Sources of information the history of the ancient world. Written sources of the ancient history of the Slavs. The unreliability of ancient chronology
ANCIENT WORLD HISTORY
1. Sources on the history of the Ancient World.
2. Geographic conditions and population of the Ancient East.
3. The most ancient society of Jericho.
4. Early dynastic period in Mesopotamia. Sumerian society.
5. Early despotism in Mesopotamia.
6. Babylon in the era of the Old Babylonian kingdom and during the Kassite dynasty.
7. Assyrian power in the II-I millennium BC.
8. Persian state of the Achaemenids.
9. Religion and culture of Ancient Mesopotamia.
10. The most ancient history of the Holy Land in III - ser. II millennium BC
11. The history of the Jewish people in the middle. II-I millennium BC
12. Ancient Syria and Phenicia in the III-I millennium BC.
13. The main stages in the history of the Hittite state.
14. Egypt during the Early, Ancient and Middle Kingdoms.
15. Egypt during the New and Late Kingdoms.
16. Religion and culture of Ancient Egypt.
17. Religions of East and Southeast Asia: Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Confucianism.
18. Geographic conditions and population of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.
19. Greece in the Crete-Mycenaean era. "Dark Ages".
20. Greek religion.
21. Greece in the archaic period: colonization, tyrannies and the first laws.
22. The culture of Greece in the archaic and classical periods.
23. Greco-Persian wars: causes, course, results.
24. Athenian democracy in the 5th century. to R. X.
25. State and social structure of Sparta.
26. Peloponnesian War: causes, course, results.
27. The formation of the polis system and the causes of its crisis. The relationship between the Greek city-states and Philip of Macedon.
28. Campaigns of Alexander the Great and the creation of a great power.
29. Religion and culture of the Hellenistic period.
30. Hellenistic states of the Ptolemies and Seleucids. Greece in the Hellenistic period.
31. Etruscans. History of Rome in the Imperial Period.
32. Religion of Ancient Rome in the Royal and Republican periods.
33. The state structure of Rome in the era of the Early Republic. The struggle of patricians and plebeians.
34. The aggressive policy of Ancient Rome. Creation of provinces.
35. Punic wars of Rome: causes, course, results.
36. Culture of Rome during the period of the Republic and the Early Empire.
37. Rome in the era of the Late Republic: the dictatorship of Sulla, the 1st triumvirate, the reign of Julius Caesar.
38. Second triumvirate. Creation of the Roman Empire. The reign of Octavian Augustus.
39. Early Roman Empire in the I-II centuries. n. e. The reign of the emperors Nero, Trajan, Septimius Severus.
40. Religious syncretism and culture of the imperial era.
41. The crisis of the Roman Empire in the III century. Establishing dominance. The reign of Emperor Diocletian.
42. Late imperial Rome: the reign of Constantine the Great, Julian the Apostate and Theodosius the Great.
43. Relations between the Roman state and the early Christian Church.
44. Causes of the crisis of the Roman Empire in con. 4th-5th centuries The invasion of the barbarian tribes and the fall of Rome.
Some answers do not fully reflect the requirements of the program. Therefore, it is also necessary to use additional literature, studying this marvelous subject.
1. Sources on the history of the Ancient World.
Written and archaeological sources.
Archaeological: Rome (Pompeii), Parthenon (Athens), Egypt (pyramids).
Written: historical (annals - a type of chronicle, characterized by a more concise form of presentation of events), religious, legal (laws), scientific (texts of ancient medicine, geography), artistic, economic texts. Epigraphy (inscriptions on hard materials).
Egypt.
Greece. Material monuments: remains of buildings, tools, weapons, household items, coins and other items. Research scientists were conducted in all areas of Greece and the Greek islands. In Athens and other Greek cities known in antiquity; in Delphi and Olympia - important religious centers; on the island of Delos and Rhodes; on the site of large Asia Minor centers - Miletus, Pergamum and other cities that were important to the classical era or the era of Hellenism; in the Black Sea regions, on the site of the Greek colonies; in Egypt, Syria and other areas under the influence of Hellenism. Many monuments acquainting us with the Greek way of life have been discovered; of particular importance are the monuments of Greek art, preserved, mainly not in the originals, but in later copies.
Exploring images and coin inscriptions, the distribution areas of certain coins, the methods of their minting - is important for the history of the Greek economy, and first of all, monetary circulation.
Data of the Greek language, in which the remains of various adverbs (dialects) have been preserved. The study of Greek dialects allows us to solve issues related to the settlement of Greek tribes. A historical analysis of the origin of certain Greek words, which are scientific terms in our time, provides material for the history of Greek culture.
c) oral tradition. The distant past of the Greek people was reflected in various legends and tales, myths, as they are commonly called, transmitted to us by various Greek writers. An exceptional role is played by mythology for the study of Greek culture, in particular for the history of religion.
d) Written documents: laws, treaties, honorary decrees, etc., preserved either in the form of inscriptions, or in the transfer of certain Greek authors.
e) Literary works, of which the works of Greek historians are of particular importance for the study of Greek history. Some of them are contemporary to the events described.
Rome.
3. The most ancient society of Jericho.
In the end IX thousand in the Eastern Mediterranean, the first city appears Jericho, i.e. an accumulation of people isolated from the rural population, engaged in both agriculture and specialized activities, with a higher culture and level of education, practicing more complex types of relationships than others. There was nothing like it anywhere else in the world. The idea of a city is not necessarily related to the level of technological development: Jericho was a city and in VIII thousand and in VII.
Why do we consider it a city? The first and most essential is a close, naturally walled collection of people who are unable to live without a special social organization that would allow them to exist together. Then the war became quite regular. Population 2-3 thousand people, per capita free space 14 sq.m. (not living space, but in general).
City planning. Jericho did not have a regular layout, but it had streets and complex architecture: the tower of the city is not a heap of stones, but a complex structure with an internal staircase, a large stone cistern coated with clay to store grain and water. There were appropriate authorities that could force the construction of a tower over 8 m high (the preserved height), donate grain to the general fund, organize the accumulation of water, etc. Certain knowledge was also required, without which the wall would not stand; a ditch was dug in front of the wall, and water was in the ditch.
population of Jericho. The cult of ancestors. The inhabitants worshiped the gods, were engaged in agriculture, crafts, trade, and rested. Apparently, farmers also settled here. Their spiritual life was very unusual for us. It was in Jericho that the custom that existed for thousands of years and influenced many neighboring nations did not part with the dead after death arose - the deceased (his skeleton or individual parts of the body) remained inside the house. Excavations have revealed a whole series of skulls of the dead, which were buried inside the houses. Such a peculiar, infrequent custom has spread widely around under the undeniable influence of this city and its religious traditions. A peculiar rite created a special art: highly qualified sculptors appeared in Jericho, who, having a skull, using plaster, recreated the face of a person, and all the casts are not similar and fully correspond to our ideas about how a person should look: this is a very delicate individual work.
Temples. There were temples in the city that were not connected with the ancestors of the family, and more than one. These are temples for a group of families, but the gods in them most likely were the same. In early and most later harmonic societies, in contrast to early technogenic societies, the temple never became the center of settlements: there were quite a lot of sanctuaries. In technogenic societies, the temple quickly assumed economic, administrative and sometimes military functions - it turned into a kind of microstate, built on the basis of temple organizations.
Objects of Worship: In some shrines, images of three deities were found - a man, a woman and a child. They have no later analogues, but they clearly influenced the northern peoples of the Fertile Arc. Temples continued to be built, later deities appeared, in particular, the female goddess of fertility. This is not a technogenic trait, since such deities were known among the peoples of the Fertile Arc a millennium before the first technogenic societies.
Pottery. Jericho is characterized by another feature: at a high density of buildings, residents solved the health problem in the southern densely populated city associated with holding sewer, in the simplest way in the form of underground channels. The city did not know pottery- the author's highly artistic work on clay and plaster was, but there was no clay pot yet. Pottery was not known for several thousand years, and made it out of stone. From the beginning of the 6th millennium, ceramics will already appear. Man invented brick and masonry. It's funny - the brick was invented, but it took 700 years to learn how to lay it so that the third from the top falls on the seam between two bricks. The first bricks looked like a long loaf: the idea of a rectangle had not yet appeared.
Warfare. The Jericho society knew defensive structures, but were not familiar with special weapons for killing a person. When a man finally invented a specialized weapon for his neighbor, then his first modification was quite peaceful, - rather, a weapon of admonition and a sign of power, not murder - a stone mace, that is, a club.
Modern cities of Jericho. Jericho is not the only city in the full sense of the word: even in the pre-ceramic period, small specialized towns existed nearby. For example, a small town beida not far from Jericho, also in the Holy Land, crowded with merchants and artisans, from which commercial premises and workshops have been preserved. That is, in this region, urban life existed, in principle, not only in Jericho, but also in small towns nearby. There were none of these in other places. Both main types of city coexist here, but the second one takes shape a little later, although within the same period. However, from the second half VII thousand in the fertile and humid southeastern part of Asia Minor near the Holy Land competing societies emerge. They have rather sophisticated technologies, architecture, temples associated with other beliefs, but no fortifications, urban structure, complex industries - these are just rich villages.
In terms of language, the population of the Eastern Mediterranean,- largely Semitic, having adopted the language from the descendants of Shem, and perhaps these descendants themselves. The Semites of the Holy Land most likely adopted the language from outside, since the descendants of Shem most likely lived in the upper Euphrates and in Northern Syria. And almost no one lives in the valleys of Mesopotamia and the Nile, although settlements are already appearing along the edges, which are at a very low level of development.
THIRD QUESTION: CHRONOLOGY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. FIRST CALENDARS.
FIRST QUESTION. groups, privileged and unprivileged - society is socially heterogeneous the Italian humanists. The very concept of "DM" appeared in the XVII century.
The history of DM is geographically divided into:
1) The history of the Far East,
2) Greece and Rome.
This division is connected with Hegel. This is the history of civilized societies from 3-4 thousand BC. until the 5th century AD We study civilizations, and this word has two meanings:
1) "Primitive and civilized society",
2) Western, Sumerian, Chinese civilization - a kind of socio-cultural organism that existed within spatial and temporal boundaries. What is a civilized society? How is it different from the original? The English archaeologist Child proposed ten criteria for a civilized society:
1) Social stratification - the presence of social relations.
2) State. There are many definitions, the fact of its existence is important;
3) A certain development of the economy, the presence of trade exchange;
4) The selection of artisans as specialists;
5) A system of taxes or regularly collected tribute with a centralized accumulation of funds;
6) Large settled settlements created according to the type of cities;
7) The presence of monumental public buildings;
8) The presence of writing;
9) Some development of sciences;
10) Developed art.
Not always the state meets all the criteria. If there is a written language, the society is considered civilized.
What is the formation of a civilized society? What led to this formation? What processes? It is the formation of social bonds. It includes 2 processes:
1) "Sexual revolution" (Term of Academician Levi-Strauss) - a system of ordered sexual relations, fixing marital relations. It led to the establishment of kinship.
2) "Neolithic Revolution" (Gordon Child's term).
NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION (NR) - the formation of a producing economy, in contrast to an appropriating one, the formation of an economy based on cattle breeding and agriculture, this is a transition from gathering and hunting to cattle breeding and farming.
This is a long, drawn out process. It began in the Middle East (BV) about 10,000 years ago, some scientists date it to the 9th millennium, others to the 7th. HP did not spread from one focus, it simultaneously went to different places. The transition to a productive economy could be carried out only in a favorable natural situation.
The basis of the formation of the economy of agriculture and animal husbandry is the process of domestication of animals and plants - domestication. HP led to a sedentary lifestyle of people, to a sustainable supply of food to people, to population growth. Man freed up time for culture. Knowledge about plants, about animals, about astronomy has grown. HP led to the emergence of an excess product, people were able to free part of the population from occupations in obtaining food. These people began to be engaged in management, to perform administrative functions.
POLITOGENESIS - the process of formation of statehood. Before HP, primitive society was EGALITAR (leveling). Exchange in such a society was RECIPROCAL (everyone contributed as much as he could to the common cauldron and took as much as he was supposed to, regardless of how much he contributed). The difference between what brought and what was expected was social prestige (both negative and positive).
Society after NR comes to a RANK composition, and from a reciprocal exchange to RE-DISTRIBUTION. People had a large, medium and small social rank. Patriarchs in the family had a high rank. RE-DISTRIBUTION IS A FORM OF EXCHANGE WHEN THE COLLECTIVE'S FUNDS ARE AT THE DISPOSAL OF THE GROUP HEAD.
WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ANCIENT SOCIETIES: ANCIENT AND ANCIENT. The ancient way is represented by Greco-Roman civilization. The ancient eastern path had several civilizations. These paths arose at different times in different conditions.
The ANCIENT EASTERN path includes civilizations that began to form from the end of the 4th millennium BC. BC. in the Bronze Age.
The GRECO-ROMAN WAY arose in the 1st millennium BC. BC and began to form in the conditions of the IRON Age.
COPPER WAS an expensive metal, it was difficult to mine and bring it, and therefore the families stayed close to each other.
IRON WAS an easily accessible and cheap metal, therefore each small family (parents and children, and a large patriarchal family is a family of three generations) could work its own plot, receive metal, and therefore did not stay close to its neighbors. In the ancient way, very early society switched to private ownership of land, and it stimulates commodity-money relations. In the east, in the eastern way, the process of folding private property was long, slow and difficult.
The original form of association in the east and west was the COMMON. The community in the east had ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS, the functions of ECONOMIC MUTUAL ASSISTANCE.
The community in the east did not become a civil collective, there was no question of political and civil rights. The community in the ancient way is a civil community, whose members are endowed with political and civil rights.
The community in the east found itself very early in submission to the royal and temple economy ( PUBLIC SECTOR), which has become a self-sufficient system. This was due to economic feasibility. A large economy could concentrate metal reserves, make expeditions, build canals, dams, and irrigation systems. The public sector in the east grew rapidly, subjugated the communities, and the BODIES OF COMMUNITY SELF-GOVERNMENT (elders, people's assemblies) become appendages of the state apparatus, and the state suppresses the community in any respect, THE STATE OF THE ANCIENT EAST IS AUTHORITARY, TOTALITAR, MONARCHY (most often - despotic). In the ancient East, the cult of the personality of the monarch, the despot, is spreading.
Greece at the beginning went along the eastern path: the Mycenaean civilization (XVII-XII centuries BC) is the eastern path. Ancient civilization had POLIS as a structure-forming element.
POLIS is a small state within one sovereign and civil community, the political, administrative, military, religious center of which was the city.
TWO MAIN DIFFERENCES OF THE ANTIQUE WAY FROM THE EASTERN:
1) In the ancient way, private ownership of land was developed;
2) The presence of civil society, that is, self-governing civil communities.
SECOND QUESTION.
HISTORICAL SOURCE - MATERIAL OBJECT:
1) Possessing a social nature of origin (the geographical environment is not a historical source);
2) Reflecting the historical past of human society;
3) Reporting any valuable information about the past;
4) This source is involved in the field of historical research, serves as a means of historical knowledge.
TYPES OF HISTORICAL SOURCES:
1) real
2) written
3) oral (folklore)
4) ethnographic (ethnological)
5) linguistic (data of languages)
6) film and photographic documents
7) electronic documents
TYPES OF WRITTEN SOURCES:
1) DOCUMENTARY
2) NARRATIVE (NARRATIVE)
EACH TYPE IS DIVIDED INTO TYPES.
1) MATERIAL SOURCES (archeology deals with them) - settlements: cities, rural settlements, palaces, temples, houses, military settlements; burials (necropolises, cemeteries) - the tomb of Qin-Shi Huang, irrigation facilities, tools, weapons, ceramics, utensils, jewelry.
Both material and written sources are coins. The first coins appeared in Lydia - 7th century BC. Written sources are divided according to the material: for example, inscriptions on objects (on stone, on boards) - they are studied by the science of epigraphy. Lapidary (lapidarius - stone, in Latin) style of writing. Inscriptions: official and private. For example, contracts, laws; inscriptions on papyri, on leaves or tree bark.
TYPES OF DOCUMENTARY SOURCES:
1) Economic and administrative documents (regulate economic life: on the collection of taxes, payment of salaries, on the supply of products)
2) Legislative and legal documents: codes of laws.
3) Diplomatic (treaties between states). Treaty between Egypt and the Hittites: the first equitable treaty in history.
4) Epistolary (from Latin epistula - letter) sources - the correspondence of the king with officials or generals, is documentary in nature.
NARRATORY SOURCES:
1) Chronicles, chronicles, stories about political events, biographical inscriptions.
2) Fiction (myths, fairy tales, poems, hymns): The Epic of Gilgamesh, Mahabharata (200,000 lines), Ramayana (48,000 lines) (end of II - beginning of I millennium BC), Shijing (collection of songs of folklore origin ) is a source for studying the ancient Chinese society of the first half of the 1st millennium BC.
3) Sacred books of antiquity. VEDAS (knowledge) - the sacred books of India: RIGVEDA - 1028 hymns, SAMAVEDA - Veda of melodies, YAJURVEDA - Veda of sacrifices, ATHARVAVEDA - Veda of spells and conspiracies. They were first recorded in the 13th century BC, and before that they were preserved in oral transmission. The earliest manuscripts of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. Interpretations of the Vedas: BRAHMANAS - explanations of rituals, ARANYAKAS - religious reasoning on philosophical and worldview topics, UPANISHADS - religious treatises. AVESTA is the holy book of Zoroastrianism, in the territory of the British Empire. Formed no later than the 13th century. BC. By the name of the prophet ZARATHUSHTRA. PARTS:
A) YASNA, It includes "GATS" - 17 hymns, which reflect the teachings of Zarathushtra,
C) VENDIDATES (law against devas).
5) BIBLE in two parts:
A) OLD TESTAMENT (OT) (TANAKH): (the most ancient parts - the turn of the XIV-XIII centuries BC, the latest - the second century BC)
The Pentateuch of Moses (Torah) - the laws of religion, scriptures, legends,
The books of the prophets - they contain the most historical knowledge,
Books of scriptures - parables, hymns, songs)
B) NEW TESTAMENT (NT). Consists of 27 books, collected in four parts:
four gospels,
Acts of the Holy Apostles
21 epistles of the holy apostles,
Revelation of John the theologian.
Created from 50 to 120 AD, the oldest part is the epistle of St. Paul. For 19 books of the NT, the authorship of those to whom they are attributed is not recognized.
4) Scientific monuments of antiquity, lists of plants, stones, animals, dictionaries, works on cooking, mathematics, astronomy, grammar, etc.
THIRD QUESTION
CHRONOLOGY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.
The discipline of historical archeology is the science of methods of measurement and time systems. Question: what to bind events to? In ancient times there was no chronology system. In the interfluve area, summer was considered as follows: when they built such and such a building or when they fought with such and such an enemy. Events are most accurately dated if they are tied to astronomical events. Dates are especially accurate if the event is tied to solar eclipses. If so, then the history of the ancient east from the 10th century BC. dated with an accuracy of 1-2 years.
CALENDAR- a system of time calculation, which is based on the periodicity of natural phenomena, manifested in the movement of celestial bodies.
There are three types of calendars:
1) LUNAR (based on the movement of the moon around the earth)
2) SOLAR (based on the movement of the earth around the sun.
3) LUNOSOLAR (based on a combination of both movements).
Lunar calendars appeared before anyone else - in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC.
According to the lunar calendar, months are divided into 29 and 30 days. The lunar year has 12 months and 354 days.
Since the astronomical month is 44 minutes and 2.9 seconds longer than the calendar month, it was necessary to find ways to match the lunar year with the calendar one.
There are TWO WAYS TO MATCH:
1) TURKISH
2) ARABIC.
Turkish cycle: based on an 8-year period, in which 3 years are leap years. 2, 5 and 7 years.
Arabic cycle: 30 year period, it is more accurate. It has 11 leap years (2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 15 or 16, etc.)
The lunar calendar is accurate, but is not connected with the seasons, does not fix their change.
It was necessary to connect the change of phases of the moon with the change of seasons. Lunisolar calendars were created. The principle of their creation is the periodic (not annual) addition to the lunar year of an additional (13) month, these months are called embolismic. Their duration is 30 days, and the duration of the year is 384 days.
In the 3rd millennium, in SUMER, each city had its own calendar. And in Babylon, HAMMURABI carried out a calendar reform, introduced a single calendar, originally southern. The beginning of the Babylonian year is the day of the vernal equinox, the week was seven days.
In the 1st millennium BC the Babylonian calendar became LUNO-SOLAR, and from the VI century. the cleostat cycle (named after the ancient Greek astronomer) began to be used.
From con. 4th century BC. the Metonic cycle began to be applied: 12 simple and seven embolic years in a nineteen-year cycle.
In the XII century. BC. the Babylonian calendar was widespread in the ancient east.
FEATURES OF THE ANCIENT HEBREW CALENDAR:
1) In the V century. BC. changed from lunar to lunisolar and became based on the Metonic cycle. The lunar-solar calendar must increase by 4 days to match the astronomical year.
2) In the Hebrew calendar, the leap year was not started, but the rule was applied: do not start the new year on Sunday, Wednesday and Friday.
The Hebrew calendar had an "era from Adam" (3761 BC).
An era is a countdown of time starting from a specific day.
ANCIENT CHINESE CALENDAR. It arises in the III millennium BC, the transition from the lunar calendar to the lunisolar took place very early. First, the Peostat cycle was used. From the 5th century BC. the Metonic cycle began to be used. The beginning of the year in the ancient Chinese calendar was first considered the new moon at the time of the winter solstice, and from the III century. BC. the beginning of the new year began to be considered the new moon at the moment when the sun is in the constellation of Aquarius, that is, January-February. In the III-II millennium in China, a CYCLIC TIME COUNTING SYSTEM is formed: years are combined into cycles of 60 years, and in each such cycle there are five "celestial branches" or "elements":
1) Tree of fire,
3) Metal,
Each branch is divided into 2 states: male and female. The first year of the tree is in the masculine state, the second in the feminine. That is, for the 60th year of the cycle, ten years of the heavenly branches are named in this way, they are repeated 6 times. In addition to the heavenly branches, there are 12 "earthly branches" or elements, each with the name of certain animals:
2) cow,
5) dragon,
7) horse,
9) monkey,
10) chicken,
11) dog,
12) pig.
These cycles are repeated once in a 60-year cycle. If you combine these 10 heavenly and 12 "earthly elements", it turns out that each year has its own unique name. That is, let's say, the third cycle, such and such a year, and every year one: the fourth year: "fire in the male state of a hare." China's cyclical calendar is still in use today, although the country's official calendar is the Gregorian calendar. There was an era in the Chinese calendar, according to the Gregorian calendar, 03/06/2637 BC.
Standing apart among the ancient Eastern calendars is the ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CALENDAR, sunny, accurate. It was created as a result of long-term observations of the luminaries and the floods of the Nile. Created, was in the III millennium BC. The year is divided into 12 months. 30 days each. The Egyptians have 5 extra days every year, they were considered holidays. But they didn't know the leap year. Therefore, the calendar year came a little earlier than the astronomical one: by 6 hours. But for 120 years, a discrepancy has been running up in a month, and for 1000 years, a whole year has run up. The year was divided into THREE SEASONS, seasons:
1) FLOOD - from mid-July to mid-November
2) SEEDS - from mid-November to mid-March.
3) HARVEST (or "DRY") - mid-March to mid-July.
The day was divided into 24 hours. The division of the day is the achievement of the Egyptians.
ANCIENT GREEK CALENDAR. At the beginning it was lunar, from the 1st millennium it was lunar-solar. Each policy had its own calendar. There was an Athenian calendar, and it is understood by the term "Greek". At the beginning there was no exact establishment of embolic months. In the Athenian calendar, THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR WAS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SUMMER SOLSTICE, more precisely, the first new moon after the summer solstice. At the beginning of the VI century. BC. Solon, following the example of the Babylonians, established an eight-year cycle of the lunisolar calendar, that is, the cycle of Cleostat. But the second half of the V century. Greek astronomer Miton introduced a 19-year cycle. In the Athenian and other Greek calendars there was no firmly established era, and the countdown of a new era began with the advent of a new college of archons, officials. And in the last centuries BC. the countdown to the Olympiads spread: in such and such a year an event occurred from the Olympiad, the first Olympiad - 776 BC.
ROMAN CALENDAR. Initially, it was also LUNNARY, but unlike other calendars, it consisted of 10 MONTHS - 334 days. The beginning of the year is the first spring new moon. The reform of the first Roman calendar was carried out under the second king Numa Pompilius around 700 BC. The calendar is still lunar, but there is already a normal number of 12 months in the year, and there are already 355 days, one day more than the astronomical calendar. Months are 31 and 29 days long. Names were given to some months, the first one was called martius, in our calendar this name is like March. It was named in honor of the god Mars, the second apriris (from Latin to open), lasted 29 nine days, the third - maius in honor of the goddess of beauty Maya. The fourth month is Junius in honor of the goddess Juno, 29 nine days. The fifth and subsequent to the 10th were called simply numbers. The 11th month was called januarius (after the two-faced god Janus), and the 12th month was called februaris (on behalf of the rite of purification): twenty-three main days and 5 additional ones.
Within a month, DAYS WERE COUNTERED AS WELL:
1) Any first day of any month - CALENDS,
2) The fifth day of the short or the 7th day of the long - NONA,
3) The thirteenth short or 15th long - IDES.
The remaining days were designated by numerals, which showed how many days remained before the Kalends, nons or ides: “Three days before the March Kalends ...” The days that preceded the Kalends, nons and ides were called eve: on the day before the calends, nones and ides. In the 5th century BC. the Roman calendar became lunar-molar, apparently the dicenyms did so. It was necessary to add an embolic month, they began to add it every two years, they began to be called intercolari. And the month itself was called marcedoniuz, it was inserted between the 23rd and 24th of Februarius. It turns out that the average length of the year is 365 days. The day began at 6 pm, the day was divided into two parts: day and night. And day and night, both parts of the day were divided into four guards. The first watch began at 6 o'clock in the afternoon or night, the 2nd at 9 o'clock in the afternoon or night, the 3rd - at 12 o'clock in the afternoon or night, the 4th - at 3 o'clock in the afternoon or night.
46 BC: Julius Caesar reformed the Roman calendar and introduced the solar calendar. The calendar was introduced from the year 45, was called the Julian. The Egyptian astronomer Sosigen took part in the preparation of the astronomical component of the reform. The Julian reform affected THREE IMPORTANT POINTS:
1) Beginning of the year
2) The length of the months in a year, or year.
3) The principle of introducing an additional day to harmonize the calendar year with the astronomical one.
The New Year began to START NOT WITH THE MARCH CALENDS, BUT WITH THE JANUARY. On the January kalends, the ADMINISTRATIVE YEAR began, that is, the officials took up their duties on that day. From the point of view of the beginning of the season, there was no binding, 12 months were preserved, their names remained the same. But the beginning of the new year was postponed to January. The name in the order of the number did not correspond to the order in the calendar. DURATION OF MONTHS: ALL EVEN 31 DAYS, ODD EXCEPT FEBRARIUS - 30. Februarius in a leap year is 30 days, and in a simple year 29, calends, nones, ides are still stored in the calendar. The Julian calendar began to have a four-year cycle: 3 years of 365 days, and the fourth 366. According to the Julian calendar, the following PRINCIPLE OF INTRODUCING LEAP YEARS: ALL YEARS WHICH NUMBERS ARE DIFFERENT BY FOUR, PLUS ALL THE LAST YEARS OF THE CENTURY. An extra day in a leap year began to be inserted where the month mparcidonius was previously inserted. In a leap year, 2 is the 24th. The Romans called this day: 6 before the March kalends, and so it turned out the second 2 the sixth day before the March kalends, that is, “bisextivis”. In Russian, this word will come under as a leap year. In 44 BC Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March. The month of quinteris has been renamed the month of Jules, our month of July. And then, in 8 BC, another Roman figure, Octavian Augustus, carried out some transformations of the Roman calendar. The pontiff priests, who were supposed to keep track of the calendar, began to make third years leap years, and he corrected this mistake. The month of Sixtilis was renamed the month of Augustus. But it had 30 days, and Julius had 31. As a result, 1 day was taken from Februarius, and Augustus began to count 31 days. The Julian calendar has a duration of 365 days + 6 hours, but the actual length of the year is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds. And, consequently, he always lagged behind the movement of the earth, but for 128 years the delay ran into a day, the calendar was lagging by 1 day.
GREGORIAN CALENDAR. The reform of the Julian calendar was carried out in 1582 BC. Pope Gregory XIII was its initiator, so he was named after the pope. The astronomical part of the calendar was worked out by the Italian astronomer Luigi Lilio.
The delay of the calendar for 1280 years was 10 days, it was eliminated. After Thursday, 04.10.1582, Friday came, but not the 5th, but 15.10. The time has come to think of a way to avoid the mistake. Since a day ran in 128 years, 3 days ran in 384 years. It was necessary to make sure that every 400 years there were only 97 leap years, and not a hundred. The METHOD presented was simple and ingenious: NOT ALL THE CENTURIES ENDING IN LEAP YEARS, BUT ONLY MULTIPLES OF FOUR. The Gregorian calendar is more accurate than the Julian. The year in the Gregorian calendar is 26 seconds behind the astronomical solar year. The difference per day accumulates over 3300 years. And to convert dates from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian, we add 10 days for the 16th and 17th centuries, 11 for the 18th, 12 for the 19th, and 13 days for the 20th and 21st centuries. Until 1918, Russia had a Julian calendar.
TIME COUNTING ORDER. In the VI century. n. e. Italian monk Dionysius the Lesser introduced christian era, taking the date of the birth of Jesus as a reference point of time, considering that 10/25/753 from the foundation of Rome. The foundation of Rome began to be dated to 753 BC (“BC”).
LECTURE 2. INTRODUCTION TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT EAST (FE)
Remember. Sciences known to you and what they are called.
Physics studies the processes occurring in nature from falling apples from a tree to electric current.
Astronomy is the study of the movements of stars, planets, asteroids, and everything else that flies in space.
Chemistry studies the properties of different substances and their mixtures.
Philology studies words, their composition, origin, etc.
1. What is the name of the science that studies the life of people in the past?
This science is called history.
2. How do you understand what a source is? Name the main historical sources.
A source is something that conveys information about the past to us in its primary form, in contrast to research that uses information from sources.
Sources are divided into material and written.
3. Tell us about the sciences that help to study history. Explain how the finds of archaeologists ended up underground.
First of all, archeology helps to study history. This is a science that finds and studies things left over from the past. These things are sometimes covered with sand, sometimes (during a volcanic eruption) with volcanic ash, but more often with the so-called cultural layer. When people live in one place, they throw something away, simply put earth on their shoes, etc. The level of the earth in cities inevitably rises and hides things that someone accidentally dropped, left, and then did not take, etc. Sometimes things are specially buried in the ground so that, for example, they are not found by enemies - this is called a treasure.
Helps to study the history of numismatics. This is the science of coins, about who, when and why minted certain coins.
Palaeography is a special science that studies the shape of letters and can tell from it when a document was created.
Philology also helps to study the past. Over time, the language changes. Scientists study these changes and say, for example, which peoples are related to each other (since their languages are related), that is, they once lived in the same territory. Often words from other languages are preserved in the names of cities, rivers, lakes, forests, etc. By these names one can understand what peoples once lived on this earth, until the current inhabitants came.
Other sciences also help to study the past, which, as it may seem at first, are not intended for this. For example, medicine studies human diseases and is usually not connected with history. But when you need to understand why this or that epidemic began, or why this or that famous figure died, it is doctors who come to the rescue.
Geology studies the development mainly of rocks and sediments, while history studies the development of society. But sometimes historians turn to geologists, for example, when they need to determine the date of a volcanic eruption that left a significant mark on history.
That is, a variety of sciences can help in the study of history, depending on what tasks should be solved.
4. In your opinion, does a modern person need to study the history of the Ancient World?
Without history it is impossible to understand the present. This is the only way to see the origins of modern processes, and hence their essence. Therefore, modern man needs to study the whole history, including the history of the Ancient World, starting from the very first shoots of civilization.
historical sources - the whole complex of documents and objects of material culture that directly reflected historical process and capturing individual facts and past events, on the basis of which the idea of a particular historical era is recreated, hypotheses are put forward about the causes or consequences that entailed certain historical events
Written sources . TO written sources include: documents, annals, historical research, memoirs, other literary works. material forwritten sources everything that can be written on is used: paper, leather (parchment), papyrus, wood and tree bark, bone, clay, stone, metal.
Material (archaeological) sources - sources based on the sciences of archeology. Ancient settlements, settlements, burial structures. On the basis of these finds, the basic information about the living peoples and tribes is formulated.
Features of the socio-economic development of the peoples of the Ancient East. The essence of the concept of "civilization". signs of civilization. "Primary" and "secondary" civilizations. Nome states. The ratio of state and communal power; three ways of development of ancient society. The concept of oriental despotism.
Signs of civilization: the emergence of cities, stratification in society, the development of trade, writing, the beginnings of art and science, the tax system.
Primary civilizations arose on the site of the most ancient, these include: Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Indus. Secondary civilizations arose after the primary ones, these include: Hittites, Persians, Greeks, etc.
Nome(nomous state-va) - a small city with centers of secular and spiritual power, around which they were engaged in agriculture.
The first states and civilizations appeared in the valleys of the great rivers; Tigris and Euphrates; Indus and Ganges; Huang He and Yangtze.
Eastern despotism - this is a special type of statehood characteristic of the states of the Ancient East, its important feature is the unlimited power of the monarch (king). Which has concentrated in its hands the legislative, judicial, executive power. A striking feature of the Eastern despotism was the deification of the despot ruler.
Three ways of development of ancient society: 1) Egyptian - power completely subjugated society, private property - no 2) Mesopotamia - power and society are in balance, communities can have autonomy 3) Greece and Rome (community suppresses the state - "Democracy".
Features of the spiritual life of a man of the Ancient East. Hypotheses about the origin of ancient Eastern religions. Common features of ancient Eastern religions
Common features of the religions of the Ancient East: 1) All religions of the Ancient East are Anthropocentric 2) Belief in the afterlife 3) There is no single cult and priesthood 4) There are no religious wars 5) The absence of absolute deities. Man felt powerless before the forces of nature. He needed to explain natural phenomena. The gods gave a person what he asked for, while prayer or sacrifice served as a payment.
Early history of Mesopotamia. Territory of Mesopotamia. Sources for the history of Mesopotamia. Sumerians and Akkadians. Nome states: features of economy and management (en, ensi, lugal), social groups. Fight for hegemony. Gilgamesh and Lugalzagesi.
Mesopotamia - interfluve, a fertile valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Mesopotamia is divided into 2 regions: lower and upper (Assyrian state).
Sources on the history of Mesopotamia: legal acts codes of laws, diplomatic correspondence, ist. Chronicles, literary "The Epic of Gilgamesh". Material sources: ancient cities, tools, etc.
Sumerians - the population of southern Mesopotamia, they are associated with the emergence of civilizations in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates (4 thousand BC) Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Eredu - the first cities of the ancient Sumerians. Akkadians- the population of Mesopotamia is native to the Sumerians, who subsequently assimilated with them. North - Akkad; South - Sumerians.
Nome(s) - city state in ancient Mesopotamia. These were independent city-states that were in complex relations with each other. The economic structure was determined, first of all, by the organization of the local irrigation system as the basis of profitable agriculture. Especially important was the creation and maintenance of the irrigation system.
En - ruler of the city (high priest), Ensi - priest builder ruler of the city - carried out management of military and economic affairs. Lugal - military leader of the Sumerians, close to the concept of "king". Social groups: 1) Ruler (ensi and his family) 2) Priesthood 3) Common subjects (not slaves) 4) Slaves.
The Sumerian nomes often fought each other in an attempt to elevate their city (nome). Gilgamesh -(27th century BC) ruler of Uruk who conquered many cities of other Mesopotamian chiefs. Under him, Uruk became a leader among other Sumerian cities. He was proclaimed "lugal-hegemon". A literary source, The Poem of Gilgamesh, was left about his reign.
Lugalzagesi(14th century BC) - ensi of Umma, defeated the army of Lagash. Killed the king of Lagash Uruinimgina. For a short time, the city of Umma became the leader of Sumer. But soon he too was defeated by Akkad.
Mesopotamia in the XXIII-XII centuries. BC. Sargon and his power: features of the first centralized despotism. Mesopotamia under the III dynasty of Ur: economy, society, ideology. Amorite invasion. Old - and Middle Babylonian period: Mesopotamia during the reign of the Hammurabi dynasty (XVIII-XVI centuries) and the Kassites.
As a result of the struggle between the Sumerian and Akkadian principalities, the Akkadian kingdom under the control of Sargon (2316-2261). Sargon's state is built on the regime of his personal power. Creates a huge army of archers. Defeated Lugalzagesi. Sargon managed to defeat the resistance of the Sumerian cities and establish their dominance. In order to maintain and strengthen their power Sargon carries out reforms: introduces a unified system of weights and measures, establishes old roads and builds new ones, abolishes the independence of cities and the council of elders, creates a new aristocracy and despotically subjugates all spheres of public life. In 2175 under attack kutiev and internal turmoil, the Akkadian-Sumerian kingdom was collapsing (the last king Naram - Suen).
After the collapse of Sargon's empire, the Sumerians were able to overthrow the nominal rule of the Gutians. Among all the Sumerian cities, the city rises ur, where the king comes to power Ur-Nammu and establishes IIIdynasty of Ur (2106-2003). Sumerian Ur became the political center, not Semitic Akkad. The Sumero-Akkadian kingdom achieved special prosperity under the king Shulgi, who paid attention to the establishment of the economy and public order. Reforms in the economy under III Dynasty of Ur: a state land fund is being created, society has a pronounced slave-owning character, a police regime is being established. A pronounced centralized distribution economy was created, offering state intervention. The private sector has been relegated to the background. Ultimately, this led to the organization of a despotic system of government. The ideology was the deification of the king as a god ( King Shulgi).
At the end of the 21st century BC. tribes invade Mesopotamia from the vast expanses Amoreev. They took advantage of the invasion of nomads Elamites and dealt a powerful blow to the southeastern regions of Sumer. The Ur dynasty began to disintegrate and in its place independent states arose with centers in the cities: Isin, Ashur, Larsa, Mari, Eshnunna and a small principality in the city of Bab (Babylon). Invasion Amoreev led to Mesopotamia a large group of West Semitic tribes.
At 19-18 the rise of the city began Ashur (Shamshi-Adad). After the city began to rise Babylon, the greatest successes in the unification of Mesopotamia are associated with the activities of the 6th king of Babylon - Hammurabi (1792-1750). He begins the systematic capture and unification of all Mesopotamia. Ultimately, creating a powerful Babylonian state. When conquering Hammurabi, he chose a cunning strategy of alliances with some states against others. He conquered the kingdoms: Mari, Eshnunna, Ashur. By the end of his reign, Babylon under Hammurabi becomes a great power. Hammurabi writes his famous laws and declares trade a state affair + society is divided into 3 categories (layers): 1. Avilums 2. Mushkenums 3. Vardums (slaves).
In the 17th century, the Babylonian state collapsed, the nomes separated. And from behind the mountains come a tribal union Kassites. They begin to attack the Babylonian kingdom, which in the end in 1595 BC. Hittite king attacks and plunders Babylon. They use it Kassites and establish their own (Kasit) dynasty and a new stage begins in the history of Babylon - Middle Babylonian period (16th-12th centuries). The dominance of the Kassite conquerors continues until the beginning of the 12th century. During the reign of the Kassites, the laws of Hammurabi continued to operate, but there were some reforms: state. The state's land fund is shrinking, cities are gaining some autonomy. 14th-15th century, the heyday of the Kassite kingdom. Treaty with Egypt. IN 12th century Elamites defeated the Kassite army, occupied all of Babylonia, overthrowing the Kassite king from the throne.
The economic development of Mesopotamia according to the laws of Hammurabi. General characteristics of the source. Agriculture and forms of land use (communal, royal, temple land). Craft and trade
Social relations in Mesopotamia according to the laws of Hammurabi. General characteristics of the source. Categories of the population, features of the position of community members and royal servants (warriors, priests). Slavery. Family relationships. Court and punishment system.
Egypt from ancient times to the end of the era of the Old Kingdom. Nature of Egypt, historical regions and their specialization. Sources for the history of Egypt. Manetho. Settlement of the country. Pre-dynastic period and "zero dynasty". Menes and his successors. Egypt under III-IV dynasties (Djoser, Sneferu and his successors). Features of royal power in Egypt.
Rise of civilization in Egypt dates back to the middle of 4 thousand BC. Ancient Egypt is located in the river valley Nile. The narrow valley is called - Upper Egypt, and the Delta region - Lower Egypt. Egypt is located in the northeast corner of the African continent. By Nile Egyptians established ties with the rich trading cities of the Eastern Mediterranean.
Sources on the history of ancient Egypt : written - religious texts, ist. and thin. literature, folklore;Monuments of material culture: the remains of cities, fortresses, temples, tombs, dwellings, ceramics, statues, various religious objects, etc..
A single ancient Egyptian people and a single language began to form from a multitude of ethnic groups over the course of 5-4 thousand. The first inhabitants of the Nile Valley at the end of 5 thousand settled in small tribal groups. First predynastic period. Amrat culture (38-36 centuries), the number of copper items increases and the funeral rite becomes more complicated. People live in a communal-tribal system. Second pre-dynastic dynasty. Traditional tribal relations were preserved. Agriculture replaced hunting. The range of trade relations is expanding. The wealth created was no longer divided, but concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite. going on property differentiation. The emergence of the original hieroglyphic writing.
Formation of small states(mid 4 thousand BC). 34th-33rd centuries formation of two large states - Upper Egyptian kingdom (Nekhen capital) + Lower Egyptian kingdom (Buto capital). The process of uniting the two kingdoms into one turned out to be long and difficult. In this struggle, the preponderance of the South (Upper Egyptian kingdom) was indicated. Narmer- the king who defeated the North (the lower kingdom). Tsar Menes(32-31cc) - the founder of the general Egyptian 1st dynasty. New capital city Memphis. Reforms: expansion of the irrigation system, successful foreign policy against the Libyans.
Lower Egypt (north) is trying to fight the south, ends unsuccessfully, and under the king of the 2nd dynasty, Egypt finally turned into a single state. Period of the Old Kingdom (28-23 centuries)- reign from the 3rd to the 6th dynasty. The main reforms: the irrigation and watering system was under the close control of the state, the great pyramids began to be created, the creation of a potter's wheel. The state apparatus consisted of 3 links: central, nome, local. The most important feature was the concept of the absolute power of the king and its ideological justification - the king is a god-man, the embodiment of god in a human form. During the 3-4 dynasties, the cult of the king reached its apogee. The state was managed through a complex bureaucratic apparatus; Chati - top official. A feature of the state system management was dualism. Particular attention was paid to the military department; the army was completed according to the royal set of free Egyptians. Egypt conducted successful military operations in 3 directions: Libyan nomads, Nubia, Palestine, Phoenicia. Djoser - king of the 3rd dynasty, began the construction of the pyramids. Sneferu - founder of the 4th dynasty, annexed the entire Sinai Peninsula (28th century). Userkaf - founder of the 5th dynasty (26-25th centuries) - the rulers of this and the 6th dynasty (25-23th centuries) began to pursue a different policy: they abandoned the construction of the great pyramids, strengthened the position of the nome and other nobility, approved the cult of God Ra.
In the country occurred material resources in favor of the local elite. Egypt of the Old Kingdom broke up into many principalities. The period of fragmentation of Egypt began which continued (23-21 centuries).
Egypt of the Middle Kingdom. 1st transitional period and changes in the structure of power, ideology, religion. The unification of the country under the rule of the XII (Theban) dynasty, the activities of Amenemhet (I, III) Senusret (I, III). Society and culture of Egypt in the era of the Middle Kingdom; "royal people" Decentralization of the country under the last pharaohs.
Was the bureaucratic apparatus that functioned during the period of the Old Kingdom was restored. An attempt was made to reduce the independence of the nome ruling elite. The kings of the new dynasties (11-12) moved their capital to the city of It-taui (Faiyum region). The development of the Faiyum continued; as a result, an extensive network of canals was created in the Faiyum depression, which was connected to the Nile. Pharaoh 11th Dynasty Mentuhotep erected a luxurious building near the city of Thebes. In the Faiyum region, a palace was built among the swamp, known to the Greeks as labyrinth. The pharaohs of the 11th-12th dynasties managed to overcome the decay and centralize the government of the country, suppressing separatism. In economic terms, many reforms were also made during this period: bronze and glass-making were mastered; the city became the center of trade Bible Construction ceased, and the significance of the huge structures that dominated the period of the Old Kingdom fell.
Senusret 3 (19th century - 12th dynasty) - conquered and annexed to Egypt Nubia. Senusret built the pyramid at Dahshur. It was the largest pyramid of the XII dynasty. Amenemhet 1 (20th century) - founder of the 12th dynasty. Amenemhat I moved the capital from Thebes to the newly founded city, south of the old capital, Memphis, somewhere near the Faiyum oasis. The pharaoh chose a place where he could easily control both Upper and Lower Egypt. Amenemhet 3 (19th century) - son of Senusret 3. The reign of Amenemhat III was accompanied by intensive construction. activity.Built a huge temple" labyrinth " .
"Royal people" - the bulk of the Egyptian population. Upon reaching a certain age (completion), all young people were taken to a review in front of the officials of the pharaoh. He selected the strongest in the army of the ruler, while the rest received certain professions and subsequently could not change them, i.e. a person received a narrowly focused qualification for life. In addition, after “getting a profession,” young people broke away from their families and without fail went to other nomes of Egypt.
The general result of the policy of the pharaohs of the 11th and 12th dynasties was the restoration of the former boundaries, but also the expansion of the territory of Egypt and its transformation into a major power. The Egyptians began to see themselves as godly people, looking down on their neighbors.
Written sources of the ancient history of the Slavs
Back in 1993, a mandatory minimum of the State Educational Standard for higher education was defined for all humanitarian disciplines, including history. On a solid basis of school courses, the student should initially know: “The essence, forms, functions of historical consciousness. Types of civilizations in antiquity. The problem of interaction between man and the natural environment in ancient societies. Civilization of ancient Russia. The place of the Middle Ages in the world-historical process. Kievan Rus. Trends in the formation of civilization in the Russian lands. Problems of laying the foundations of nation-states in Western Europe…”.
According to the proportions of the standard, this knowledge should be one third of the mandatory minimum of historical knowledge. Open the vast majority of textbooks "History of Russia"! Instead of the fundamental third, which lays the foundations for the historical consciousness of Russians, these issues, at best, are devoted to three dozen pages. Civilizations of real ancient Russia are stubbornly confused with "medieval civilizations of the era of Novgorod-Kiev Rus".
Attractive colorful history books are published by a number of Russian publishers. But in the "Early Civilizations" (Sumer, Egypt, India, China, Sairia, Babylon, Persia, etc.), the early kingdoms and peoples of the future Scythia (Russia) did not fall. Although at the time of ancient Sumer and Egypt, on the lands of Scythia, there were proto-cities with an area of 250-400 hectares, which had thousands of houses, streets and squares, ramparts and ditches, temples, as well as sewerage and water supply. Of course, many of the buildings of our ancestors burned down or rotted long before the onset of a new era, someone called “Ours” with evil irony, but modern archeology has an abyss of data on the impressive levels of culture of our ancestors of that time.
It is very interesting to look at the halls of the Hermitage with its thematic exhibitions. Amazing products of ancient masters, found in the Scythian mounds located in the halls of the "Primitive Culture", amaze with the subtlety of forms. They are echoed by products from the section "Culture and Art" of the ancient world. Against this background, the products of the masters of Medieval Europe look rather modest, and you completely fall into despondency at the sight of the works of the "geniuses" of modern art P. Gauguin, Renoir, Picasso, Derain, Marquet, Malevich.
The last acquisition of the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation at the auction of the infamous “Black Square” by K. Malevich for an astronomical amount of ten million dollars, comparable to the annual budget of the ministry itself, is puzzling. What is it: the breadth of the Russian soul, a feast during the plague, or the continuation of bans on everything Russian? Was there really nothing to spend hundreds of millions of rubles on, except for this "significant" daub?
Where can one write the true history of the Russian Black Sea region! Enough fragmentary and contradictory lampoons of the patients of Chekhov's Ward No. 6!
Meanwhile, the “early civilizations” (ML 996 pp. 44-46) are forced to state that from the 3rd millennium BC the main groups of Indo-Europeans began to enter the lands of the future Greece, Hittia, Metania (Urartu), Babylon, Canaan (Palestine) and a number of future civilizations from the "Southern Regions of the Future Russia". For the sake of objectivity, it should be said that this is not claimed by Russian historians (Russians are called upon to keep quiet), but by Jay Chisholm and Ann Millard. So our ancestors, who tamed horses - who became centaurs (horse taurs) of the epic, gave a powerful civilizational impulse to the whole world around us. And the epic of many neighboring peoples remembered this for thousands of years. For various reasons, the Russians themselves have lost such a stable memory.
To our great happiness, a sufficient number of external (foreign) sources covering the history of our people have been preserved. One such work is the Aeneid by the pre-Christian poet Virgil. We will consider this work with comments by the writer and historian A.I. Nemirovsky, who, like most of his brethren, could not get rid of the hypnosis of Hellenism, calling the Trojans Greeks. But, as far as they are Greeks, the author himself gives involuntary comments in the book “Legends of Early Italy and Rome” (M. Enlightenment. Educational literature. 1996)
We know from history that Troy (Illion) is an ancient city in the west of Asia Minor near the coast of the Aegean Sea on the territory of modern Turkey. Troy, known from the Roman and Greek epic, was discovered by G. Schliemann in the 1870s. during the excavation of the Hisarlyk hill. Systematic excavations since the end of the 19th century have uncovered different layers of Troy, starting from the Early Bronze Age (3000 BC). Destroyed as a result of a 10-year war with a coalition of Achaean kings led by Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae. Troy excavations have shown that around 1260 B.C. the city experienced a long siege and was destroyed. Thus, the information of the Greek legends was confirmed (BES. 1998).
The story begins with the fact that the nephew of King Priam of Troy, Aeneas, with his father, son and faithful people, boards twenty ships near the capital and sails to the shores of the Thracians, the friendly people of the Trojans. Aeneas knew that his ancestor Dardanus, one of the founders of Troy, came from the island of Samothrace, inhabited by the Thracians. And in Thrace itself, as he heard, there was a tribe that called itself the Dardanians. The homeland of the ancestors did not seem foreign to Aeneas, and he could count on a friendly welcome, despite the change of the king of Thrace after the death of Res in the defense of Troy. The commander Lycurgus, who replaced the deceased king, committed a betrayal and killed the youngest son of Priam, who was sent here with the treasury. By the time Aeneas arrived with his companions, friendly relations had been restored.
Particular militancy was given to those who met underwear drawings of gods and monsters and long forelocks on shaved heads. Despite a friendly meeting, Aeneas sails away from the coast of Thrace, warned by the spirit of the murdered relative of Polydor. And he goes to the small island of Delos, where the temple of Apollo was located - the cult of which occupies a significant place in the history of many peoples of Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, subsequently adopted by the Greeks. Apollo said: “Look for the ancient mother. Aeneas will rule there, and behind him his children and those who will be born from these children.
Anchises, the father of Aeneas, regarded this instruction as the need to sail to Crete, from where the ancestors of the Thracians and Trojans came from. There was once a powerful state of more than a hundred cities, but the volcanic eruption and the death of many people forced the rest to leave the island. By the time the Trojans arrived, a few people lived here, but the Trojans could not stay here either - the voice of Apollo reached their ears, broadcasting to sail further to the West.
The fugitives set off on the road, having traveled a long way, approached the shores of Trinacria (three-pointed - as the island of Sicily was previously called, which received its modern name from the mythological monster Scylla, who allegedly swallowed ships in the strait between Sicily and Italy). Here they had to perform the mournful rite caused by the death of Anchises, arranging a funeral pyre. The pagan rite of cremation has its roots far back in antiquity. Honoring the earth as a mother did not allow our ancestors to defile the earth with corpses. In addition, it was believed that the goddess of fire Agni helps the soul of the deceased to reach heaven faster and reunite with the bright souls of the ancestors.
After Sicily, the Trojans ended up in young Carthage, in the palace of Queen Dido, who separated from her relatives from Tyre, the capital of Phoenicia. Here and in what follows, the author equates the Phoenicians and Tyrrhenians, just as we do when speaking about Muscovites and Russians. Moreover, Aeneas calls the Phoenicians - Tyrrhenians also Sidonians, i.e. living near the water and condemns the Sidonians for the robbery of the sea. The Phoenicians themselves also call themselves Libyans, comparing their heroes with brave lions and depicting these predators on their shields.
During the stay of Aeneas in Carthage (the Libyan-Phoenicians themselves called him Karthadashta - the New City), for the first time in the work, the name Rumor is called - the goddess of bad news.
After living with his companions in Libya for about a year, Aeneas again went to Trinacria to the grave of his father, where an urn with his ashes was buried on a hill, so that on the anniversary of his death to perform a feast-rite, accompanied by sports competitions near the burial place of noble people. The Romans themselves conveyed these sports with the word "ludus", as a derivative of the name of one of the peoples of Asia Minor - the Lydians, while this name itself, obviously, was preserved in the Slavic languages as "people", "people". It was in Asia Minor that spectacles first became
massive, crowded. The powerful people of Italy, the Tyrrhenians, the Etruscans, were considered the descendants of the Lydians. Virgil also calls them Lydians. Currently, on the site of the former Etruria in the Italian province of Tuscany, there are about 12.5 thousand indigenous people who speak a language close to the Western Slavs.
Along with the people of Aeneas, local residents also took part in the feast, among whom there were many relatives of the Trojans. After making bloodless sacrifices to Portun, the patron god of ports and a male couple to the goddess of the fate of sailors, Fortuna, a rowing competition, a regatta, was launched. After giving honors to the warlike hero Herkle (later entered Greek and Roman mythology under the name of Hercules - Hercules), fistfights, running and battle of three cavalry detachments with spears that did not have metal tips were held.
At the end of the feast, Aeneas leads his people to the shores of Italy and stops his fleet at the mouth of the Tyre River, which was so named, again (!) by the Tyrrhens, one of whose tribes moved here much earlier than the Trojans. The river serves as the border of the Tyrrhenians and Latins - the people led by the king Latin, who in his youth arrived with his people from fertile lands (!). Here it is appropriate to recall the "foreign" words that entered the Russian language "presidium" and "president". "Dictionary of foreign words in the Russian language" edited by I.V. Lekhina and F.N. Petrov (M. Yunves. 1996) explains their origin from the Latin “pre side” and “pre ide” (in Russian transcription), which means “seated in front or walking in front”. As they say, comments are superfluous!
But Aeneas did not have a relationship with the Latins. By chance, Aeneas killed a tame deer of Latina's daughter, who was the age of a bride, while hunting (in those distant times, the female half of humanity, which was patronized by the goddess of the hearth Vesta, was divided into age categories: up to 16 years old - the girl served Vesta and was called Vesta, after 16 years, after completing a full course of housekeeping training, she already became a bride and could get married). And only the vestal priestesses of the temples of Vesta were free in their choice, giving offspring from glorious warriors, which supported the gene pool and made up for losses as a result of wars.
As a result of the rapidly impending war, Aeneas turns for help to kindred peoples, the Tyrrhenians-Thracians and the Etruscans-Pelasgians. The Etruscan-Rassenes, who arrived here 60 years before the fall of Troy, are one of the Troad (the land with the capital city of Troy) tribes that settled at the foot of the Etna volcano, in the bowels of which the Etruscan-Pelasgian god Volkan, sometimes called Polkan, is working. The Etruscans responded to the call of Aeneas, like other kindred peoples. The whole Italian Rasenia rose (this is exactly what Virgil, in the translation of A.I. Nemirovsky, sounds like the community of the peoples of the Trojans-Tyrrenians-Etruscans-Pelasgians-Rasenians).
The poem ends with the ascension of Aeneas to heaven, becoming like the gods.
What news did Virgil, who lived twenty-one centuries ago, tell us? It should be understood that the great historians of Russia did not read these lines. After all, how many centuries, following the cunning Latins and Greeks, who learned to read and write from our ancestors, they repeated “Etruscan non legatur” - “Etruscan is not readable!”
But, nevertheless, what facts do we have? The Etruscans called their teachers the Latins, who became Romans thanks to the construction of Rome, the descendants of Aeneas. The Greeks in those days called them Tyrrhenes, as people from Libyan Tyre (Phoenician), who gave this name to several more cities, including Tire on the banks of the Dniester estuary, modern Belgorod-Dniester with preserved quarters and defensive structures.
According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, their name was RASENA.
In the dictionary of Stefan of Byzantium, the Etruscans are "absolutely unconditionally called the SLOVENIAN TRIBE."
The “father of history” Herodotus, who lived about 25 centuries ago, indicated that the Etruscans came to Italy from distant Asia Minor, then still called Asia, (i.e. the country of aces, magicians or gods living on earth, hence the great master) .
Another ancient Greek historian Hellanicus believed that the Etruscans came from ... Greece, where they were called Pelasgians (pelas goi - in Greek, that is, "goyim from Pelas"), founded the largest cities, including Athens, but were forced out by the barbarians - the ancestors of the Greeks, the Achaeans and Dorians. Hellanic, Thucydin and Sophocles agreed that the Pelasgi and Tyrrhenians were one people. Sidonians, Sinds and Meots are one and the same people who lived in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, reached the shores of modern England and laid the city at the mouth of the river - the bosom of the Don (hence London), who built Stonehenge.
Modern toponymy is also very interesting, although it has undergone significant changes.
Sindh is a province in the southeast of Pakistan in the Indus River basin near the Arabian Sea. (BES. 1998)
Sindika is a territory and a state on the Taman Peninsula and the northeastern coast of the Black Sea (5th-4th century BC). Cities: Sind harbor (capital), Korokondama, Germonas, Phanagoria, etc. Since the 4th century BC, as part of the Bosporan kingdom (BES. 1998) Sind harbor is an ancient settlement of Sinds (BES. 1998). Sinds - a Meotian tribe on the Taman Peninsula and on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea (1 thousand BC) Economy: agriculture, fishing, crafts. In the 5th-4th centuries. BC. created the state of Sindica; from the 4th c. BC. within the Bosporus state. At the beginning of a.d. mixed with the Sarmatians (BES. 1998)
Cimmerians - tribes of the North Coast (from the Caucasus to Thrace) in the 8th-7th century. BC, pressed by the Scythians, captured a significant part of M. Asia, where they mixed with the local population. (BES. 1998)
Cimmerian Bosporus - another Greek name for the Kerch Strait (BES. 1998)
The Thracian Bosporus is another Greek name for the strait connecting the Black and Marmara Seas. The modern name is the Bosphorus. (BES. 1998)
These names allow us to conclude that the surviving "Greek" names of the area originated from the peoples who inhabited them. Now it becomes clear that Herodotus and Hellanicus were right in their own way. Partially "Slovenes" - Pelasgians (they are Tyrrhenians-Phoenicians-Libyans) - came from Greece, more precisely - from Crete, bringing with them the ideas of the Aegean culture. The second part - Sinds (Meots) - "lynxes" came through Asia Minor from Mesopotamia and Hindustan (from the Indus). The self-name of this numerous people is RASSENY.
Telling another episode from the history of Rome, the author of the translation calls the population of Italy - races. In 509 B.C. there was an uprising of the population of Rome and the expulsion of the ruler Tarquinius the Proud. (We will consider this case in more detail in the article "Ancient Rome"). Tarquinius turns to Porsena, the newly elected king of the entire Etruscan Twelve Cities for help and finds understanding and support. After the general council of the kings (priests) of the Twelve-City, at which it was decided to go to war against the "recalcitrant Rum", "trumpets rattled throughout the Italic Rasseniya."
In recent years, many authors have appeared who have taken up the translation of Etruscan mirrors. Basically, they translate into modern Russian what, in their opinion, Yegor Klassen translated poorly. Most of the unfamiliar words are found in the texts, long supplanted by remake words or those that came with biblical texts. But when one has to look at texts like the following one from a 28th-century tombstone: “Menerva painted for me,” one wants to exclaim: “How long will we tolerate historical lies?”
Apparently, it is necessary to be guided by the inscription on the Scythian sword, referring to the beginning of the new chronology, which I quote here without translation into modern language: "More often and fiercely strike the evil enemy." Historians believe that this is one of the laws of the Scythian goddess Tabiti.
From the book Ancient Russia author Vernadsky Georgy VladimirovichII. Written sources 1. Greek and Latin Agathias, Historiac, ed. Dindorf, HGM, II. Amianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, J. C. Roife, ed. and trans., 3 vols. Locb Classical Library (Harvard University Press). Annales Bertiniani, see Prodentius "Anonymi Belae regis notarii de Gestis Hungaronim Liber", Renim Hungaricarum Monumenta Arpadiana", ed. S. Endlicher (St. Gallen, 1849; reprint: Leipzig, 1931).Anscarius, see.
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