sandy plain with sparse vegetation. To the south rise limestone hills and mountains with heights up to 760 m, in some places overgrown with shrubs. There is sufficient rainfall here for the development of agriculture; olives, figs and barley can be grown without irrigation. Further south, the mountains drop and give way to the desert plateau of El-Hamra, composed of red sandstones. In its northern part, nomadic tribes are engaged in cattle breeding. In the east, the plateau passes into the mountains of Es-Soda ("black mountains").

Fezzan.

About 480 km south of Tripoli, the plateau descends to the Fezzan depression, composed of sands. There are several oases here. Life depends on water supplies in wells and springs. To the southeast of Fezzan, the surface rises to a desert plateau, and along the southern border of Libya, the high and dissected Tibesti highlands begin. Here is the highest point of the country - Mount Bette (2267 m).

Cyrenaica.

The limestone plateau of Barka el-Bayda, located near the Mediterranean coast, reaches a height of 910 m. The elevated parts of the plateau are overgrown with dense shrubs, and the remains of forests have been preserved there. Rainfall is sufficient for the cultivation of some crops, but the inhabited areas here occupy a smaller area than in Tripolitania. South of the Barqa el-Bayda plateau, there is a vast but lower sandstone plateau. Most of it, especially along the border with Egypt, is covered with sand dunes. This is the vast Libyan desert. Oases are dispersed on its western outskirts. The southernmost of these are the Kufra oases, 800 km south of the Barqa el-Bayda plateau and about the same distance east of Fezzan. Between the oases of Kufra and the southern border of Libya, the desert stretches for 480 km.

Climate.

On the coast of Libya, the climate is Mediterranean subtropical, in the south - desert tropical with sharp seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations and great dryness of the air. The average temperatures of the coldest month - January - in the north of the country are 11–12 ° C, in the south 15–18 ° C, the temperatures of the warmest month - July are 27–29 ° C and 32–35 ° C, respectively. In summer, daytime temperatures are above 40 -42 ° C, maximum - more than 50 ° C. In 1922, in El Azizia, 80 km southwest of Tripoli, a record high temperature of 57.8 ° C was recorded. The coastal regions of the country receive the greatest amount of precipitation. In Benghazi, the average annual rainfall is 250 mm, in Tripoli 360 mm. The nearby mountains and the Barqa el-Bayda plateau are slightly more humid. Not far from them are areas where less than 150 mm of precipitation falls annually. Rains on the coast fall during the winter months, and the summers are very dry and hot. In the deserts of the country, it is not uncommon for only 25 mm of precipitation to fall annually. There are often hot dry winds with dust storms - ghibli and khamsin.

Most of the territory of Libya, with the exception of certain coastal regions, mountains and oases, is characterized by an extremely dry climate and is unsuitable for agriculture.

The fauna of Libya is poor. There are many reptiles (snakes, lizards), rodents are abundant among mammals, predators (jackal, hyena, fennec fox) are found. Antelopes live in the south. Numerous insects. Birds are richly represented in the oases. Anchovy, mackerel, tuna, horse mackerel are found in coastal waters.

POPULATION

Demography.

Due to rapid growth from 1973 to 1998, the population of the country increased from 2.2 to 5.7 million people. In the 1970s, the annual population growth rate exceeded 4%. According to estimates for 2010, 6 million 461 thousand people lived in the country.
The average life expectancy of Libyans is 77.47 years (women - 79.88 years, men - 75.18 years). Child mortality is approx. 20.87 deaths per 1000 births.
The average age of the Libyans is ca. 24 years old.

The vast majority of the population is concentrated in a narrow coastal zone and in oases. People are increasingly moving from rural areas to cities, by 2008 almost 78% of the population lived in the city.

Libya has two large cities - Tripoli (1.5 million inhabitants in 1990) and Benghazi (800 thousand inhabitants). There are also a number of small towns. These include Misurata (360 thousand people), Ez-Zawiya (280 thousand), Sebha (150 thousand), Tobruk (75.3 thousand), El Beida (67.1 thousand) and Ajdabiya ( 65.3 thousand). New cities arose near the oil terminals: Es-Sider, Ras-al-Anuf, Marsa-el-Bureika, Ez-Zuwaitina and Marsa-al-Kharig.

Ethnogenesis.

Unlike other North African states, Libya has an ethnically homogeneous population. Almost all of it consists of Arabs. True, a few Berbers live in the southwestern part of Tripolitania, and Tuareg live in Fezzan. There are small communities of Maltese and Greeks in the country; as a rule, the Greeks are engaged in the extraction of sea sponges. At the end of Italian colonial rule, approx. 20 thousand Italians, employed mainly in agriculture and trade. However, in 1970, the government confiscated property belonging to Italians and Jews, and strongly encouraged Italians to emigrate from Libya. Most of the small, but long-lived Jewish community in Libya emigrated from the country after 1948 and the persecution that followed the 1967 Arab-Israeli war.

Language and religion.

Almost all Libyans speak Arabic, which is the official language of the country. The Italian language was once widely used, especially among the educated stratum of Libyan society. During the years of the British administration (1943-1951), the English language became widespread, which became especially popular with the appearance of American and British oil companies in Libya.

With the exception of a very few Berbers belonging to the Ibadi or Kharijite sect of Islam, the Libyans are Sunni Muslims. Many people in Cyrenaica are considered followers of the Senusite Dervish Brotherhood, a religious movement that spread to North Africa in the 18th century.

GOVERNMENT

Until 1912, Libya was a province of the Ottoman Empire, and then until the Second World War - a colony of Italy. There was virtually no political activity in the poor, sparsely populated country. The most significant local traditional institution was the Muslim religious brotherhood of the Senusites, centered in Cyrenaica. During the Second World War, Libya was occupied by the troops of Great Britain and France, and after the end of the war remained under the control of the British and French administration.

Libya gained independence in 1951. At that time, it was a federal state, consisting of three provinces - Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan. According to the state structure, Libya was a constitutional monarchy, headed by the head of the Senusite brotherhood, Mohammed Idris al-Senusi, who was crowned under the name of King Idris I. During the Second World War, he actively collaborated with the British. The conservative regime of King Idris was closely associated with Britain and the United States. Although elections were held for the lower house of the bicameral parliament, there were virtually no political parties in the country. However, many Libyans shared the ideas of Arab nationalism in its modern form, which was put forward by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser.

With the discovery of oil reserves in the late 1950s, Libya embarked on a path of economic prosperity, and soon an educated urban elite emerged in the country. Since 1963 the government has been trying to modernize the country; Libyan women were granted the right to participate in elections, Libya was declared a unitary state. Nevertheless, throughout the country, with the exception of Cyrenaica, the stronghold of the Senussi royal dynasty, dissatisfaction with the conservative policies of the pro-Western monarchy was growing. The defeat of the Arabs in the war with Israel in 1967 gave a strong impetus to the spread of the ideas of Arab nationalism in Libya.

In September 1969, a group of young army officers overthrew the monarchist regime and proclaimed Libya a republic. All power was transferred to the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), headed by the leader of the military coup, Muammar Gaddafi. The SRK dissolved parliament, suspended the constitution, and appointed a predominantly civilian cabinet of ministers. In 1973, Gaddafi organized the Arab Socialist Union (ASS), which became the only legal political organization in the country. In 1977, the General People's Congress (GPC), representing numerous people's committees, approved a new name for the country - the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ("people's state"). The SRK was also renamed and transformed into the General Secretariat of the Congress. ACC actually merged with the VNK apparatus.

national government.

A military regime has been established in Libya, professing the ideas of Arab nationalism, socialism and Islam. The supreme state body is the Supreme People's Commissariat, which includes representatives of the people's committees. In fact, the VNK has the functions of parliament. Its members are elected at the local and regional levels, some of them are appointed personally by Gaddafi. Gaddafi also appoints the ministers of his cabinet from among the members of the GNC. Although Gaddafi himself does not hold any official positions, he remains Libya's leading political figure.

Judicial system.

The basis of legal proceedings is the Koran. Legal proceedings are carried out by a hierarchically built system of courts. The magistrates' courts deal with petty cases. Next come the first-tier courts, the courts of appeal and the Supreme Court.

Armed forces.

At the end of the 1980s, the size of the armed forces was reduced, but in 1994 it was again restored to the level of the mid-1980s. In 1995-1996, the total strength of the Libyan armed forces was 80 thousand people, of which 50 thousand served in the ground forces. There are 2210 tanks and 417 units of aviation equipment in service, half of the tanks and aircraft are mothballed.

Foreign policy

Libya in the 1950s - early 1960s was determined by dependence on the United States and Great Britain, which, in exchange for military assistance, kept their military bases in Libya. As oil revenues increased, Libya freed itself from economic dependence, the foreign military presence was also eliminated, and the country began to move closer to other Arab states. Militant Arab nationalism was reflected in foreign policy. Libya has taken an uncompromising position in the Arab-Israeli conflict. In 1977, at a conference of Arab states held in Libya, negotiations between Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israel were sharply criticized. Following this, a break in diplomatic relations with Egypt was announced.

Based on the ideas of Arab nationalism, the leaders of Libya have repeatedly proposed to unite with other Arab countries or create confederations in the hope that this will contribute to the gradual unification of the entire Arab world. In 1972, Libya, Syria and Egypt announced their intention to create a federation, but things did not go beyond intentions. Plans for unification ended in 1972 with Egypt, in 1974 with Tunisia, in 1980 with Syria, in 1981 with Chad, in 1984 with Morocco and in 1987 with Algeria. Currently, Libya is part of the Arab Maghreb Union, a regional association created in 1989 that includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania and Libya.

In practice, Libya pursues an active foreign policy course, which has led to conflicts in relations with conservative Arab regimes and the United States. In 1973, Libya occupied the Aouzu strip in northern Chad, and in the 1980s, units of the Libyan army took part in the civil war in this country. Libya supported the Polisario front, which in 1976-1991 waged an armed struggle with Morocco for control over the territory of the former Spanish Sahara. In 1984, an agreement on economic cooperation was reached between Libya and Malta. The accusation that Libya was supporting terrorists in Lebanon and international terrorism in general significantly worsened US-Libyan relations in the 1980s. In March 1986, a conflict broke out between the armed forces of both countries over territorial waters in the Gulf of Sidra. April 15, 1986 US aircraft bombed several Libyan cities.

In 1987, the armed forces of Chad, with the support of France, inflicted a humiliating defeat on the Libyan army. The question of the territorial belonging of the Aouzu strip was discussed at a meeting of the International Court of Justice in The Hague, which in 1994 ruled in favor of Chad, and Libya withdrew its troops from the disputed territory.

In 1988, the United States and Britain blamed Libya for the bombing of a company airliner. "Pan American" over Lockerbie (Scotland), and France - in the shelling of a French aircraft over the territory of Niger in 1989. In April 1992, in accordance with UN resolutions No. in the United States and Great Britain, economic sanctions were imposed against Libya. They included a ban on all flights to and from Libya, a ban on the sale to that country of aircraft and spare parts for them, as well as military equipment and equipment. In response to UN decisions in May 1992, Libyan officials issued a statement condemning terrorism, and also announced a decision to close the headquarters of the Palestinian organization Fatah in Tripoli - the Revolutionary Council headed by Abu Nidal. A few weeks later, representatives of Libya and Great Britain met in Geneva, at which the Libyan side conveyed information about Libya's ties with the Irish Republican Army. However, Gaddafi refused to hand over to the United States or Great Britain those suspected of committing sabotage on board the Pan American airliner, citing the fact that Libya does not have an extradition treaty with these countries. Instead, the Libyan leader offered to arrange a trial of them and hold it in different countries, or organize a trial at the International Court of Justice in The Hague. Gaddafi's proposal was rejected, and since April 1992 UN sanctions against Libya have been renewed every six months.

Libya is among the non-aligned countries, is a member of the UN, the League of Arab States, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the Organization of African Unity and the Islamic Development Bank.

ECONOMY

Prior to the development of oil fields, Libya was one of the poorest countries in Africa and did not have much prospects for economic development. Most of the Libyans were employed in agriculture, which is very unproductive due to the lack of rainfall and the lack of suitable land for cultivation. But by the mid-1960s, thanks to the development of oil fields, Libya was on a par with such countries as Venezuela, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. In 1983, per capita income rose to $8,480. The rapid development of the oil industry left all other sectors of the economy far behind. Libya's national industry is just beginning to take shape, and food still has to be imported to meet the needs of a growing population. Another problem is the lack of qualified personnel. In the late 1980s, more than 500,000 foreigners worked in Libya.

Oil industry.

Back in 1955, anticipating the possibility of discovering oil, the Libyan government passed a law on oil concessions. Profits were to be shared equally between the oil companies and the Libyan government, and after a certain fixed period, part of the concession was to become the property of the state. In 1958, the first significant oil fields were explored, and in 1961 their exploitation began. More than 30 oil companies operate on a concession basis in the region of rich oil fields south of the Gulf of Sidra.

In 1970, the annual volume of oil production exceeded 160 million tons, but from the middle of 1970, after the introduction of government restrictions, it began to decline. The restrictions were partly to force oil companies to accept the government's demands, partly to prevent the country's oil resources from being depleted until its economy has reached the desired level of development. Among the oil-exporting countries, Libya most consistently pursued a policy of strengthening state control over the oil industry. As a result of agreements with some oil companies and the nationalization of others, the Libyan government has established control over six oil companies operating in the country. In September 1973, all other companies associated with the extraction and refining of oil were also under the control of the state. In 1973-1974, Libya, along with other members of OPEC, quadrupled the sale price of oil. In 1972–1978, the annual volume of oil production reached 96 million tons. However, after a twofold increase in oil prices in 1979, a glut of the world oil market followed in the early 1980s. In an effort to keep prices at the same level, the Libyan government was forced to limit production volumes. By 1985, the level of oil production fell to 51 million tons per year, but in the next 10 years its production increased again. Although for 1994-1995 the quota set by OPEC for Libya was 69 million tons per year, the actual production volume reached 75 million tons.

In 1988, when the last significant oil deposits were discovered in the country, the volume of oil reserves was estimated at 3 billion tons (first place in the world). The largest oil fields - Serir, Bahi, Nafura, Raguba, Intisar, Nasser, Wakha, Samakh - are located south of the Gulf of Sidra and are connected by oil pipelines to the coast. Oil is shipped for export through five terminals for oil tankers located in the Mediterranean ports of Es Sider, Ras al Anuf, Marsa el Bureika, Marsa el Hariga and Ez Zuwaitina. In terms of natural gas reserves (657 billion cubic meters), Libya ranks third in Africa. The largest Khateiba field (339 billion cubic meters). In 1970, a plant for liquefied natural gas was put into operation in Marsa el-Bureika, and since 1971, the export sale of liquefied gas began for the first time. In the early 1990s, new natural gas reserves were discovered in the Surt (Sirte) oil and gas basin.

Agriculture.

In addition to oil production, agriculture is an important component of the economy. The rural population cultivates the land in the narrow coastal strip of Tripolitania, using atmospheric precipitation in winter and irrigation from wells in summer. Around Tripoli, in the commercial horticulture area, citrus fruits, dates, olives and almonds are grown. In the southern oases, water from underground sources is used to irrigate fields. In the presence of a sufficient amount of precipitation, barley is cultivated on the periphery of the uplands. Arable land makes up only 1% of the country's area, and only 1% of it is included in the artificial irrigation zone. Since 1979, work has been underway to build a "great artificial river" - a conduit designed to transfer water from 250 underground wells from the Tazerbo and Sarir oases in the Sahara desert to the country's coast. By 1993, 1800 km of pipelines and canals had been laid, roads and reservoirs had been built. In Cyrenaica, crops, olives and fruit trees are cultivated on the Barka el-Bayda plateau. Libya has 8 million hectares of grazing land in Tripolitania and 4 million hectares in Cyrenaica. Nomadic pastoralists live in the region of the El-Akhdar plateau in Cyrenaica.

Other industries.

The Libyan government is making efforts to expand and diversify the sectoral structure of the industry. In the early 1970s, new industries emerged, including cement and metal products. In subsequent years, a number of contracts were signed with Western European, Yugoslav and Japanese firms for the construction of several nuclear and thermal power plants, as well as heavy industry enterprises. At the same time, it was envisaged that some of these enterprises would use crude oil as a raw material. Among the largest enterprises in the manufacturing industry, the metallurgical plant in Misurata stands out, which produced up to 1.5 million tons of steel and rolled products in 1996, plants for the production of pipes and electric cables; assembly of cars and tractors has been established. The light and food industries are poorly developed. Traditional industries include the extraction of sea sponges, salt evaporation in the coastal zone and various handicraft industries: the manufacture of leather goods, copper, tin, ceramics and carpet weaving. There are also small enterprises in the processing of agricultural products, timber, paper, tobacco, textiles and soap.

The number of industrial workers is small, but is constantly growing as the oil industry develops and the construction of enterprises associated with the extraction and processing of oil. Since almost half of the people employed in the oil industry were foreign workers, in 1971 the government called on foreign companies to recruit as many Libyans as possible.

International trade.

During Libya's first decade of independent development, import costs typically exceeded export earnings. By 1963, however, thanks to oil exports, Libya had achieved a positive trade balance. Due to the low sulfur content in oil and due to its proximity to the industrialized countries of Western Europe, Libya successfully competes with other states in the global oil market. The value of Libya's exports in 1991 amounted to 10.2 billion dollars, imports - 8.7 billion dollars. The sale of oil in 1997 brought over 95% of the total amount of export earnings.

The main imports are machinery, construction and transport equipment, textiles, manufactured goods and foodstuffs. In addition to oil, Libya exports natural gas. Libya's main trading partners are Italy, Germany, Spain and France.

Transport.

The country's main seaport is Tripoli. It is followed by Benghazi, Derna and Tobruk, modernized and expanded in the 1960s. At the same time, oil terminals were built on the Mediterranean coast to load oil tankers. In the late 1970s, the ports of Tripoli and Benghazi were significantly expanded. After the modernization carried out in the mid-1990s, the capabilities of the ports of Misurata, Ras al-Anuf, Al-Sider and Al-Zuwaitina were significantly expanded. Libya has its own cargo marine fleet (26 vessels, including 12 tankers) with a total tonnage of over 70,000 tons.

The total length of paved roads is over 28,000 km. The country's main highway runs along the Mediterranean coast from Tunisia to Egypt. The highway connecting the coast with Fezzan also plays an important role. Internal transport links are limited to unpaved roads and air traffic. Several international airlines connect Tripoli and Benghazi with European countries and the USA. In 1965, Libya created its own state-owned airline, which performs all domestic and partly international air transportation.

Money circulation and banking.

The Central Bank of Libya, created in 1955, has the exclusive right to issue money and control foreign currency. In 1972, the Central Arab Foreign Bank was founded, which is a foreign branch of the Central Bank. The Libyan Arab Foreign Investment Company is responsible for the placement of the country's public funds in more than 45 countries. In 1970, by government decree, all banks in Libya were nationalized. The state currency is the Libyan dinar, which consists of 1000 dirhams.

Finance and economic development of the country.

Under the Petroleum Contributions Act of 1958, 70% of government revenue from the sale of oil must be directed to the implementation of economic development plans. At the first stage, the main attention was paid to the development of agriculture, infrastructure, education and housing construction. In the 1970s, projects for the construction of power plants and the development of various industries were included in the list of priorities. The Libyan government is quite clearly aware that after the depletion of oil reserves, the welfare of the country will depend on the level of development of agriculture and industry.

The fall in world oil prices, which had an extremely detrimental effect on exports, in the mid-1980s led to a reduction in allocations for economic development. But the government continues to allocate significant funds for education, health care and support for the media. After 1992, with the imposition of UN sanctions against Libya and the withdrawal of Libyan troops from the disputed territory in northern Chad, public defense spending decreased significantly. The main item of expenditure is the construction of the "great artificial river", for which, by 1996, 18 billion dollars of budgetary funds had been spent. Since the mid-1980s, public investment in industrial production has declined significantly. In the 1989-1990 financial year alone, they decreased by 40% compared to the previous year. On the other hand, budget allocations for agricultural development quadrupled in fiscal year 1990-1991.

Prior to the influx of funds from the sale of oil, the country's economic development programs were financed mainly by assistance from the United States, Britain and the United Nations. By 1965, Libya was no longer in need of foreign financial assistance, and in the 1970s itself provided assistance to some, mainly Muslim, states in the Middle East, Africa and Asia.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

social structure.

For many centuries, the historical development of each of the two main regions of Libya - Tripolitania and Cyrenaica - went its own way. That is why social homogeneity is more manifested at the regional rather than at the national level. Distribution in the 19th century on the territory of Cyrenaica, the activities of the Senussi order further alienated these two areas, since the population of Tripolitania remained faithful to normative Sunni Islam. The Senussi religious-historical movement, founded by the grandfather of the former King Idris I, aimed to return to the origins of Islam. The population of Cyrenaica consisted mainly of nomads and semi-nomads, while a settled peasant and urban population lived in Tripolitania. A peculiar social organization is also characteristic of the population of the Fezzan desert region.

There is a small stratum of merchants and a small but ever-increasing group of officials, managers and qualified specialists. In the coastal zone and in Fezzan, the land is in individual private ownership. Areas with a nomadic population are characterized by collective ownership of land by tribal groups.

Public education.

During the period of the Italian colonial presence in Libya, there was virtually no system of Western education. The beginning of its active distribution dates back to the time of the British military administration, and further development took place after the 1960s, when significant funds began to flow into independent Libya from the sale of oil. Education in the country is free at all levels and compulsory up to grade 9. In 1991-1992, there were 2744 elementary schools and 1555 secondary schools in Libya, 195 vocational and pedagogical colleges. There were also 10 universities and 10 pedagogical institutes (including corresponding departments at the universities of al-Fattah in Tripoli and Garyounis in Benghazi). There are 1.4 million children in elementary school, 310.5 thousand in secondary school, 37 thousand in vocational schools and 72.9 thousand in higher education. The development of technical training is mainly driven by the needs of the oil industry. There are 14 research centers in the country. The State provides material assistance to a network of Islamic educational institutions, including the Islamic University of Al-Beida, which is also a center for religious studies.

In Libya comes out approx. 20 newspapers and magazines in Arabic and English, few books published.

HISTORY

The differences between the two main regions of the country - Tripolitania and Cyrenaica - go back to ancient times. In the 4th c. BC. Cyrenaica was colonized by the Greeks, then conquered by the army of Alexander the Great, then was under the control of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and already from them in 96 BC. went to the Roman Empire. The island of Crete was also part of the Roman province of Cyrenaica. Tripolitania was initially in the zone of influence of Phoenicia, and then Carthage. Ultimately, both areas became the possessions of the Roman Empire, but when it was divided, Cyrenaica became part of the eastern possessions, while Tripolitania remained under the direct control of Rome. In 455, the Vandals attacked the territory of Libya from the west, but in 533 the troops of Emperor Justinian managed to oust them from the country. In 642–644, the Arab cavalry invaded Libya, and the country became part of the Arab Caliphate, but until the 11th century. the local population was not converted to Islam. After the Arab conquest, Cyrenaica moved closer and closer to Egypt, while Tripolitania became part of the Western Arab world (Maghrib).

Between 1517 and 1577 Libya was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and until 1711 was under the control of governors from Istanbul. In 1711-1835, the local dynasty of Karamanly established itself in Libya, nominally remaining loyal to the sultan. In 1835 the country came under direct control of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan personally appointed the wali, who had full power in Libya, turned into a vilayet (province).

Italy, which in 1911 began to seize the territory of Libya, ran into stubborn armed resistance from the local population. Until 1922, the Italians managed to maintain control over only some coastal areas, and only by 1932 did they manage to subjugate the entire country. Until 1934, Cyrenaica and Tripolitania were considered separate colonies of Italy, although they were under the control of one governor-general. Under Mussolini in 1939, Libya was incorporated into Italy.

During the Second World War, Libya became the scene of fierce hostilities, and in 1943 was occupied by the Allied forces. Under the 1947 peace treaty, Italy lost all rights to the territory of its former colony, the fate of which was to be decided during negotiations between France, Great Britain, the USA and the USSR. It was envisaged that if within a year the great powers could not come to an acceptable agreement, the fate of the country would be decided by the UN. In November 1949, the UN General Assembly decided to grant independence to Libya until January 1, 1952.

In 1950-1951, the work of the National Constituent Assembly took place, which included an equal number of representatives from all three regions of the country. The deputies of the assembly adopted a constitution and in December 1951 approved the Emir of Cyrenaica, Mohammed Idris al-Senusi, as king of Libya. On December 24, 1951, an independent federal kingdom was proclaimed, which included the provinces of Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan.

An independent Libya inherited a very poor and mostly illiterate population. In exchange for substantial economic and technical assistance, the Libyan government allowed the United States and Britain to maintain their military bases in the country. Since there were not enough lawyers and teachers in the country, specialists from Egypt were invited to the civil service.

The second decade of the country's independent path of development was strikingly different from the first. The oil export revenues that poured into Libya allowed the government to forego foreign aid, and it terminated the agreement to maintain American and British military bases on its territory. In 1963, the federal structure, which took into account the peculiarities of the historical development and traditions of the three parts of the country, was abolished, and Libya was declared a unitary state.

On September 1, 1969, a group of young army officers led by Muammar Gaddafi overthrew the regime of King Idris I. The country was named the Libyan Arab Republic, and all power was transferred to the Revolutionary Command Council. Gaddafi led the country in accordance with his proclaimed principle of "Islamic socialism" and was determined to reduce Libya's dependence on foreign influence. By 1973, 51% of the shares of all foreign oil companies had become state property. An important step was the nationalization of the retail network for the sale of petroleum products and gas, as well as the introduction of a state monopoly on the export of petroleum products. At the initiative of Gaddafi, the process of strengthening national sovereignty was carried out in the country: foreign military bases were withdrawn from Libya, nationalization of foreign property was carried out, and control over the production and sale of oil was introduced. Many leading positions in the economy and other spheres of life were occupied by citizens of the country. In the mid-1970s, after the deterioration of relations with Egypt, many Egyptians who worked in Libya were forced to leave it.

In 1977, M. Gaddafi, who served as General Secretary of the General People's Congress, became head of state. Measures have been stepped up in the country to oust private capital from retail and wholesale trade and eliminate private ownership of real estate. Gaddafi proclaimed a foreign policy course to provide active assistance to "revolutionary movements and regimes that oppose imperialism and colonialism" and supported international terrorism. In 1979, he resigned, declaring his intention to devote himself to developing the ideas of the Libyan revolution. Nevertheless, Gaddafi still remained a key figure in the political life of the country.

In the 1970s, oil prices rose significantly on world markets, which led to the accumulation of significant funds in Libya, which was a supplier of oil to Western countries. Government revenues from oil exports were used to finance urban development and the creation of a modern system of social security for the population. At the same time, to increase the international prestige of Libya, huge sums were spent on the creation of a well-armed modern army. In the Middle East and North Africa, Libya acted as a carrier of the ideas of Arab nationalism and an uncompromising opponent of Israel and the United States. The sharp drop in oil prices in the mid-1980s led to a significant weakening of Libya. Meanwhile, the US administration accused Libya of complicity in international terrorism, and on April 15, 1986, the US bombed several cities in Libya.

Libya in the late 20th - early 21st century.

In 1992, sanctions were applied against Libya after Libyan citizens blew up two passenger airliners. She denied all accusations and refused to extradite her citizens suspected of committing sabotage. In late 1993, Gaddafi suggested that the two Libyans accused of the Lockerbie bombing should be tried in any country in the world, but that the court should either be Muslim, or the composition of the court should consist entirely of Muslims. The proposal of the Libyan leader was rejected, and since 1992, UN sanctions have been renewed against Libya every six months, including the termination of military-technical cooperation and air travel, the freezing of Libyan assets, a ban on the import of certain types of equipment for the oil industry to Libya, etc. After the International a court in The Hague issued a verdict on the right of Chad to the Aouzu strip, occupied in 1973 by Libyan troops, Libya in 1994 withdrew its troops from the area.

In September 1995, as a sign of dissatisfaction with the peace agreements concluded earlier between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Israel, Gaddafi announced the deportation of 30 thousand Palestinians living there from Libya.

In March 2000, the system of government of the country underwent drastic changes: some people's committees were abolished, and their powers were transferred to local bodies. At the same time, the central committees remained intact, including foreign affairs, finance, information, justice and security; A new body was formed - the Higher Committee for African Unity.

In May 2001, Libyan troops were sent to the Central African Republic to help President Ange-Félix Patassa stop a coup attempt. The following September, the two countries signed a long-term economic treaty giving Libya the right to mine gold, oil and diamonds in the Central African Republic's mineral-rich lands.

From the beginning of the 1990s, Libya gradually emerged from political isolation and began to restore its relations with Western Europe. UN sanctions against Libya were suspended in April 1999 after Libya claimed responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing and paid millions in compensation to the families of the victims.

In 2003, in Geneva, the representative of Libya to the UN, Najat Al-Khazhaji, was elected chairman of the UN Commission on Human Rights for another one-year term. This caused a mixed reaction from the world community. However, in accordance with the principle of rotation existing in the UN, one of the African countries should head this commission. The Libyan Permanent Representative to head the Commission was proposed by the delegation of South Africa on behalf of the Africa Regional Group. For the first time, voting was by secret ballot. Najat Al-Hajaji received 33 votes, with 3 against and 17 abstentions. Her election to this important post in the UN system was opposed by the delegations of the United States and a number of human rights organizations. The European Regional Group supported the candidacy of Al-Khazhazhi. In December 2003, it was announced that Libya would abandon its efforts to develop weapons of mass destruction and cooperate with international organizations, which would end its alienation from the West.

In April 2004 Gaddafi made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years. In Brussels, he negotiated with European leaders to lift UN sanctions (they were finally lifted in September 2003). In 2004, diplomatic and trade relations between Libya and the United States were restored almost in full, and in June 2006 the United States dropped charges of sponsoring terrorism from Libya.

In January 2008, Libya entered the list of five countries that the UN General Assembly elected as non-permanent members of the Security Council for a two-year period. Libya, Burkina Faso, Vietnam, Croatia and Costa Rica managed on the first attempt to overcome the barrier of two-thirds of the votes of 192 members of the UN General Assembly.

In 2008, the governments of the United States and Libya signed an agreement on cooperation in the field of science and technology. It was the first bilateral agreement since the restoration of diplomatic relations between the two countries in 2004. In January 2009, these countries exchanged ambassadors (for the first time since 1973).

In May 2010, Libya was elected to the UN Human Rights Council until June 2013, prompting protests from international NGOs and human rights activists. The Geneva-based HRC replaced the UN Commission on Human Rights. In accordance with the resolution of the General Assembly on March 15, 2006, it consists of 47 members elected annually by secret ballot for three years from regional groups.

In mid-February 2011, mass demonstrations began in Libya demanding the resignation of Muammar Gaddafi, who had been ruling the country for more than 40 years. Subsequently, they developed into an armed confrontation between the opposition and government forces. On March 19, 2011, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution that allowed the launch of an operation "to force Gaddafi to peace." The leadership of this operation gradually passed to NATO. On April 15, 2011, the leaders of the United States, Great Britain and France announced that the military operation would be carried out until Muammar Gaddafi resigned as head of the country. However, Gaddafi called on troops loyal to the government to resist and refused to give up power.

Events in the country developed according to the most dramatic scenario, with many victims and destruction. Muammar Gaddafi died on October 20, 2011 during the storming of the city of Sirte.

Libya after Gaddafi

After the overthrow of Gaddafi, the Transitional National Council came to power.

On July 7, 2012, parliamentary elections were held for the General National Congress. This is the first election in decades. In total, there are 200 seats in the Congress (80 seats are given to parties, and 120 to independent deputies). The main parties between which the struggle unfolded is the Alliance of National Forces (ANS), which unites the liberal parties. The Alliance is led by the former Prime Minister of the Transitional National Council, Mahmoud Jibril, and the Islamist Justice and Construction Party (in fact, the Libyan branch of the international association of the Muslim Brotherhood), whose leader is Mohammed Sauan. The ANC won 39 seats, followed by the Justice and Construction Party with 17 seats and 24 seats for smaller political parties.

Literature:

Proshin N.I. History of Libya(end of XIX - 1969). M., 1975
Fatis V.L. M., 1982
Lavrentiev V. L. Libya. Directory. M., 1985
Proshin N.I., Roshchin M.Yu., Smirnova G.I. Libya. - In: Recent history of the Arab countries of Africa, 1917-1987. M., 1990



It is located in the north of the African continent, in the north the territory of Libya is washed by the Mediterranean Sea. The relief of Libya is monotonous: 9/10 of the country's territory is occupied by the Sahara Desert, low plateaus 200-600 meters above sea level prevail, in the northeast and west they are replaced by low mountains (up to 1,200 meters), in the east of the country there are basins (about 130 meters below sea level). The country's only mountain range is the Tibesti highlands on the border with Chad in the south of the country, where the highest point of Libya, Bette Peak (2,286 meters), is located. Libya extends from north to south from 33°09' to 19°30' north latitude for 1,504 km and from west to east from 9°23' to 25°00' east longitude for 1,538 km.

It borders Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad to the south, Niger to the southwest, Algeria to the west, and Tunisia to the northwest. Border length: total - 4,348 km, with Egypt - 1,115 km, with Sudan - 383 km, with Chad - 1,055 km, with Niger - 354 km, with Algeria - 982 km, with Tunisia - 459 km. The length of the coastline is 1,770 km.

The total area is 1,759,540 km². As of February 2006, Libya did not officially belong to the waters, but the government claims a territorial sea of ​​12 nautical miles and the waters of the Gulf of Sidra as historical waters.

Libya country in North Africa. In the north it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Egypt in the east, Sudan in the southeast, Chad and Niger in the south, Algeria in the west, and Tunisia in the northwest.

The name of the country comes from the name of one of the local tribes - Livu. The word "jamahi-riya" means "democracy".

Official name: Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

Capital: Tripoli

The area of ​​the land: 1760 thousand sq. km

Total population: 6.46 million people

Administrative division: The state is divided into 46 municipal districts.

Form of government: Republic.

Governing body: revolutionary leadership.

Composition of the population: 90% - Libyans (Arabs and Berbers), also: Tuareg, Tubu.

Official language: Arab. The Italian language was once widely used, especially among the educated stratum of Libyan society. During the years of the British administration (1943-1951), the English language became widespread, which became especially popular with the appearance of American and British oil companies in Libya.

Religion: 97% - Sunni Muslims, 2% Catholics, 1% Christians (Copts).

Internet domain: .ly

Mains voltage: ~127 V/230 V, 50 Hz

Phone country code: +218

Country barcode: 624

Climate

On the coast of Libya, the climate is Mediterranean subtropical, in the south - desert tropical with sharp seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations and great dryness of the air. The average temperatures of the coldest month - January - in the north of the country are 11–12 ° C, in the south 15–18 ° C, the temperatures of the warmest month - July are 27–29 ° C and 32–35 ° C, respectively. In summer, daytime temperatures are above 40 -42 ° C, maximum - more than 50 ° C. In 1922, in El Azizia, 80 km southwest of Tripoli, a record high temperature of 57.8 ° C was recorded.

The coastal regions of the country receive the most rainfall. In Benghazi, the average annual rainfall is 250 mm, in Tripoli 360 mm. The nearby mountains and the Barqa el-Bayda plateau are slightly more humid. Not far from them are areas where less than 150 mm of precipitation falls annually. Rains on the coast fall during the winter months, and the summers are very dry and hot. In the deserts of the country, it is not uncommon for only 25 mm of precipitation to fall annually. There are often hot dry winds with dust storms - ghibli and khamsin.

Most of the territory of Libya, with the exception of certain coastal regions, mountains and oases, is characterized by an extremely dry climate and is unsuitable for agriculture.

Geography

Libya is a country in the central part of North Africa, has access to the Mediterranean Sea. In the north it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, in the east it borders with Egypt, in the southeast with Sudan, in the south with Chad and Niger, in the west with Algeria and in the northwest with Tunisia. Most of the country is occupied by desert.

Most of the territory is a flat plain with heights from 200 to 500 m. The parts of the plains are separated by extensive depressions, the largest of which lies in the northeast of the country. The western part of Libya is separated from the eastern chain of mountains and ranges.

On the northeastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea there is a small El-Akhdar plateau (less than 900 m). Its name means "green mountains": subtropical vegetation grows in this area. In the southeast, in the spurs of the Tibesti highlands, is the highest point of the country - the extinct volcano Bette (2286 m). The lowest absolute mark (-47 m) is located in the Sakhat Guzayil depression.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

The natural vegetation of the deserts is very poor - these are dry-loving thorny plants, saltworts, rare shrubs, single trees in the valleys of the oueds, where moisture is stored in alluvium. Vast areas are almost completely devoid of vegetation. In more humid areas of the coast, on gray brown soils and gray soils, cereals, tamarisks and other shrubs, and certain types of acacias grow.

On the slopes of the mountains in the north of Cyrenaica, vegetation such as the Mediterranean maquis and islands of forests of Aleppo pine, juniper, and cedars (now almost single) have been preserved. Between the zone of coastal subtropical vegetation and the deserts stretches, several tens of kilometers wide, a strip of semi-desert vegetation with a sparse grass cover dominated by hard-leaved xerophytic grasses, wormwood and salt-loving plants.

Animal world

The fauna of the deserts is not rich. On the northern outskirts there are many predators - these are jackals, hyenas, fennec foxes. Of the ungulates, you can occasionally see small herds of gazelles, and in the extreme south - antelopes. As in all deserts, reptiles, insects, spiders, scorpions are richly represented. Over Libya passes the path of many migratory birds, and some of them even winter here.

There are many birds in oases, where they, especially passerines, cause great harm to poor crops. Small rodents are also a scourge, living everywhere, even in almost waterless parts of deserts.

Banks and currency

Libyan dinar (international designation - LYD, within the country - LD), equal to 1000 dirhams. In the course of banknotes in denominations of 10, 5 and 1 dinar, 1/2 and 1/4 dinar. Coins in denominations of 100 and 50 dirhams.

Banking hours: 08.00-12.00 Saturday-Thursday (winter), 08.00-12.00 Saturday-Thursday and 16.00-17.00 Saturday-Wednesday (summer).
Dieners Club and Visa credit cards are limited to major hotels and airports.

Traveler's checks are generally not accepted due to existing sanctions imposed by the US Government. Withdrawing cash from an ATM is extremely difficult in this country, since in 2007 there were only three ATMs in all of Libya that allow cash withdrawals using Visa or Mastercard. Two of the three ATMs are located in Tripoli (Bank of Commerce and Development) and one in Benghazi (Funduq Tibesti hotel lobby).

Currency can be exchanged at banks and officially authorized exchange offices. There is also a black market for currency exchange, but when exchanging small amounts, it does not differ much from the official rate.

Useful information for tourists

The traditional drink of the Arab countries is coffee. The process of its preparation and drinking is a complex ritual. First, the grains are roasted, stirring them with a metal stick, after which they are crushed in a special mortar with the obligatory observance of a certain rhythm. Coffee is brewed in copper or brass vessels similar to teapots. The finished drink is served in small cups, in order of seniority.

Guests are offered coffee three times, after which decency requires you to thank the owner and refuse. Coffee is drunk without sugar, but with the addition of spices - cloves, cardamom, in some countries - saffron and nutmeg. The diet in Arab countries is two times a day: usually it is a very hearty breakfast and the same hearty lunch.