Historians distinguish during the Livonian war. Livonian war: the fall of the order

Introduction 3

1. Causes of the Livonian War 4

2. Stages of war 6

3.Results and consequences of the war 14

Conclusion 15

References 16

Introduction.

The relevance of research. The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long and exhausting, it brought many losses to Russia. It is very important and relevant to consider this event, because any military action changed the geopolitical map of our country, had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This directly applies to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the diversity of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter. After all, pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Therefore, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.

aim of this work is to reveal the essence of the Livonian War. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :

Reveal the causes of the Livonian War

Analyze its stages

Consider the results and consequences of the war

1. Causes of the Livonian War

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible faces new tasks - to return the Russian lands, once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, it is possible to clearly identify the causes of the Livonian War. However, Russian historians interpret them differently.

So, for example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the hostility of the Livonian Order. Karamzin fully approves Ivan the Terrible's aspirations to reach the Baltic Sea, calling them "intentions that are beneficial for Russia."

N.I. Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war, Ivan the Terrible had an alternative - either to deal with the Crimea, or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains the decision of Ivan IV, which was contrary to common sense, to fight on two fronts by "discord" between his advisers.

S.M. Soloviev explains the Livonian War by Russia's need to "assimilate the fruits of European civilization", the carriers of which were not allowed into Russia by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.

IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes the external position of the state only from the point of view of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.

S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not put up with unfavorable terms of trade.

MN Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of some "advisers" from a number of troops.

According to R.Yu. Vipper, "The Livonian War was prepared and planned by the leaders of the Chosen Rada for quite a long time."

R.G. Skrynnikov connects the beginning of the war with the first success of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward to conquer Livonia and establish themselves in the Baltic states. The historian also notes that "the Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking dominance in the Baltic Sea."

V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes his key role in unleashing the Livonian War.

In general, formal pretexts were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were the geopolitical need of Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct ties with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthening of Russia, prevented its external contacts. For example, the authorities of Livonia did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe, invited by Ivan IV, to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev tribute" (Yuryev, later called Derpt (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the agreement of 1503, an annual tribute was to be paid for it and the adjacent territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, in 1557 the Order entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king.

2.Stages of the war.

The Livonian war can be conditionally divided into 4 stages. The first one (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) included primarily the Russo-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russo-Swedish war continued.

Let's consider each of the stages in more detail.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuryev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops passed through all of Livonia (to Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of politicians grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559, it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II August in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga were transferred under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of sharp political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master V. Furstenberg was dismissed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Esel (Saaremaa).

The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became subjects of Sweden. According to the Vilna Treaty of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and his last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of a weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states up to the capture of Riga: “It is unsuitable for our sovereign to retreat from those cities of Livonia that the king took for protection, and it is more fitting for the sovereign to stand for those cities.” The council's decision also emphasized that giving up Livonia would hurt trade interests.

Third stage. From 1569 the war becomes protracted. This year, at the Seimas in Lublin, Lithuania and Poland were united into a single state - the Commonwealth, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude a truce for three years.

Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate their forces against the Muscovite state, because. were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, by neutralizing Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of ​​​​forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic states.

The Danish Duke Magnus accepted the offer of Ivan the Terrible to become his vassal (“goldovnik”) and in the same May 1570, upon arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed “King of Livonia”. The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, which settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material means so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the "kingdom" of Magnus by marrying Magnus to the tsar's niece, the daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky - Maria.

The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was, according to Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German chivalry and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and consequently, not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but, most importantly, an alliance and support for the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vise on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown to include Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of ​​the possibility and necessity of dividing Poland between the German and Russian states. More intimately, the Tsar was preoccupied with the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he did his best to prevent. All this speaks of a correct, strategically deep understanding of the alignment of forces in Europe by the tsar and of his precise vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the short and long term. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as soon as possible, before it came to a joint Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.

I wholeheartedly welcome you! Klim Sanych, good afternoon. Good afternoon. Hello. Happy Birthday! Thank you. Health! It is important. You will take the rest yourself. Yes. About what today? We, with all these terrible movie tricks that the domestic film industry poured on us in a flurry, as well as with a regular reaction to current moments, as well as with all sorts of decent films that we also constantly analyze, we completely forgot about the basis, namely about military history. I'm still a military historian, I yearned, I want to talk about the war. And not an expert on shit like "Form of Water", damn it. Yes. Which we have to do to get high. Yes, yes, of course, of course, of course. Yes, and so, we have the Livonian War, which in some way has its anniversary this year. It started in 1558, and now it's 2018, i.e. we get an even date, and there is no reason not to analyze this significant event, especially since it is already so publicized in history books. Judging by the name, we fought with some kind of Livonia? Yes Yes Yes. But this is actually a big misconception. Everyone thinks that the Livonian War means that we fought with Livonia, that's it. And today I propose to give some introductory, because the Livonian War is a very long, very big (as they would say now, stupid term) geopolitical conflict. So-so. And it is impossible, I think, to start immediately directly to military operations, we need to make a well-founded approach. Those. first, figure out what was happening there around this very Livonia and not only, and only then, step by step, analyze the course of hostilities, all kinds of wonderful battles that took place inside there, especially since we have already sorted out one of them - the Polotsk capture. Will we fit in 1 video? Nine! Only a few. So-so. And then I immediately say that we are still for the start, then as it goes, we will analyze only the Livonian war itself, because, but I’m running a little ahead. And you need to start with periodization, firstly, and secondly, with the same thing as the term, what was, in fact, the Livonian War. Because, as you rightly said, the Livonian war, which means it is with the Livonians. And we know from school that it was a very important conflict that tore the Muscovite kingdom of Ivan the Terrible, because of which the Troubles immediately began. Because they spent all the money there, they killed all the military, and those who were not killed, they became poorer, everyone became brutalized because of this Livonian war, we lost it in the end, and then Ivan the Terrible suddenly died, and it happened ... From anger. From anger, from rage, yes, from bedsores. And the Troubles began, and everything was bad as a result. Well, in this way it turns out logically that it was the Livonian War that was the main war waged by Russia during the time of Ivan the Terrible. Well, since they lost it and everything is bad, then it is so. But it is not so. But I’ll interrupt you, excuse me, because as usual they will start asking questions, but due to illiteracy, exactly one author, citizen Skrynnikov, is known to me. Yes. Are his books under Ivan the Terrible good? Well, you need to know them, because Skrynnikov dug deep. We send everyone - ZhZL, the life of wonderful people, the author is Skrynnikov, I don’t remember the name. Ruslan Grigorievich. Ruslan Grigorievich. The book is called “Ivan the Terrible”. And there are a number of others. In fact, of course, there are many more books about Ivan the Terrible, there are far from only Skrynnikov, but we will definitely give a list of recommended literature, as we usually do when examining historical topics. But about the Livonian War, it would seem, the most important war of Ivan the Terrible, and until recently there were no special books about it at all. Why? Those. inside different books, of course, they wrote about her, and sometimes quite a lot. And if you collect them to the heap, all these books, then in general you get some kind of incredible historiographical background. And now they have just begun to write, by and large, about the Livonian War personally. It's hard to say why, I don't know why. Ie ... Do not want to indicate the merits of Ivan? I don't know, it's a mystery. I just think that it’s impossible to do everything in a row, and the Livonian War is such a giant tangle that you can’t take it on the fly, so we think - well, we have it, well, okay, then. Here. And then someone else says "later." In the meantime, about the repression. In the meantime, of course, let's talk about repression, yes. But the stable historiographical term "Livonian War" nevertheless developed, although, of course, if contemporaries knew that they were participating in the Livonian War, they would be very surprised. About how the French and the British, having learned that they are fighting in the Hundred Years War. Because the Livonian War is from 1558, and it is traditionally considered that from 1583 to the Plyussky truce with Sweden. In fact, of course, this is not entirely true. And why, now I will try to explain. Because there was no Livonian war as such, it is a series of interconnected conflicts, albeit thematically in terms of meaning, but which each fought back from each other both by the participating countries, and by specific peace treaties, specific declarations of war. It was a protracted conflict of the parties, in which far from only Russia and Livonia participated, this is the most important thing, Livonia almost did not participate there at all. There were Lithuanians, Poles, Swedes, Danes, Russia, of course, a little Livonia, and even the Tatars managed to participate directly and indirectly. And all why - because Livonia, i.e. Livonian Confederation, the so-called. By the end of the 15th century, and even in the 16th century, the Livonian Order was all the more sick man in Europe, which the Ottoman Empire later became in the 19th century. This was the naturally sick man of Europe. This was due to something - well, in general, of course, with the crisis of the order state. It was the last state of the Order of all that were, probably, except for the knights of the Order of Ivan of Jerusalem, the Hospitallers in Malta. The fact is that the top-level organizations that cover them, namely the states that somehow formed these very orders, were not up to it in the 16th century. In particular, the Livonian Confederation was also a vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor of the German Nation. But, as it turned out, the emperor was the first to leak it. Moreover, there were such seemingly impossible moments when the former Teutonic Order, which at that time had already become just Prussia, fought on the side of the Poles and Lithuanians against Livonia. Those. it’s generally one whole that just happened literally in the 15th century. Those. The Teutonic Order, it was, as it were, the commander of the Livonian Landmaster, it was one whole, there was Lithuania between them and they tried to unite. But, nevertheless, here we see how the Prussian Duke Albrecht, together with the Poles and Lithuanians, withdraws his troops to the border with Livonia. Because even the Prussians also looked in that direction. And why did they look - well, it's easy to guess that this part of the Baltic coast was a very important trading point, because there are such wonderful cities as Tallinn ... the Danish fortress. Danish fortress, later known as Revel. Riga is standing there. And all these cities close on themselves, well, almost the entire Russian trade in the Baltic. And the Russian Baltic trade, who did not hear our last year's videos about the milestones of Russian history, the Baltic trade is very important, because the Baltic trade is what closes all, almost all, Eurasian trade. That is, everything that goes along the Volga from the Caspian Sea; everything that goes through the Dnieper from the Black Sea; everything that goes along what used to be called the Great Silk Road, it is somehow distributed over different, as they say now, hubs. That is, to the Mediterranean Sea in one direction, and in the other direction, the only sea route there is the Baltic, everything comes to the Baltic. And who will be at the distribution point, he will inevitably receive a lot of money. Because the Baltic, as you might guess, is the northern Mediterranean Sea, because it is located among the lands - on the one hand, Scandinavia, closes all of Denmark and, therefore, the German Baltic coast. And the Swedes just wanted to make it their inland sea. Yes. And even for a moment they succeeded. By the time of the Kalmar Union of the 14th century, when Denmark, Sweden and Norway were practically united, then it all, of course, fell apart, and by the time of the reign of Charles XII at the beginning of the 18th century, and, in fact, under his dad, under Charles XI, this is already the end of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich - the beginning of the reign of Peter I, this, too, for some time was practically the Swedish inland sea, practically. Well, not only the Swedes wanted to make it an inland sea. That is, it is clear that neither Germany nor anyone else could make it internal, but they really wanted to crush the entire coast under themselves. And whoever wanted it - Lithuania, of course, it has direct access to the Baltic Sea, and it needed the whole piece of the Baltic to be its own. Naturally, Poland, as friends of the Lithuanians, since the Union of Krevo, is also the 14th century, a union state. Naturally, I have already mentioned Germany through Prussia; Denmark, because at one time the Danes sold their Danish fortress Daalina along with the knights who settled there around the Livonians. And now, well, the Livonians are dying, so you need to take it back, this is a Danish fortress, even the name is like that, you look. Here, first. Secondly, of course, the Danes could not allow the Swedes to become stronger at this expense, because the Swedes are their direct competitors from all sides for many centuries. And, of course, Russia, because the Livonian Order is something that was constantly in close, I would even say dialectical relationship with the northwestern lands of Russia, that is, Novgorod and Pskov. And, of course, everything was brewed not under Ivan the Terrible, everything was brewed under Ivan III. Those. it, of course, was brewed much earlier, but here is the story that is directly adjacent to ours, to the Livonian war, it all began under the grandfather of Ivan IV, under Ivan the Great, under Ivan III. At this time, the Livonian Order was already feeling unwell, the Livonian Confederation. Well, first of all, because it's a confederation. Not a single confederate state of small size, surrounded by generally quite strong neighbors, will last long, because, as we remember, what Livonia is - Livonia is actually order territories, that is, military monastic ones, these are several bishoprics, which, it would seem, are included into one confederation, but they, as a rule, pursued their very independent policy, sometimes they directly clashed inside, it came to armed clashes. Wow - inside the state, some bishop said - something I don’t like everything, and went to fight with his president. They entered into direct conspiracies with the enemies of the order, there they periodically had to be arrested, these bishops, if they could, of course. Well, of the bishoprics, the 2 largest ones played the main role, these are Terpsky (on the site of the old Russian city of Yuryev) and Riga. Riga is the oldest city in Livonia, founded in 1202 by Bishop Albrecht. And unfortunately for the Livonians, and to great happiness for everyone else, the last master, Walter von Plettenberg, I do not mean the last master of the Livonian Order, but the last such a successful master, who acted as an independent figure, such a bright independent figure, he was , firstly, a very energetic person, an extremely successful military leader and a very skilled military leader, frankly, even Ivan III cried with him. Although where is this Livonia of this size, and, therefore, the Moscow nascent kingdom of this size. He beat us regularly. By virtue of his charisma and powerful organizational abilities, he fixed this state of confederation, i.e. through Lithuania, the Teutonic Order, also not feeling well, it was able to transform in the 16th century, turning into a secular state. He let himself under the roof of the Poles and, in general, lived well. But the Livonians are not, the Livonians are fixed in the old medieval form. Of course, Plettenberg had reason to do so - why, because Livonia was a point where all sorts of fools and parasites, alcoholics and other downshifters were fused. Like Finland for the Swedes. Yes Yes Yes. But downshifters went there with a specific goal - to re-downshift back, because there are again great prospects. And, of course, fraternities immediately formed there, because it’s just to come to the Livonian Order and say that I’m here too, excuse me, knight, I’ll fight here for a little, of course, it was possible, and even you would have been given to fight, but you would have been given nothing to earn there - no land, no money, well, except for the fact that you will directly fight. People were exiled there, as I once said, when we talked about the short Livonian-Novgorod war in the 40s of the 15th century, people from the Rhine and Westphalia were exiled there. So they trod this path, naturally formed a community there, and they didn’t let anyone in, well, at least on an industrial scale. Well, then the Danes let in another constellation of independent Danish knights, who were simply handed over together with Tallinn, who saw both the Westafalians and the Rhines in the coffin, but loved themselves. This, of course, added strength to this state. Well, proceeding from this, a crisis erupted, because Walter von Plettenberg died, and there was no longer such a boss - energetic, charismatic, etc., who simply by his personality could solder it all together. Because in fact, to expect that everyone will be such a wonderful boss is rather stupid, this does not happen. And the system itself was practically unviable. Well, of course, everyone immediately became interested that if it all dies, and it dies before our eyes, someone lucky will be the first to take it, so everyone immediately pricked up their hairy ears and began to look closely who would just rush there first. Walter von Plettenberg, it must be said, although he defeated the Russian troops several times, he never, as a sober person, thought that this could be done on an ongoing basis. He understood perfectly well that he could beat the Russians only because Ivan III was at war with Casemir IV of Lithuania. He is just very busy, he can not come to grips with all this, there is no time. Therefore, when the Lithuanians and Poles offered Walter von Plettenberg to form a single anti-Russian coalition, he nobly refused, saying that nothing good would come of it for me. You may be, I won't survive this. Let's do it ourselves. I won't survive this. Yes, and, of course, there was a very strong pro-Russian party in the order, and a strong, of course, anti-Russian party, i.e. hawks and doves of peace. The doves of the world, as a rule, were connected directly with the trading circles, who just needed to trade, that's all, period. And the hawks had to impose some kind of their own will, well, this is a paramilitary state, it was necessary to expand somehow, at least in the commercial sense. Naturally, they clashed with Sweden, because Sweden is another point with which Russia borders, through which we can sell or buy something, vice versa. And now, after Walther von Plettenberg, Master von der Recke, he issued a certain decree, where once again it was written what goods could be traded with Russia. This is a potential military adversary, therefore, starting from the 13th century, strategic goods were not allowed to pass to us on an ongoing basis. Here von der Recke once again wrote what exactly should not be missed. And you can not skip gold, silver, tin, lead, iron, horses, armor and weapons. Sanctions have been imposed on us. Well, because silver is money, everyone knew perfectly well that Russia does not have its own silver, we do not have our own lead, we do not have our own tin, well, there is not enough tin at all. It needs to be specially developed, extracted from ores, then they did not know how to do this, it needs to simply be native, and this is a big problem. Only when Varlam Shalamov appeared, he was sent to develop tin. Yes Yes. Those. there will be no silver - there will be no money; there will be no tin - there will be no bronze; there will be no bronze - there will be no guns. Well, there will be no lead, there will be nothing to make bullets from. Well, everything is clear about armor and weapons, they have a specific military purpose, horses are the same. Everyone knew very well that in Russia the horse stock was weak. Those. It is simply impossible to equip mass cavalry with good horses. Therefore, we do not supply horses. And the merchants wanted to supply, because it is a lot of money, that's all, because of this there was a constant conflict. The merchants, and first of all, the Germans did not try from the Livonian Confederation, they were regularly caught here. For example, it was already after Ivan III, it was under Vasily III, they caught a certain Dutch merchant, who, as it turned out, was not the first time bringing ships full of tin and herring to Novgorodians. He was caught and fined and sent to hell in 1530. Back in the 15th century, a German merchant who regularly brought iron and weapons to Russia was eventually caught, arrested, fined, taken away everything and thrown away. And he drove again, because, apparently, it was very profitable. And so they caught him a second time and cut off his head. No, well, since such decrees were constantly, it means that someone constantly tried to smuggle and successfully drove. On the other hand, Novgorodians and Pskovians could not pass by the Order's possessions on the sea route. The sea route of the Middle Ages is coastal. Along the shore. Along the coast, first. Secondly, even if it is not along the coast, then a serious port, in which a serious fleet is stationed, has the ability to intercept other people's ships at a fairly large distance from its own base. Those. post some patrols. Yes sir. Those. you are sailing somewhere to trade, you - rest with us. - Well no. - Get some rest. With all due respect. With all due respect, yes. Immediately, customs comes to you, asks what you have. Well, they say - listen, but we, by the way, signed an agreement 150 years ago, you can only trade with us. You seem to be from Novgorod, well, apparently, yes, you will trade here. Well, that's all, you have to trade in Riga or Tallinn. Those. you will no longer sail past Riga and Tallinn. Maybe you will be able to slip past one of the cities, but somewhere you will definitely fall completely. I don't go past Tallinn and Riga without joking. Yes. So. For the umpteenth time I am surprised how the ancestors always seem to be somehow narrow-minded, unreasonable, but here you go - and the port, and patrols, and interception, and customs. And sanctions. And you can trade only here, where the money is, damn it. Yes. Therefore, Novgorodians, starting from the 12th century, simply could not swim anywhere, they received guests at home. Ours, of course, responded with all love. Complete reciprocity. Complete reciprocity. Those. here comes a German from Livonia, you will trade only in the German courtyard with specially indicated merchants. Here 3 people will come to you, here you will trade with them. Rates are like this, volumes are like this. Yes of course. You cannot engage in retail trade yourself, you cannot deal with purchases yourself. Again, if you want purchases, here are those guys with licenses. Hans and Friedrich. Yes, no, these are Russians Vanya and Petya. Here you, Hans and Friedrich, will buy from them what you wanted to buy there, by the way. Here. It is clear that special trading corporations were engaged in all this. For example, fur has covered the entire northern trade with fur since the 13th century, the so-called. Ivanova hundred, Ivanova 100 in Novgorod, one of the most powerful, if not the most powerful trading corporation. Because fur was a strategic commodity, which was actually a real currency. And now you could only buy fur from Ivanov 100. You couldn’t go to this Yugra yourself, to Biarmia, where, in fact, the fur came from. The Germans, of course, tried to swim around the Kola Peninsula, around Arkhangelsk, but it was too far away, the ice conditions there were not good. Well, in general, you can’t climb there on a permanent basis. Since the early Middle Ages, since the Viking times, there is a well-known saga there, how they rode there, to Biarmia. Accordingly, if you want to go to Novgorod, you will hire only Novgorod pilots. Pilots were specially on duty there, then these barge haulers who dragged the ships through the portage, please don’t bring your own. If you brought it, let them rest here for now. They will wait. They will wait. Well, or as a guest they will go to Novgorod, where they will leave money in a brothel, in a tavern somewhere. You can't work. And in such an environment, Ivan III annexed Novgorod. And then they wonder where the war comes from. How else can this issue be resolved, why do you have all the money, and not us? Yes. Ivan III in such a situation, this Novgorod finally accepted back into the bosom of the Russian state with open arms - we walked, that's enough. Since 1136, at large, something is not working out well for you, come with us, here. Novgorod was besieged, everyone was given a cap, and Novgorod became the site of a very broad social experiment, as we would now put it, namely, 2,600 Moscow nobles, the children of the boyars, were resettled in Novgorod, spreading land there for them. Actually, regular local typesetting begins from Novgorod, i.e. these same children of the boyars, the nobles, turned into landlords in the full sense of the word, i.e. into knights obligated to feudal service for the conditional holding of land and peasants. And from Novgorod, accordingly, some nobles were evicted to other places, so that they would not be very happy there ... Clusters. Kuchkovaniy, yes, so for sure, so that they are not very satisfied. True, of course, it must be said that the Muscovites, when we were in Novgorod, arranged a grouping themselves, they immediately made friends with the Novgorodians right there, they formed their own kublo. Novgorod, as you know, had to be brought to life several more times, and the last time it was Ivan the Terrible. Most successful. Well, Ivan III also did it very successfully, just Ivan IV did it for the last time and finally. By the way, he then had to extinguish when they say that he extinguished the Novgorodians, he extinguished the descendants of Muscovites, who were settled there by his grandfather. It was they who, in general, arranged some initiatives, which then had to be dealt with somehow. It is their rotten devils who muddy the water in the pond. Yes Yes Yes. Well, we have already talked about the uprising, and it will probably be necessary to talk separately, for now, about the war. Ivan III took over Novgorod, and suddenly it became clear that this Livonian confederation was a very dialectical neighbor. That is, on the one hand, it directly harms, but it simply directly harms. On the other hand, they have been negotiating with him for 150 years, and it is possible to coexist. But if you keep the Livonians in such a loose form, this is a magnificent limitrophe as a counterbalance to the Lithuanians. Those. no one even thought to win it. Of course, there were quite specific territorial claims, especially on the ground, there, in general, apparently, this was a trade war, then a small war of partisan sabotage groups, small detachments in general very rarely stopped. But in a global sense, no one needs to conquer them. What for? You can give money and they will fight against the Lithuanians. It's much cheaper than having your own troops. Certainly. And if you conquer them, they will have to be protected, these territories. Well, this is a huge territory, in fact, there are a lot of buildings, they will need to be maintained, guarded, defended against the Lithuanians, the front will immediately lengthen. Therefore, for some time, for a very long time, no one thought about finally resolving the issue with the Livonians. On the contrary, they tried to keep them in such a state, in a state of eternal semi-chaos as long as possible. And here, of course, you need to look in 2 directions at once, namely, in the direction of Lithuanian and Polish, and in the direction of the Crimean. Because the Lithuanians, especially when they became close friends with the Poles, became, in general, at some point the dominant force in the region. Actually, only Ivan III and Vasily III were able to successfully resist them on an ongoing basis. Accordingly, the Poles have just dealt with the Teutonic Order, i.e., as it is correct to say, with the German Order. By the way, do you remember once asking me why the Teutonic Order, although the Teutons have all been there for a long time? Mariy also cut them, yes. So, it just actually turned out, I never even thought about this issue. You know that the word Germany is spelled Deutsch, i.e. Deutsch. And earlier, in the Middle Ages, it was written through T. Teutsch. Toych. Teutsch. So it turns out Teut, this is the German Order. Teutonic means Germanic, Teutonic means only Germanic. Teut, well, or Teut, like that. Interesting. So, the Poles dealt with the Teutonic Order and had very specific intentions to deal with the Livonian Order too. But they also needed a limitroph, i.e. someone who will create a kind of counterbalance to Russia in the Northwest. State-laying. Yes Yes Yes. And so they constantly tried to bring the confederation under some kind of treaty, which would imply either an armed alliance against Russia, or at least armed neutrality against Russia. Those. if we are at war with Russia, you are either obliged to deploy troops, or you are obliged to look approvingly at our actions, and, accordingly, to carry out some trade sanctions there. Yes. It was the same thing that Ivan III sought, only from the other side. Well, Ivan III began to successfully fight the Lithuanians, with Casimir IV. Subsequently, his policy was continued very successfully by Vasily III. Those. we remember this war of the early 16th century, which ended with the battle of Vedrosh, we remember the first Smolensk war of 1512-1522, when in 1514 Vasily III captured Smolensk on the 3rd attempt. After that, he lost the battle of Orsha, which, in general, did not lead to anything, we left the town for ourselves until the Time of Troubles. And Ivan III walked so wide for only one reason: he brought Kazan under his arm. Those. Kazan, he did not actually capture, i.e. yes, there was a successful military enterprise, Kazan actually submitted to it, it became a friendly state. And he was friends with the Krymchaks, namely with the founder of the Giray Mengli-Girai I. In this case, you can be friends only for one reason, when there is someone to be friends against, because the Krymchaks hated the Great Horde with the center in modern Astrakhan. Because the Astrakhans, as the heirs of the Juchi ulus, quite seriously believed that the Kazanians, the Crimeans, and the Nagais owed them everything, i.e. they should be at their fingertips, it's our everything. And neither the Nagais, nor the Kazanians, nor the Crimeans categorically disagreed with this, i.e. at all. Well, i.e. all this meant that money had to be paid, and no one wanted to pay money, they needed it themselves. Firstly, to pay money, and secondly, if those in Astrakhan come up with something, go somewhere to fight. But the Krymchaks, for example, were not interested in fighting for the Astrakhans at all, the Krymchaks have an excellent position. On the one hand, they are located on the Black Sea and from this Crimea they can trade with anyone - slaves in the first place. And secondly, instead of going somewhere to Derbent, waving a saber there, it’s not at all clear for what purpose, it’s much easier to run into either Moscow or Vilna, catch men and women there and sell them in Kaffa. Here. And since The Great Horde at that time was a serious force, whatever one may say, although it seems that Ivan III repulsed them there and on the Ugra, but still they had to be reckoned with, and everyone, it was a very dangerous opponent if you quarreled with him. So, Mengli Giray and Ivan III were friends against the Great Horde. And Ivan III constantly skillfully let his sidekick Mengli-Giray into Podolia, i.e. the southwestern lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, so that he would work there, as the Germans say, this is the very thing, raub und moert, i.e. robbed and killed, he was an excellent specialist in this respect, he robbed and killed. Lock the floors, now there will be robberies. Yes sir. True, of course, it must be said that Ivan III was extremely clever in letting his Muslim sidekick into his own Orthodox lands. Well done. Because, of course, Mengli Giray would like to get to the Lithuanian lands, but it is very far away. Actually, where ethnic Lithuanians live. But there is no need to think very badly about Ivan III, he was just a man of the feudal era, for him these were his own, those who were his subjects, i.e. who pay taxes to him and owe him vassalage. And the people of Kiev, for example, were obliged to vassal service to the Lithuanians, so excuse me. What nationality and specifically religion they were, everyone was on the drum. Nobody is interested. Yes. No, well, of course, in this way, again, according to medieval customs, for example, the people of Kiev or the people of Chernigov, Novgorod-Severets made it clear that you were watching while you were with these Lithuanian fools, you would be robbed. And if you are with us, you will not be robbed. So did everyone in all the Middle Ages. There, for example, the civilized Edward III Plantagenet went to war with France. The first thing he did, after winning the battle of Sluys there, which allowed him to land an army (battle of the sea), which allowed him to land an army in French territory, he engaged in the well-known practice of grandes voyages, i.e. long walks, i.e. just bandit raids on the territory of France there with burned villages and stolen people. The name of the idiotic film, in my opinion, with Louis de Funes, "The Big Walk", is it just about that, or what? Yes, somehow it was different, there were no grandes voyages, the allusion is unequivocal that there are 3 Englishmen going through France, that's what it is, grandes voyages. Deep, damn it. Here. This is such a hint that is generally understandable to people who in France and England read a school history textbook. And here you are, civilized people were doing exactly the same thing at about the same time. I’m already silent, what they were doing when there were religious wars of Catholics and Huguenots inside France, the same thing. And this is literally at the same time that we will talk about, the middle-second half of the 16th century. Nothing interfered. Although these are not just Catholics and Huguenots, this is just one country, France, within themselves, they did such things there that Ivan IV would seem like a funny guy with a beard, here, in some kind of ridiculous golden mantle, here. And they are all so refined, so, in tights with codpieces, they did absolutely terrible things with each other. We'll talk about this, I hope. Necessarily. I want, when we talk, in fact, about the military operations of the Livonian War, to talk about a parallel process that took place in Europe, in fact, and dwell on the wonderful battle of Dro. Who beat whom there? French French. Here. Aside, to the Crimeans again. The Crimeans were friends with Ivan III and really interfered with the Lithuanians, so Ivan III simply had his hands untied, he could constantly engage in western expansion, take back the lands of the Rurikovichs, because he himself was a Rurikovich, and for good reason believed that he had the right on the entire legacy of the Rurikovichs. Vasily III did the same, but he quarreled with the Girays, and specifically with Muhammad-Giray. And he quarreled for one simple reason, because the entire alliance with Mengli Giray was actually built on sand. As soon as we looked towards the Volga and we became an enemy of the Great Horde, the Krymchaks did not need to be friends with us, because if we deal directly with the Great Horde, then the Krymchaks have a free hand, on the one hand. And on the other hand, Crimea is a vassal territory of the Ottoman Empire, which the Ottoman Empire influenced very, very strongly. They could give some kind of order, because the most important interests on the Volga were, of course, not with the Great Horde, despite all the remnants of its power. It was with a new player, namely the Ottoman Empire, which sought to subdue all Muslim lands under itself, either directly or indirectly. And under Vasily III, in 1522, Muhammad Giray sent him a letter demanding tribute. And Vasily III, of course, refuses, because for what, in fact, the reason? Well, Muhammad-Giray reaches Moscow, crosses the Oka, smashes the army of Vasily III to smithereens, Vasily III flees from Moscow, leaving instead of himself the baptized Tatar Peter in Moscow to steer instead of Luzhkov. He himself escapes to Novgorod, Peter is forced to give him on behalf of the king, Muhammad Giray, a letter stating that the Moscow Tsar is a tributary of the Crimean Tsar. Strongly. Here. The suburbs of Moscow have been burnt down, Tatar patrols are walking on Sparrow Hills in Tsarskoye Selo. There was one of the villages that belonged personally to the king, they plundered everything there. And after that, we could not fight normally with the Lithuanians simply because we had a multi-pood Crimean core hanging on our leg. And here you need to understand a very important thing, who fought with the Lithuanians. Lithuanians were in constant contact with people of the future Novgorod category, i.e. those who were just sitting here Novgorod, Pskov, this is about 1/6 of our entire cavalry, it was the 2nd territorial point in terms of power, after Moscow, of course. Moreover, unlike Moscow, Novgorod, the future Novgorod category, as we would say, the governor-general, probably, this could be called this. It has never been territorially divided, it was one whole territorial border division. Moscow has never acted as some kind of such a single entity, because they could transfer part of the cities for warfare and organizational and accounting activities to their neighbors, take it for themselves, in short, it has been transformed all the time. Novgorodians all the time stayed in the monolith. Because of this, they had a very powerful merged corporation, which again had a very strong tradition of local feudal corporate self-government. And fighting, for example, with Lithuanians or Livonians, they, firstly, defended their own interests, because they were on the border, they defended their lands, or they could take something away for themselves. Those. receive a visible material profit for yourself or your family. Well, if they slap you, it happens, then at least the children will not be left behind, because you will take away land from someone and cut them off for yourself. Or you will take away the peasants and settle them at your place. But since then, they have constantly had to leave every year for the Oksky border on the river to fight with the Krymchaks. And it was without any profit to fight the Krymchaks. Because what are Krymchaks? Krymchaks appear incomprehensibly when, and without declaring war easily, having gathered ... Murzas, uhlans and Tatar Cossacks, they simply ran on the decision of some local regional chief, and they had to be caught. The fights were constant, maybe not very big, but extremely fierce. And here we have, counting from 1522, the reign of actually Alexei Mikhailovich, we have this Oksky, then Belgorod frontier, it never stopped, service was required there all the time, but you could not win anything there. You could only die there. Just fight back, yes. Yes. Because in order to win something from the Krymchaks, it was necessary to reach the Crimea, but we could not do this, because we, as a settled empire of that time, were very much attached to the means of communication, and these were rivers. Those. we could fight with Kazan, Astrakhan, with the Lithuanians simply because we could drag heavy artillery and artillery outfit in general along the rivers, and along some more or less acceptable roads, and it will help both in field combat and heavy artillery help to take the city, that's how they took Polotsk, for example, or how they took Kazan. And it was impossible to bring it to the Krymchaks, because if you leave for the steppe, then you may simply not return from there. Food, water, diarrhea. Because the march across the steppe looks like without points where you can concentrate food, ammunition, rest, recover, well, it turned into just creepy horror even for regular armies. How Peter I went to the Prut and how it ended, this is the only serious defeat in general, and it almost turned into a catastrophe for the Russian army in the 18th century. We could not cope with the Turks, and with the same Krymchaks who were let in there, although the regular army. This is not a medieval army, it is managed differently, manned differently, supplied differently. Somehow, again, there is a layout according to how the march of the Russian cavalry looked like. We talked about the Mongols a long time ago, so we need to talk about the Russians. So, we couldn’t bring the guns to the Crimea, so we could only fight back from the Krymchaks, and the Novgorodians generally understood what they needed, but they didn’t have any profit, they wanted to fight the Livonians, it’s not so dangerous. And the Krymchaks, understanding all these nuances, organized the Crimean auction. This is an accepted term in historiography. Well, they sold themselves to Lithuanians and attacked Moscow, or Muscovites and attacked Lithuanians. Well done. Here. We understand that there were people lured in the Crimea. Like the Lithuanians, I guess. As, of course, with the Lithuanians, there was a diplomatic mission there on a permanent basis, and our well-wishers, such as, for example, such Yamat-Murza, he directly wrote to the Grand Duke that I cannot defend your interests, because the Lithuanians literally bombard the khan with gold, jewelry , commemoration, i.e. gifts. Are commemorations gifts? Yes. He demanded regular commemorations. And if you didn’t do regular commemoration for him, he went to fight against you. And the brother of Muhammad-Giray Sahib-Giray, for example, he did not hesitate to write to Vasily III that he demanded to be his vassal, as we would say now, and to regularly pay him money, formulating it in such a way that if you do not pay, I will come myself and I'll take a lot more. Those. you better pay. Set out rates. Yes, yes, yes, because as much as I take, I take as much, I take as much. So if you just pay, it will be cheaper. Be kind. Yes. Which, of course, Vasily III did not like in any case, but not to pay, he could not not pay all the time, because it was really cheaper to pay, on the one hand; on the other hand, given the Lithuanian factor, it was too expensive to pay the Krymchaks all the time. But then Vasily III died, in fact, to what I am leading all this, to Ivan IV, because where is the Crimea, where is Livonia, now we will tie them up. Vasily III died, Ivan IV came, he was the third grandson, kalach in the kingdom grated and husband of many wives. Here. Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible was his name, because he was a serious, respectable person. He is not sweet with tricks and his mind is not lame, he brought order - at least roll a ball. He was still, when he was 15 years old, respectively, he was born in 1530, in 1545 the first trip to Kazan, which under Vasily III was completely abandoned from us. It all ended with the bloody capture of 1552, after which it suddenly turned out that we were not only not friends to the Krymchaks, but fierce enemies, because in 1556 we took Astrakhan, we closed the Volga on ourselves, and the Krymchaks had no enemies at all, except for Russia. After that, it became impossible to put up with us. In addition, the Turks simply killed the predecessor of Devlet Giray I when he began to pursue too independent a policy. And Devlet-Giray was a cautious man, he, when he is presented as such a Hitler in a skullcap who wanted to continuously fight with Russia, no, he would not be against theoretically, but he was a cautious person, a very, very smart and careful person. But since he was cautious, he understood that if he did not fight with Russia, the Turks would also do something to him, because they had all the possibilities and means of influence on the Crimea, especially since it was their official vassal, Crimea, they were obliged obey. Well, of course, with reservations, like any vassal, he is a vassal only because he is obliged to the overlord to the same extent as the overlord is obliged to him. And this balance is maintained only in the sense that the overlord can be very strong, and yet you owe him a little more. Those. partnership is unbalanced. And they began to push him to war. On the one hand, the Lithuanians continuously paid him, they simply continuously bombarded him with gifts, just this Yamat-Murza wrote that I could not do anything. And Devlet-Girey wrote to Ivan the Terrible with approximately the same content as Sahib-Girey, saying that you would be my younger brother, i.e. vassal. Vanya... Yes, and it began... This, by the way, immediately coincides with the capture of Kazan, 1552. And the 25-year war with the Krymchaks began, which ended only in 1577, only in 1577 did it end. And it was during this war that an organizational, military, and even psychological portrait of a Russian serviceman in general was formed, who was forced every year to defend his native borders, which is called disinterestedly, i.e. not having the desire to rob something, the desire and ability to rob something, to this very damn Oka. And moreover, all military corporations throughout Russia were involved there. Those. Novgorodians have been there, and Kazanians have been there, and, of course, Muscovites have been there on a permanent basis. In general, this shift service at the Oka line devoured monstrous resources, simply monstrous. It all ended with the fact that in 1571 Devlet Giray burned Moscow to the ground, in fact, only the Kremlin remained. The next year, in 1572, the bloody battle of Molodi, which, in fact, decided the outcome of this war. Well, even there it somehow flared up, then faded on a small scale until the death of Devlet Giray in 1577. There was a serious man. Yes. And now you need to compare this war and the situation in Livonia. We have never included such efforts in the Livonian direction as were involved in the Crimean direction, even approximately. And even when things went badly under the rule of Stefan Batory in 1580-83. Stefan Batory did not even dream of going to Moscow, he did not have such strength. And Devlet Giray burned it down. Therefore, the Livonian War was a secondary direction for Ivan the Terrible. Actually, it didn't end very well for us for the simple reason that we were busy with the Krymchaks. We could not afford to throw decisive forces there. Yes, at some point large forces were involved there, but this is not the main direction. That is why it was a private failure that could not lead to any damn Time of Troubles, it was just an episode. Which, yes, was expensive, but not too expensive. But what about Livonia, in fact? Here we have Ivan IV sat on the throne. Ivan IV needs to be constantly replenished with strategic resources for the war on the Volga, because, as we remember, 3 campaigns near Kazan, only the third was successful, and this was the most difficult situation. Plus, it was necessary to constantly bribe their people in the Podraysk land, to feed the pro-Russian party in every possible way. To keep garrisons against Astrakhan, to build cities, resources and specialists were needed. And at that time Ivan IV, more precisely, he was then still a young man at all, i.e. Ivan IV and his company, they went for rapprochement with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, and Charles V went very actively towards rapprochement with Russia. Simply because Charles V was at war with the Turks, and he needed any counterbalance to the Turks on his part. Well, literally just now, in 1535, Charles personally leads an expedition to Tunisia, takes him, kicks out the Turks and, of course, mainly their local hangers-on, the famous pirate Hayraddin Barbarossa. It turns out that when the locals took Filyuks in Tunisia, it turns out that guns are being sold to the French. French them. The French sell guns to the Turks, because they were all branded with 3 lilies, i.e. hallmark of the French royal arsenal. Those. on the one hand, the French never spoke out for the Turks, but everyone understood who was a friend to whom, because the Germans needed some kind of counterbalance to Turkey. It would seem, where is France, where is Russia, but the decision of the French, Francis I to help the Turks, it directly prompted Charles V to move closer to Russia. And he begins very active steps in this direction, remembering that his grandfather Maximilian I negotiated quite successfully with both Ivan III and Vasily III. True, of course, not against the Turks in the first place, but against the Poles. In general, this did not bring any significant results, but there were attempts and attempts are quite visible, these are German advances towards Russia. And who reared up first? - Yes, the Livonian Order, because we had a requirement from Charles V to help with resources. And he was ready, because, Lord, there in this Germany they mine silver and copper and tin and lead, and they have a lot of military specialists, and military specialists of the highest class, who have just literally gone through fire, water and copper pipes of the Italian wars. Those. there was a mass of military people who right now are ready to go somewhere and tell everyone for money how to do it. Hot spots veterans. So there was not a hot spot, there these Italian wars were just a bloody meat grinder, tens of thousands of people went through it, having gained very serious experience and complete unwillingness to do anything else except war, because it is profitable. And a military specialist at that time is a person who could make himself not just a future, but become some kind of great figure in history. For example, who would have known such nobles as, for example, the Frundsbergs. Yes, no one would have known, except for some very dull heraldists, who generally pick these same noble families, coats of arms and so on there. But Georg Frundsberg became simply because he deftly commanded the landsknechts, he became a world-famous figure without fools, all of Europe literally knew him. Just because he successfully commanded the regiments of landsknechts. And we were ready to receive such adventurers with all our arms. To intensify this process in 1548, a handsome young Saxon adventurer Hans Schlitte comes to Charles V to intensify this process, and he offers to take over relations with Moscow. Apparently, he sat well on the ears of Charles V, because he gave him full carte blanche, and he went to Moscow. In Moscow, he also sat down on the ears of Ivan IV, who, for his part, gave him full carte blanche, and now Schlitte began to supply us, and he himself was from Saxony, specifically, he was born in a city where there were some of the best silver mines, those. he knew with whom he needed to quickly negotiate in order to supply precious metals directly. He recruited specialists, recruited strategic resources, and began to supply them to Ivan IV. And the Livonians caught him along with another portion of specialists. A monstrous scandal erupted, the Livonians quarreled with Emperor Charles V, saying that this should not be done, you understand that you are supplying Ivan IV with weapons and strategic resources, and we are already afraid of him. And this, of course, played a very important role, the Schlitte case played a very important role in the fact that Ivan the Terrible drew attention to Livonia, because the Livonians, this small dilapidated state, they had the opportunity to simply turn off the valve for us. Which is unacceptable. Which is absolutely unacceptable. And Ivan the Terrible goes first to diplomatic efforts, and then to military efforts, and it is here that an important reservation must be made. Grozny did not consider Livonia equal to himself, he did not send sovereign ambassadors there, he negotiated with the Livonians only with the help of Novgorod officials. Some clerk leaves from Novgorod, negotiate with him. Because he considered Livonia a principality only. People need to be sent to the level. Yes. And he is an emperor, it is impossible for him to communicate with the prince. Let the Novgorodians communicate there for 200 years and let them communicate further, but, of course, with an eye on the party line. And then he sends ambassadors already sovereign. The matter is taken to another level. The matter goes to a completely different level, and the Livonians understand this immediately. Why are they just there with the Novgorodians, with their buddies, with whom they either fought or were friends, and then look, Adashev and Voskovaty arrived directly from Moscow. Famous surnames. Certainly. Who needed a reason to find fault with the Livonians. Because they, on their territory, have the right to adopt any laws and issue any decrees - a sovereign state. Let it be unpleasant, but what is your business, what is pleasant or unpleasant for you. You need a reason, and a well-known reason - St. George's tribute. Those. what the Livonians promised to pay for the possession of Derpt, which they once took away and pledged to pay money for this. No one knows exactly when and how much they promised to pay. But for unclear reasons, they didn't pay, right? Yes. But for unclear reasons, nothing has been paid for 100 years. They came up with an amount, calculated interest from it, as a result, they got a wagon of silver, which had to be immediately given to Ivan IV. Well, and right there, in pursuit of the St. George's tribute, they rolled out a bunch of claims that merchants are being offended, by the way, who pay taxes to Moscow, peel the wax, use a merciless bekloppen. What is it? I once told you this, when a barrel of wax just fell, for example, in Riga, you could take a sample from it, whether it was high-quality wax or not. The sample size was not specified. Those. it was possible to just chop off half and not pay - I did not taste it. Yes. I didn't sort it out. I didn't sort it out. Well, pay for the rest. The same thing happened with furs. It was possible to see if the fur was fit, well, pick up a piece there, and because. the size was not discussed ... Cut off each skin. Yes. Because size was not specified, it was terrible. Accordingly, we did not have the right to check with them, for example, they supply us with wine, wine or, say, good Flemish cloth. Delivered in barrels and pieces. Those. we could pay per piece and per barrel, but we couldn't check the dimensions of the barrel and the piece. Fine. Do you know where the word “enough” comes from in Russian? This is a very interesting linguistic incident. So-so. This is opening a barrel, for example, with wine or beer, if you got your finger, it means enough, and if not, then not enough, you didn’t get it. Here. And, accordingly, they constantly tried to ... deceive us. Deceive. cheat, yes. And all these small territorial claims, connected primarily, of course, with claims to Narva, this is St. George's tribute, insults of merchants, they simply presented it all, and said that it was necessary to pay, stop, and Ivan IV rolled out the contract, one of the main points of which it was that gold, silver, cloth, iron, armor, i.e. except for armor. And willing people from the Germans had a free path by water and mountains. Those. cloth and specialists were more expensive than armour. About the armor, he said that if you want to supply - supply, no - okay. And this completely coincides, by the way, with the list of von der Recke, who forbade this very thing to be transported. Those. Ivan IV knew exactly what he needed. We will make shells somewhere ourselves, we will buy resources and specialists somewhere else. But the Livonians are a confederation, they were in complete shock, on the one hand, on the other hand, of course, in complete happiness, because the tribute is St. George's, so let this St. George, damn it, pay. Those. Dorpat. And everything else does not concern us. They were also smart, by the way. Here is the wording - St. George's tribute, so let the Derptians pay it. The residents of Derpt said that we simply do not have so much money physically and cannot have it. Well, it was then that Grozny decided that he was being deceived ... Not without reason. Yes. What are these squiggles? What kind of antics, yes. It means that the Livonian Landshers were called there, i.e. landlords were invited to Novgorod, where, as they say, a 200,000-strong army of Muscovites was waiting for them at the border so that they would be properly frightened. This, of course, is bullshit, maybe there were 2,000 of them waiting for them, here. But it was also scary. But it was also embarrassing. And they fired cannons for a day, while they agreed that it would also be scary. What a lot of gunpowder we have, we can do this here! Agreed for 3 years to raise money. Meanwhile, the Lithuanians, Poles and Prussians tried to enter Livonia from the other side, namely, they decided to appoint a vicar, as we would say, or a coadjutor, as it is correct, i.e. the closest assistant, deputy of the Archbishop of Riga Krzysztof (Christopher) of Macklenburg, who was a relative of the King of Poland Sigismund, in my opinion, a nephew, if I'm not mistaken. They decided to imprison him and through him to influence the Bishop of Riga and the Master, speaking accordingly. But the master did not need this, and master Furstenberg arrested him, realizing that he was a nit, a spy and a provocateur. After that, the Prussians, just the former Teutons, Lithuanians and Poles simply took and unobtrusively gathered about 15,000 troops there and put them on the border with Livonia, after which Furstenberg realized that either the water was drained here, or it was necessary to somehow agree, because could not resist them at all, they would simply crush him. And it is not excluded that he was hanged for the arrest of a relative of the king. And they conclude a very important agreement in the town of Pozvol, where the Livonians are led to the obligation of armed neutrality against Russia. Tellingly, our intelligence service, apparently, completely missed this Pozlo agreement, we simply did not know about it. Because Ivan the Terrible did not react at all for at least a year. And in Lithuanian, for example, letters, internal correspondence, there are subtle mocking hints that Vanya does not catch mice at all. We have already settled everything with Livonia, but he is still waiting for some kind of tribute. But, of course, it is impossible to hide such an awl in a bag of hay, because as soon as the Livonian ambassadors came again to negotiate with Ivan IV at the end of the three-year truce, it suddenly became clear that they were not going to pay tribute to him, but asked to think a little more, maybe there let's agree. After that, we do not know for sure whether Ivan the Terrible found out about the Pozvolsky treaty, but in fact he realized that he had an agreement with someone else behind his back. And this was the last point, because he didn’t care at all about these petty squabbles of the Novgorodians, even the fact that they didn’t let specialists and strategic goods to us there - in the end, it was always possible to get around these problems, 200 years ago - they bypassed it, or negotiate with the Swedes, get lucky through Sweden, not so convenient, but also possible. By the way, you could buy iron from the Swedes, which is what we did. But then it became clear that Livonia was living its last days on its own, and now it would all fall under the feet of Lithuania, and this could not be allowed in any case. And here Ivan the Terrible takes a step such that the Livonians must understand that the jokes are over altogether, in 1557 a large army is formed on the border with Livonia, which consisted of Novgorod and Pskov horsemen and Kazan Tatars, who were promised that it would be possible to rob. And this autumn-winter of 1557 was the last peaceful day in general in Livonia, because since 1559 cannons rattled there and swords rang almost continuously. Because the year 1583, our very peace with Sweden, it meant absolutely nothing. Returning to the beginning of the conversation - the Livonian War is not the Livonian War, but the Livonian Wars. Because the Danes fought with the Swedes and vice versa, Sweden with the Russians, Poland, Lithuania with Russia, Russia with Livonia, Poland and Lithuania. This is a series of very tense conflicts, this is the war for the Livonian inheritance, that's how we would say it correctly. Well, while everyone froze at the start, next time we will analyze what happened. Fierce, damn it. Somehow I don’t even know, every time it’s a dive ... I repeat that it seems all the time that now everyone is cunning, smart, intelligent, such intricacies ... They know everything. And here is nothing less tricky. And most importantly, for me, as a commoner, history is a set of some kind of anecdotes - someone sent someone to hell, took the woman away, and then the war. It turns out that the matter is not in the woman and not in the message, but in completely different things. Messed up, damn it. It's a pity there are no pictures of where someone lives, who went where, who why. This is when we will talk about military operations. By the way, maybe I’ll even prepare some maps for this, for this conversation, at least so that people understand that Crimea is here, Moscow is here. And the state of Ukraine to be designated ancient. Ancient, yes. There, however, there will be a flagpole of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania stuck up to the very tonsils in this state of Ukraine. That's it. Thank you, Klim Sanych. We look forward to continuing. We try. And that's all for today. See you again.

The Livonian War of 1558-1583 became one of the most important campaigns of the times of Yes and of the entire 16th century, perhaps.

Livonian War: briefly about the prerequisites

After the great Moscow Tsar managed to conquer Kazan and

Astrakhan Khanate, Ivan IV turned his attention to the Baltic lands and access to the Baltic Sea. The capture of these territories for the Muscovite kingdom would mean promising opportunities for trade in the Baltic. At the same time, it was extremely unprofitable for the German merchants and the Livonian Order, who had already settled there, to allow new competitors into the region. The resolution of these contradictions was to be the Livonian War. We should also briefly mention the formal reason for it. They were served by the non-payment of the tribute that the Derpt bishopric was obliged to pay in favor of Moscow in accordance with the 1554 agreement. Formally, such a tribute has existed since the beginning of the 16th century. However, in practice, no one remembered about it for a long time. Only with the aggravation of relations between the parties did he use this fact as a justification for the Russian invasion of the Baltic.

Livonian war: briefly about the ups and downs of the conflict

Russian troops launched an invasion of Livonia in 1558. The first stage of the clash, which lasted until 1561, ended

crushing defeat of the Livonian Order. The armies of the Muscovite tsar marched through eastern and central Livonia with pogroms. Dorpat and Riga were taken. In 1559, the parties concluded a truce for six months, which was to develop into a peace treaty on the terms of the Livonian Order from Russia. But the kings of Poland and Sweden hurried to help the German knights. King Sigismund II, by a diplomatic maneuver, managed to take the order under his own protectorate. And in November 1561, under the terms of the Vilna Treaty, the Livonian Order ceases to exist. Its territories are divided between Lithuania and Poland. Now Ivan the Terrible had to confront three powerful rivals at once: the Principality of Lithuania, the Kingdoms of Poland and Sweden. With the latter, however, the Muscovite tsar managed to quickly make peace for a while. In 1562-63, the second large-scale campaign to the Baltic begins. The events of the Livonian War at this stage continued to develop successfully. However, already in the mid-1560s, relations between Ivan the Terrible and the boyars of the Chosen Rada escalated to the limit. The situation worsens even more due to the flight of one of the closest princely associates of Andrei Kurbsky to Lithuania and his defection to the side of the enemy (the reason that prompted the boyar was the growing despotism in the Moscow principality and the infringement of the ancient liberties of the boyars). After this event, Ivan the Terrible finally hardens, seeing around him solid traitors. In parallel with this, defeats at the front also occur, which were explained by the prince's internal enemies. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland united into a single state, which

strengthens their power. In the late 1560s - early 70s, Russian troops suffered a series of defeats and even lost several fortresses. Since 1579, the war has been taking on a more defensive character. However, in 1579 Polotsk was captured by the enemy, in 1580 - Veliky Luk, in 1582 the long siege of Pskov continued. The necessity of signing peace and respite for the state after decades of military campaigns becomes obvious.

Livonian war: briefly about the consequences

The war ended with the signing of the Plyussky and Yam-Zapolsky truces, which were extremely disadvantageous for Moscow. The exit was never received. Instead, the prince received an exhausted and devastated country, which found itself in an extremely difficult situation. The consequences of the Livonian War accelerated the internal crisis that led to the Great Troubles at the beginning of the 16th century.

The article tells briefly about the Livonian War (1558-1583), which was waged by Ivan the Terrible for the right to enter the Baltic Sea. The war for Russia was initially successful, but after the entry of Sweden, Denmark and the Commonwealth into it, it took on a protracted character and ended in territorial losses.

1. Causes of the Livonian War
2. The course of the Livonian War
3. Results of the Livonian War

Causes of the Livonian War

• Livonia was a state founded by a German order of chivalry in the 13th century. and included part of the territory of the modern Baltic. By the 16th century it was a very weak state formation, in which the power was divided between knights and bishops. Livonia was an easy prey for an aggressive state. Ivan the Terrible set himself the task of capturing Livonia in order to ensure access to the Baltic Sea and in order to prevent its conquest by someone else. In addition, Livonia, being between Europe and Russia, in every possible way prevented the establishment of contacts between them, in particular, the entry of European masters into Russia was practically prohibited. This caused discontent in Moscow.
• The territory of Livonia before the capture by the German knights belonged to the Russian princes. This pushed Ivan the Terrible to the war for the return of ancestral lands.
• According to the existing treaty, Livonia was obliged to pay Russia an annual tribute for the possession of the ancient Russian city of Yuryev (renamed Derpt) and neighboring territories. However, this condition was not observed, which was the main reason for the war.

The course of the Livonian War

• In response to the refusal to pay tribute, Ivan the Terrible in 1558 starts a war with Livonia. A weak state, torn by contradictions, cannot resist the huge army of Ivan the Terrible. The Russian army victoriously passes through the entire territory of Livonia, leaving only large fortresses and cities in the hands of the enemy. As a result, by 1560 Livonia, as a state, ceases to exist. However, its lands were divided between Sweden, Denmark and Poland, which declared that Russia should renounce all territorial acquisitions.
• The emergence of new opponents did not immediately affect the nature of the war. Sweden was at war with Denmark. Ivan the Terrible concentrated all efforts against Poland. Successful military operations lead in 1563 to the capture of Polotsk. Poland begins to ask for a truce, and Ivan the Terrible convenes the Zemsky Sobor and addresses him with such a proposal. However, the cathedral responds with a sharp refusal, stating that the capture of Livonia is necessary economically. The war continues, it becomes clear that it will be protracted.
• The situation changes for the worse after the introduction of the oprichnina by Ivan the Terrible. The state, already weakened in the course of a tense war, receives a "royal gift." The punitive and repressive measures of the king lead to a decline in the economy, the execution of many prominent military leaders significantly weakens the army. At the same time, the Crimean Khanate activates its actions, starting to threaten Russia. In 1571, Khan Devlet Giray burned down Moscow.
• In 1569, Poland and Lithuania are united into a new strong state - the Commonwealth. In 1575, Stefan Batory became its king, who later showed the qualities of a talented commander. This was a turning point in the Livonian War. The Russian army held the territory of Livonia for some time, laid siege to Riga and Revel, but soon the Commonwealth and Sweden began active hostilities against the Russian army. Batory inflicts a series of defeats on Ivan the Terrible, recaptures Polotsk. In 1581, he besieges Pskov, the courageous defense of which lasts five months. The removal of the siege by Batory becomes the last victory of the Russian army. Sweden at this time captures the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which belongs to Russia.
• In 1582, Ivan the Terrible concludes a truce with Stefan Batory, according to which he renounces all his territorial acquisitions. In 1583, an agreement was signed with Sweden, as a result of which the captured lands on the coast of the Gulf of Finland were assigned to it.

Results of the Livonian War

• The war started by Ivan the Terrible promised to be successful. At first, Russia made significant progress. However, due to a number of internal and external reasons, a turning point occurs in the war. Russia is losing its occupied territories and, in the end, access to the Baltic Sea, remaining cut off from European markets.

Formal reasons were found to start the war (see below), but the true reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct ties with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian an order, the progressive disintegration of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting the strengthening of Russia, prevented its external contacts. For example, the authorities of Livonia did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe, invited by Ivan IV, to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The presence of such a hostile barrier did not suit Moscow, which was striving to break out of continental isolation. However, Russia owned a small segment of the Baltic coast, from the Neva basin to Ivangorod. But it was strategically vulnerable, and there were no ports or developed infrastructure. So Ivan the Terrible hoped to use the transport system of Livonia. He considered it an ancient Russian fiefdom, illegally seized by the crusaders.

The forceful solution of the problem predetermined the defiant behavior of the Livonians themselves, who, even according to their own historians, acted imprudently. The reason for the aggravation of relations was the mass pogroms of Orthodox churches in Livonia. Outraged, Grozny sent a message to the authorities of the Order, in which he stated that he would not tolerate such actions. A whip was attached to the letter, as a symbol of imminent punishment. By that time, the truce between Moscow and Livonia had expired (concluded in 1504 as a result of the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503). To extend it, the Russian side demanded the payment of the Yuryev tribute, which the Livonians pledged to pay back to Ivan III, but for 50 years they never collected it. Recognizing the need to pay it, they again failed to fulfill their obligations. Then in 1558 Russian troops entered Livonia. Thus began the Livonian War. It lasted a quarter of a century, becoming the longest and one of the most difficult in the history of Russia.

Livonian War (1558-1583)

The Livonian War can be roughly divided into four stages. The first one (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) included primarily the Russo-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russo-Swedish war continued.

In the middle of the XVI century. Livonia was not a significant military force capable of seriously resisting the Russian state. Its main military asset remained powerful stone fortresses. But formidable for arrows and stones, knightly castles were by that time no longer very capable of protecting their inhabitants from the power of heavy siege weapons. Therefore, military operations in Livonia were reduced mainly to the fight against fortresses, in which the Russian artillery, which had already shown itself in the Kazan case, distinguished itself. The first fortress to fall from the onslaught of the Russians was Narva.

Capture of Narva (1558). In April 1558, Russian troops led by governors Adashev, Basmanov and Buturlin laid siege to Narva. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the knight Focht Schnellenberg. The decisive assault on Narva took place on 11 May. On this day, a fire broke out in the city, which was accompanied by a storm. According to legend, it arose due to the fact that drunken Livonians threw an Orthodox icon of the Virgin into the fire. Taking advantage of the fact that the guards left the fortifications, the Russians rushed to the assault. They broke through the gates and took possession of the lower city. Having seized the guns located there, the attackers opened fire on the upper castle, preparing the stairs for the attack. But it did not follow, because by the evening the defenders of the castle surrendered, pronouncing the condition of a free exit from the city.
It was the first major fortress taken by the Russians in the Livonian War. Narva was a convenient sea harbor through which direct relations between Russia and Western Europe began. At the same time, the creation of our own fleet was going on. A shipyard is being built in Narva. The first Russian ships were built on it by craftsmen from Kholmogory and Vologda, whom the tsar sent abroad "to supervise how guns are poured and ships are built in the west." A flotilla of 17 ships was based in Narva under the command of the Dane Karsten Rode, who was taken into Russian service.

Capture of Neuhaus (1558). The defense of the Neuhaus fortress, which was defended by several hundred soldiers led by the knight Fon-Padenorm, was distinguished by particular persistence in the campaign of 1558. Despite their small numbers, they staunchly resisted for almost a month, repelling the onslaught of the troops of the voivode Peter Shuisky. After the destruction of the fortress walls and towers by Russian artillery, on June 30, 1558, the Germans withdrew to the upper castle. Von Padenorm wanted to defend himself here to the last extremity, but his surviving associates refused to continue the senseless resistance. As a sign of respect for the courage of the besieged, Shuisky allowed them to leave with honor.

Capture of Dorpat (1558). In July, Shuisky laid siege to Derpt (until 1224 - Yuryev, now the Estonian city of Tartu). The city was defended by a garrison under the command of Bishop Weiland (2 thousand people). And here, first of all, the Russian artillery distinguished itself. On July 11, she began shelling the city. Some towers and loopholes were destroyed by the cannonballs. During the shelling, the Russians brought part of the guns almost to the very fortress wall, opposite the German and St. Andrew's Gates, and opened fire at close range. The shelling of the city lasted 7 days. When the main fortifications were destroyed, the besieged, having lost hope of outside help, entered into negotiations with the Russians. Shuisky promised not to destroy the city and to preserve its former administration for its inhabitants. July 18, 1558 Dorpat capitulated. Order in the city was indeed maintained, and its violators were subjected to severe punishments.

Defense of Ringen (1558). After the capture of a number of cities in Livonia, the Russian troops, leaving garrisons there, left in the autumn for winter quarters within their borders. This was taken advantage of by the new Livonian master Ketler, who gathered a 10,000-strong army and tried to return what was lost. At the end of 1558, he approached the fortress of Ringen, which was defended by a garrison of several hundred archers, led by the governor Rusin-Ignatiev. The Russians bravely held out for five weeks, repulsing two attacks. The detachment of governor Repnin (2 thousand people) tried to help the besieged, but he was defeated by Ketler. This failure did not dampen the spirit of the besieged, who continued to resist. The Germans were able to take the fortress by storm only after its defenders ran out of gunpowder. All the defenders of Ringen were destroyed. Having lost a fifth of his army near Ringen (2 thousand people) and spending more than a month on the siege, Ketler was unable to build on his success. At the end of October, his army retreated to Riga. This small victory turned into a major disaster for the Livonians. In response to their actions, the army of Tsar Ivan the Terrible entered Livonia two months later.

Battle of Tiersen (1559). In the area of ​​this city in Livonia on January 17, 1559, a battle took place between the army of the Livonian Order under the command of the knight Felkenzam and the Russian army, led by the governor Serebryany. The Germans were completely defeated. Felkenzam and 400 knights died in battle, the rest were captured or fled. After this victory, the Russian army freely made a winter raid on the lands of the Order to Riga itself and returned to Russia in February.

Truce (1559). In the spring hostilities did not resume. In May, Russia concluded a truce with the Livonian Order until November 1559. This was largely due to the presence of serious disagreements in the Moscow government over foreign strategy. Thus, the closest advisers to the tsar, headed by the devious Alexei Adashev, were against the war in the Baltic states and advocated the continuation of the struggle in the south, against the Crimean Khanate. This grouping reflected the mood of those circles of the nobility who wished, on the one hand, to eliminate the threat of attacks from the steppes, and on the other, to receive a large additional land fund in the steppe zone.

The armistice of 1559 allowed the Order to gain time and carry out active diplomatic work in order to involve its closest neighbors - Poland and Sweden - in the conflict against Moscow. With his invasion of Livonia, Ivan IV affected the trade interests of the main states that had access to the Baltic region (Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Denmark). At that time, trade on the Baltic Sea was growing from year to year, and the question of who would control it was very relevant. But not only the problems of their own commercial gain were of interest to Russia's neighbors. They were worried about the strengthening of Russia by getting Livonia. Here is what, for example, the Polish king Sigismund-August wrote to the English Queen Elizabeth about the role of Livonia for the Russians: “The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring items that are brought to Narva; for not only goods, but also weapons are brought here, until now unknown to him... the artists (specialists) themselves come, through whom he acquires the means to defeat everyone... Until now, we could defeat him only because he was a stranger to education. But if Narva navigation continues, then what will happen to him unknown?" Thus, the struggle of the Russians for Livonia received a wide international response. The clash in the small Baltic patch of interests of so many states predetermined the severity of the Livonian War, in which military operations were closely intertwined with complex and intricate foreign policy situations.

Defense of Dorpat and Lais (1559). The master of the Livonian Order, Ketler, actively used the respite given to him. Having received help from Germany and made an alliance with the Polish king, the master broke the truce and went on the offensive in early autumn. He managed to defeat the detachment of governor Pleshcheev near Dorpat with an unexpected attack. In this battle, 1 thousand Russians fell. Nevertheless, the head of the Derpt garrison, governor Katyrev-Rostovsky, managed to take measures to defend the city. When Ketler laid siege to Derpt, the Russians met his army with gunfire and a brave sortie. For 10 days, the Livonians tried to destroy the walls with cannon fire, but to no avail. Not daring for a long winter siege or attack, Ketler was forced to retreat.
On the way back, Ketler decided to capture the fortress of Lais, where there was a small Russian garrison under the command of the head of the archery Koshkarov (400 people). In November 1559, the Livonians set up tours, broke the wall, but could not break into the fortress, stopped by the fierce resistance of the archers. The brave garrison of Lais steadfastly fought off the attacks of the Livonian army for two days. Ketler never managed to overcome the defenders of Lais, and he was forced to retreat to Wenden. The unsuccessful siege of Dorpat and Lais meant the failure of the autumn offensive of the Livonians. On the other hand, their treacherous attack forced Ivan the Terrible to resume hostilities against the Order.

Battles of Wittenstein and Ermes (1560). The decisive battles between Russian and Livonian troops took place in the summer of 1560 near Wittenstein and Ermes. In the first of them, the army of Prince Kurbsky (5 thousand people) defeated the German detachment of the former Master of the Order of Firstenberg. Under Ermes, the cavalry of the governor Barbashin (12 thousand people) completely destroyed a detachment of German knights led by Land Marshal Bel (about 1 thousand people), who tried to suddenly attack the Russian horsemen resting on the edge of the forest. 120 knights and 11 commanders surrendered, including their leader Bel. The victory at Ermes opened the way for the Russians to Fellin.

The Capture of Fellin (1560). In August 1560, a 60,000-strong army led by governors Mstislavsky and Shuisky laid siege to Fellin (known since 1211, now the city of Viljandi in Estonia). This most powerful fortress in the eastern part of Livonia was defended by a garrison under the command of the former Master Firstenberg. The success of the Russians near Fellin was ensured by the effective actions of their artillery, which for three weeks fired continuously at the fortifications. During the siege, the Livonian troops tried to help the besieged garrison from outside, but were defeated. After artillery fire destroyed part of the outer wall and set fire to the city, Fellin's defenders entered into negotiations. But Firstenberg did not want to give up and tried to force them to defend themselves in an impregnable castle inside the fortress. The garrison, not receiving a salary for several months, refused to comply with the order. On August 21, the fellines capitulated.

Having handed over the city to the Russians, its ordinary defenders received a free exit. Important prisoners (including Firstenberg) were sent to Moscow. The released soldiers of the Fellin garrison reached Riga, where they were hanged by Master Ketler for treason. The fall of Fellin actually decided the fate of the Livonian Order. Desperate to defend himself against the Russians on his own, Ketler in 1561 transferred his lands to the Polish-Lithuanian possession. The northern regions with the center in Reval (before 1219 - Kolyvan, now - Tallinn) recognized themselves as subjects of Sweden. According to the Treaty of Vilna (November 1561), the Livonian Order ceased to exist, its territory was transferred to the joint possession of Lithuania and Poland, the last master of the order received the Duchy of Courland. Denmark, which occupied the islands of Khiuma and Saaremaa, also declared its claims to part of the order's lands. As a result, the Russians in Livonia faced a coalition of states that did not want to give up their new possessions. Having not yet managed to capture a significant part of Livonia, including its main ports (Riga and Revel), Ivan IV found himself in an unfavorable situation. But he continued the fight, hoping to separate his opponents.

Second stage (1562-1569)

The most implacable opponent of Ivan IV was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. She was not satisfied with the capture of Livonia by the Russians, since in this case they received control over the export of grain (through Riga) from the Principality of Lithuania to European countries. Lithuania and Poland feared even more the military strengthening of Russia by receiving strategic goods from Europe through Livonian ports. The intransigence of the parties on the issue of the division of Livonia was also facilitated by their long-standing territorial claims to each other. The Polish-Lithuanian side also tried to seize northern Estonia in order to control all the Baltic trade routes leading to Russia. With such a policy, a clash was inevitable. By claiming Revel, Lithuania spoiled relations with Sweden. This was taken advantage of by Ivan IV, who concluded peace agreements with Sweden and Denmark. Having thus ensured the safety of the port of Narva, the Russian tsar decided to defeat his main competitor, the Principality of Lithuania.

In 1561-1562. hostilities between Lithuanians and Russians took place in Livonia. In 1561, Hetman Radziwill recaptured the Travast fortress from the Russians. But after the defeat near Pernau (Pernava, Pernov, now Pärnu), he was forced to leave it. The next year passed in petty skirmishes and fruitless negotiations. In 1563 Grozny himself took over the task and led the army. The goal of his campaign was Polotsk. The theater of operations moved to the territory of the Lithuanian principality. The conflict with Lithuania significantly expanded the scope and goals of the war for Russia. The long-standing struggle for the return of ancient Russian lands was added to the battle for Livonia.

Capture of Polotsk (1563). In January 1563, the army of Ivan the Terrible (up to 130 thousand people) set out for Polotsk. The choice of the purpose of the campaign was not accidental for a number of reasons. Firstly, Polotsk was a rich trading center, the capture of which promised great booty. Secondly, it was the most important strategic point on the Western Dvina, which had a direct connection with Riga. He also opened the road to Vilna and defended Livonia from the south. The political aspect was no less important. Polotsk was one of the princely centers of Ancient Russia, the lands of which were claimed by the Moscow sovereigns. There were also religious considerations. Large Jewish and Protestant communities settled in Polotsk, which was located near the Russian borders. The spread of their influence within Russia seemed highly undesirable for the Russian clergy.

The siege of Polotsk began on January 31, 1563. The decisive role in its capture was played by the power of Russian artillery. The volleys of two hundred of its guns were so strong that the cannonballs, flying over the fortress wall on one side, hit from the inside on the opposite side. Cannon shots destroyed a fifth of the fortress walls. According to eyewitnesses, there was such a cannon thunder that it seemed as if "the sky and the whole earth fell on the city." Having taken the settlement, the Russian troops laid siege to the castle. After the destruction of part of its walls by artillery fire, the defenders of the fortress surrendered on February 15, 1563. The wealth of the Polotsk treasury and the arsenal were sent to Moscow, and the centers of other faiths were destroyed.
The capture of Polotsk was the biggest political and strategic success of Tsar Ivan the Terrible. "If Ivan IV had died ... at the moment of his greatest successes on the Western Front, his preparations for the final conquest of Livonia, historical memory would have given him the name of the great conqueror, the creator of the world's largest power, like Alexander the Great," wrote historian R. Whipper. However, after Polotsk, a series of military failures followed.

Battle of the Ulla River (1564). After unsuccessful negotiations with the Lithuanians, the Russians launched a new offensive in January 1564. The army of governor Peter Shuisky (20 thousand people) moved from Polotsk to Orsha to join up with the army of Prince Serebryany, which was coming from Vyazma. Shuisky did not take any precautions during the campaign. No reconnaissance was conducted, people walked in discordant crowds without weapons and armor, which were carried on sledges. Nobody thought about the attack of the Lithuanians. Meanwhile, the Lithuanian governors Trotsky and Radziwill received accurate information about the Russian army through scouts. The governors lay in wait for him in a wooded area near the Ulla River (not far from Chashnikov) and unexpectedly attacked on January 26, 1564 with relatively small forces (4 thousand people). Not having time to take battle order and properly arm themselves, Shuisky's soldiers succumbed to panic and began to flee, leaving their entire convoy (5 thousand carts). Shuisky paid for his carelessness with his own life. The famous conqueror of Dorpat died in the beating that began. Upon learning of the defeat of Shuisky's troops, Serebryany retreated from Orsha to Smolensk. Shortly after the defeat at Ulla (in April 1564), a major Russian military leader, a close friend of Ivan the Terrible's youth, Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky, fled from Yuryev to the side of Lithuania.

Battle of the Lakes (1564). The next failure of the Russians was the battle near the town of Ozerishche (now Ezerishche), 60 km north of Vitebsk. Here, on July 22, 1564, the Lithuanian army of voivode Pac (12 thousand people) defeated the army of voivode Tokmakov (13 thousand people).
In the summer of 1564, the Russians set out from Nevel and laid siege to the Lithuanian fortress Ozerishche. An army under the command of Pac moved from Vitebsk to help the besieged. Tokmakov, hoping to easily deal with the Lithuanians, met them with only one of his cavalry. The Russians crushed the advanced Lithuanian squad, but could not withstand the blow of the main army approaching the battlefield and retreated in disorder, losing (according to Lithuanian data) 5 thousand people. After the defeat at Ulla and near Ozerishchi, Moscow's onslaught on Lithuania was suspended for almost a hundred years.

Military failures contributed to the transition of Ivan the Terrible to a policy of repression against part of the feudal nobility, some of whose representatives at that time embarked on the path of conspiracies and outright treason. Peace talks with Lithuania also resumed. She agreed to cede part of the land (including Derpt and Polotsk). But Russia did not get access to the sea, which was the goal of the war. To discuss such an important issue, Ivan IV did not limit himself to the opinion of the boyars, but convened the Zemsky Sobor (1566). He firmly spoke in favor of continuing the campaign. In 1568, the Lithuanian army of Hetman Khodkevich launched an offensive, but its onslaught was stopped by the staunch resistance of the garrison of the Ulla fortress (on the Ulla River).

Unable to cope with Moscow alone, Lithuania concluded the Union of Lublin with Poland (1569). According to it, both countries were united into a single state - the Commonwealth. This was one of the most important and very negative results of the Livonian War for Russia, which had an impact on the future fate of Eastern Europe. With the formal equality of both sides, the leading role in this association belonged to Poland. Having left behind Lithuania, Warsaw is now becoming Moscow's main rival in the west, and the final (4th) stage of the Livonian War can be considered the first Russian-Polish war.

Third stage (1570-1576)

Combining the potentials of Lithuania and Poland sharply reduced Grozny's chances of success in this war. At that time, the situation on the southern borders of the country became seriously aggravated. In 1569, the Turkish army made a campaign against Astrakhan, trying to cut off Russia from the Caspian Sea and open the gates for expansion in the Volga region. Although the campaign ended in failure due to poor preparation, the Crimean-Turkish military activity in the region did not decrease (see Russo-Crimean wars). Relations with Sweden also worsened. In 1568, King Eric XIV was overthrown there, and he developed friendly relations with Ivan the Terrible. The new Swedish government went to the aggravation of relations with Russia. Sweden established a naval blockade of the port of Narva, which made it difficult for Russia to purchase strategic goods. Having completed the war with Denmark in 1570, the Swedes began to strengthen their positions in Livonia.

The deterioration of the foreign policy situation coincided with the growth of tension within Russia. At that time, Ivan IV received news of a conspiracy of the Novgorod leaders, who were going to surrender Novgorod and Pskov to Lithuania. Worried about the news of separatism in a region located close to hostilities, the tsar set out in early 1570 on a campaign against Novgorod and carried out a brutal massacre there. People loyal to the authorities were sent to Pskov and Novgorod. A wide range of people were involved in the inquiry in the "Novgorod case": representatives of the boyars, the clergy, and even prominent guardsmen. In the summer of 1570, executions took place in Moscow.

In the context of the aggravation of the external and internal situation, Ivan IV undertakes a new diplomatic move. He agrees to a truce with the Commonwealth and begins a fight with the Swedes, trying to force them out of Livonia. The ease with which Warsaw agreed to a temporary reconciliation with Moscow was explained by the internal political situation in Poland. The elderly and childless King Sigismund-August lived out his last days there. Expecting his imminent death and the election of a new king, the Poles tried not to aggravate relations with Russia. Moreover, Ivan the Terrible himself was considered in Warsaw one of the likely candidates for the Polish throne.

Having concluded a truce with Lithuania and Poland, the king opposes Sweden. In an effort to enlist the neutrality of Denmark and the support of part of the Livonian nobility, Ivan decides to create a vassal kingdom on the lands of Livonia occupied by Moscow. The brother of the Danish king, Prince Magnus, becomes its ruler. Having created the kingdom of Livonia, dependent on Moscow, Ivan the Terrible and Magnus begin a new stage in the struggle for Livonia. This time the theater of operations is moving to the Swedish part of Estonia.

First siege of Reval (1570-1571). The main goal of Ivan IV in this area was the largest Baltic port of Revel (Tallinn). On August 23, 1570, Russian-German troops led by Magnus (over 25 thousand people) approached the Reval fortress. The call to surrender was refused by the townspeople who accepted Swedish citizenship. The siege began. The Russians built wooden towers opposite the fortress gates, from which they fired at the city. However, this time he was not successful. The besieged not only defended themselves, but also made bold sorties, destroying the siege structures. The number of besiegers was clearly insufficient to take such a large city with powerful fortifications.
However, the Russian governors (Yakovlev, Lykov, Kropotkin) decided not to lift the siege. They hoped to succeed in the winter, when the sea would be frozen over and the Swedish fleet would be unable to supply reinforcements to the city. Not taking active actions against the fortress, the allied troops were engaged in the devastation of the surrounding villages, restoring the local population against them. Meanwhile, the Swedish fleet managed to deliver a lot of food and weapons to the Revalians before the cold weather, and they endured the siege without much need. On the other hand, murmuring increased among the besiegers, who did not want to endure the difficult conditions of winter standing. After standing at Revel for 30 weeks, the allies were forced to retreat.

Capture of Wittenstein (1572). After that, Ivan the Terrible changes tactics. Leaving Revel alone for the time being, he decides to first completely oust the Swedes from Estonia in order to finally cut off this port from the mainland. At the end of 1572, the tsar himself led the campaign. At the head of an 80,000-strong army, he besieges the stronghold of the Swedes in central Estonia - the Wittenstein fortress (the modern city of Paide). After a powerful shelling, the city was taken by a fierce attack, during which the tsar's favorite, the famous guardsman Malyuta Skuratov, died. According to the Livonian chronicles, the tsar, in a rage, ordered the captured Germans and Swedes to be burned. After the capture of Wittenstein, Ivan IV returned to Novgorod.

Battle of Lod (1573). But hostilities continued, and in the spring of 1573, Russian troops under the command of the voivode Mstislavsky (16 thousand people) converged in an open field, near Lode Castle (Western Estonia), with the Swedish detachment of General Klaus Tott (2 thousand people). Despite a significant numerical superiority (according to the Livonian chronicles), the Russians could not successfully resist the martial art of the Swedish warriors and suffered a crushing defeat. The news of the failure at Lod, which coincided with the uprising in the Kazan region, forced Tsar Ivan the Terrible to temporarily stop hostilities in Livonia and enter into peace negotiations with the Swedes.

Fighting in Estonia (1575-1577). In 1575 a partial truce was concluded with the Swedes. It assumed that until 1577 the theater of military operations between Russia and Sweden would be limited to the Baltic states and not spread to other areas (primarily Karelia). Thus, Grozny was able to concentrate all his efforts on the struggle for Estonia. In the campaign of 1575-1576. Russian troops, with the support of Magnus' supporters, managed to capture the whole of Western Estonia. The central event of this campaign was the capture by the Russians at the end of 1575 of the fortress of Pernov (Pärnu), where they lost 7 thousand people during the assault. (according to Livonian data). After the fall of Pernov, the rest of the fortresses surrendered almost without resistance. Thus, by the end of 1576, the Russians actually took over all of Estonia, with the exception of Revel. The population, weary of the long war, rejoiced at peace. It is interesting that after the voluntary surrender of the powerful Gabsal fortress, the locals staged dances that so impressed the Moscow nobles. According to a number of historians, the Russians were amazed at this and said: “What a strange people the Germans are! If we Russians surrendered such a city without need, we would not dare to raise our eyes on an honest person, and our tsar did not know what kind of execution to execute us And you Germans are celebrating your shame."

Second siege of Revel (1577). Having mastered all of Estonia, the Russians in January 1577 again approached Revel. The troops of the governor Mstislavsky and Sheremetev (50 thousand people) approached here. The city was defended by a garrison led by the Swedish general Gorn. This time, the Swedes prepared even more thoroughly for the defense of their main stronghold. Suffice it to say that the besieged had five times as many guns as the besiegers. For six weeks, the Russians bombarded Revel, hoping to set it on fire with red-hot cannonballs. However, the townspeople took successful measures against fires, creating a special team that monitors the flight and fall of shells. For their part, the Reval artillery responded with even more powerful fire, inflicting severe damage on the besiegers. One of the leaders of the Russian army, voivode Sheremetev, who promised the tsar to take Revel or die, also died from a cannonball. The Russians attacked the fortifications three times, but each time unsuccessfully. In response, the Reval garrison made bold and frequent sorties, preventing serious siege work from being carried out.

The active defense of the Revelians, as well as cold and illness, led to significant losses in the Russian army. On March 13, it was forced to lift the siege. Leaving, the Russians burned their camp, and then conveyed to the besieged that they were not saying goodbye for good, promising to return sooner or later. After the siege was lifted, the Revel garrison and local residents raided the Russian garrisons in Estonia, which, however, was soon stopped by the approach of troops under the command of Ivan the Terrible. However, the king moved no longer to Reval, but to the Polish possessions in Livonia. There were reasons for that.

Fourth stage (1577-1583)

In 1572, the childless Polish king Sigismund-August died in Warsaw. With his death, the Jagiellonian dynasty ended in Poland. The election of a new king dragged on for four years. Anarchy and political anarchy in the Commonwealth temporarily made it easier for the Russians to fight for the Baltic states. During this period, Moscow diplomacy was actively working to bring the Russian tsar to the Polish throne. The candidacy of Ivan the Terrible enjoyed a certain popularity among the petty gentry, who were interested in him as a ruler capable of putting an end to the dominance of the big aristocracy. In addition, the Lithuanian nobility hoped to weaken the Polish influence with the help of Ivan the Terrible. Many in Lithuania and Poland were impressed by rapprochement with Russia for joint defense against the expansion of Crimea and Turkey.

At the same time, Warsaw saw in the choice of Ivan the Terrible a convenient opportunity for the peaceful subjugation of the Russian state and the opening of its borders for Polish noble colonization. So, for example, it has already happened with the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under the terms of the Union of Lublin. In turn, Ivan IV sought the Polish throne, primarily for the peaceful annexation of Kyiv and Livonia to Russia, with which Warsaw categorically disagreed. The difficulties of combining such polar interests ultimately led to the failure of the Russian candidacy. In 1576, the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory was elected to the Polish throne. This choice destroyed the hopes of Moscow diplomacy for a peaceful solution to the Livonian dispute. In parallel, the government of Ivan IV negotiated with the Austrian emperor Maximilian II, trying to get his support in terminating the Union of Lublin and separating Lithuania from Poland. But Maximilian refused to recognize Russia's rights to the Baltic states, and the negotiations ended in vain.

However, Batory did not meet with unanimous support in the country. Some regions, primarily Danzig, refused to recognize it unconditionally. Taking advantage of the turmoil that broke out on this soil, Ivan IV tried to annex southern Livonia before it was too late. In the summer of 1577, the troops of the Russian tsar and his ally Magnus, violating the truce with the Commonwealth, invaded the southeastern regions of Livonia controlled by Poland. The few Polish units of Hetman Khodkevich did not dare to join the battle and retreated beyond the Western Dvina. Encountering no strong resistance, the troops of Ivan the Terrible and Magnus captured the main fortresses in southeastern Livonia by autumn. Thus, all of Livonia north of the Western Dvina (with the exception of the regions of Riga and Revel) was under the control of the Russian tsar. The campaign of 1577 was the last major military success of Ivan the Terrible in the Livonian War.

The tsar's hopes for a long turmoil in Poland did not come true. Batory turned out to be an energetic and decisive ruler. He laid siege to Danzig and obtained an oath from the locals. Having suppressed the internal opposition, he was able to direct all his forces to the fight against Moscow. Having created a well-armed, professional army of mercenaries (Germans, Hungarians, French), he also concluded an alliance with Turkey and the Crimea. This time, Ivan IV was unable to separate his opponents and found himself alone in the face of strong hostile powers, whose borders stretched from the Don steppes to Karelia. In total, these countries surpassed Russia both in terms of population and military power. True, in the south the situation after the formidable 1571-1572. deflated somewhat. In 1577 Khan Devlet Giray, an implacable enemy of Moscow, died. His son was more peaceful. However, the peacefulness of the new Khan was partly due to the fact that his main patron - Turkey - was at that time busy with a bloody war with Iran.
In 1578, the governors of Bathory invaded southeastern Livonia and managed to recapture almost all of their last year's conquests from the Russians. This time, the Poles acted in concert with the Swedes, who almost simultaneously attacked Narva. With this turn of events, King Magnus betrayed Grozny and went over to the side of the Commonwealth. An attempt by Russian troops to organize a counteroffensive near Wenden ended in failure.

Battle of Wenden (1578). In October, Russian troops under the command of governor Ivan Golitsyn, Vasily Tyumensky, Khvorostinin and others (18 thousand people) tried to recapture Venden (now the Latvian city of Cesis) taken by the Poles. But arguing about which of them is more important, they lost time. This allowed the Polish troops of Hetman Sapieha to connect with the Swedish detachment of General Boye and arrive in time to help the besieged. Golitsyn decided to retreat, but on October 21, 1578, the Poles and Swedes decisively attacked his army, which barely had time to line up. The Tatar cavalry was the first to waver. Unable to withstand the fire, she fled. After that, the Russian army retreated to their fortified camp and fired from there until dark. At night, Golitsyn fled to Dorpat with his close associates. Following rushed and the remnants of his army.
The honor of the Russian army was saved by artillerymen under the command of the okolnichi Vasily Fedorovich Vorontsov. They did not abandon their guns and remained on the battlefield, determined to fight to the end. The next day, the surviving heroes, who were joined by the detachments of governor Vasily Sitsky, Danilo Saltykov and Mikhail Tyufikin, who decided to support their comrades, entered the battle with the entire Polish-Swedish army. Having shot the ammunition and not wanting to surrender, the Russian gunners hanged themselves on their guns. According to the Livonian chronicles, the Russians lost 6022 people killed near Wenden.

The defeat at Wenden forced Ivan the Terrible to seek peace with Batory. Resuming peace negotiations with the Poles, the tsar decided in the summer of 1579 to strike at the Swedes and finally take Revel. For the march to Novgorod, troops and heavy siege artillery were drawn up. But Batory did not want peace and was preparing to continue the war. Determining the direction of the main attack, the Polish king rejected proposals to go to Livonia, where there were many fortresses and Russian troops (up to 100 thousand people). Fighting in such conditions could cost his army heavy losses. In addition, he believed that in Livonia, devastated by many years of war, he would not find enough food and booty for his mercenaries. He decided to strike where he was not expected and take possession of Polotsk. By this, the king provided a safe rear for his positions in southeastern Livonia and received an important springboard for a campaign against Russia.

Defense of Polotsk (1579). In early August 1579, Batory's army (30-50 thousand people) appeared under the walls of Polotsk. Simultaneously with his campaign, Swedish troops invaded Karelia. For three weeks, Batory's troops tried to set fire to the fortress with artillery fire. But the defenders of the city, led by the governors Telyatevsky, Volynsky and Shcherbaty, successfully extinguished the fires that arose. This was also favored by the established rainy weather. Then the Polish king, with the promise of high rewards and booty, persuaded his Hungarian mercenaries to storm the fortress. On August 29, 1579, taking advantage of a clear and windy day, the Hungarian infantry rushed to the walls of Polotsk and managed to light them with the help of torches. Then the Hungarians, supported by the Poles, rushed through the flaming walls of the fortress. But its defenders have already managed to dig a moat in this place. When the attackers broke into the fortress, they were stopped at the moat by a volley of cannons. Having suffered heavy losses, Batory's soldiers retreated. But this failure did not stop the mercenaries. Enticed by the legends about the huge wealth stored in the fortress, the Hungarian soldiers, reinforced by the German infantry, again rushed to the attack. But this time the fierce assault was repulsed.
Meanwhile, Ivan the Terrible, interrupting the campaign against Revel, sent part of the search to repel the Swedish onslaught in Karelia. The tsar ordered the detachments under the command of the governor Shein, Lykov and Palitsky to rush to the aid of Polotsk. However, the governors did not dare to engage in battle with the Polish avant-garde sent against them and retreated to the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe Sokol fortress. Having lost faith in the help of their search, the besieged no longer hoped for the protection of their dilapidated fortifications. Part of the garrison, headed by the voivode Volynsky, entered into negotiations with the king, which ended with the surrender of Polotsk on the condition of a free exit for all military people. Other governors, together with Bishop Cyprian, locked themselves in the church of Hagia Sophia and were captured after stubborn resistance. Some of those who voluntarily surrendered went to the service of Batory. But the majority, despite the fear of reprisals from Ivan the Terrible, chose to return home to Russia (the tsar did not touch them and placed them in border garrisons). The capture of Polotsk brought about a turning point in the Livonian War. From now on, the strategic initiative passed to the Polish troops.

Defense of the Falcon (1579). Having taken Polotsk, Batory on September 19, 1579 laid siege to the Sokol fortress. The number of its defenders by that time had significantly decreased, since the detachments of the Don Cossacks, sent along with Shein to Polotsk, arbitrarily left for the Don. During a series of battles, Batory managed to defeat the manpower of the Moscow army and take the city. On September 25, after a heavy shelling by Polish artillery, the fortress was engulfed in fire. Her defenders, unable to stay in the flaming fortress, made a desperate sortie, but were repulsed and after a fierce fight they ran back to the fortress. A detachment of German mercenaries burst in behind them. But the defenders of the Falcon managed to slam the gate behind him. Lowering the iron bars, they cut off the German detachment from the main forces. Inside the fortress, in fire and smoke, a terrible slaughter began. At this time, the Poles and Lithuanians rushed to the aid of their comrades who were in the fortress. The attackers broke the gate and broke into the burning Falcon. In a ruthless battle, his garrison was almost completely exterminated. Only the voivode Sheremetev was captured with a small detachment. The governors Shein, Palitsky and Lykov died in a battle outside the city. According to the testimony of an old mercenary, Colonel Weyer, in none of the battles did he see such a number of corpses lying in such a limited space. They counted up to 4 thousand. The chronicle testifies to the terrible abuse of the dead. So, the German women cut out fat from dead bodies to make some kind of healing ointment. After the capture of Sokol, Bathory made a devastating raid on the Smolensk and Seversk regions, and then returned back, ending the campaign of 1579.

So, this time Ivan the Terrible had to expect strikes on a broad front. This forced him to stretch his forces, which had thinned over the years of the war, from Karelia to Smolensk. In addition, a large Russian group was in Livonia, where Russian nobles received land and started families. A lot of troops stood on the southern borders, waiting for the attack of the Crimeans. In a word, the Russians could not concentrate all their forces to repel the onslaught of Batory. The Polish king also had another serious advantage. We are talking about the quality of combat training of his soldiers. The main role in the army of Batory was played by professional infantry, which had a wealth of experience in European wars. She was trained in modern methods of combat with firearms, possessed the art of maneuver and interaction of all branches of the armed forces. Of great (sometimes decisive) importance was the fact that the army was personally led by King Batory - not only a skilled politician, but also a professional commander.
In the Russian army, the main role continued to be played by the horse and foot militia, which had a low degree of organization and discipline. In addition, the dense masses of cavalry, which formed the basis of the Russian army, were highly vulnerable to infantry and artillery fire. There were relatively few regular, well-trained units (archers, gunners) in the Russian army. Therefore, the total significant number did not at all speak of his strength. On the contrary, large masses of insufficiently disciplined and united people could more easily panic and flee from the battlefield. This was evidenced by the unsuccessful, in general, for the Russian field battles of this war (at Ulla, Ozerishchi, Lod, Wenden, etc.). It is no coincidence that the Moscow governors sought to avoid battles in the open field, especially with Batory.
The combination of these unfavorable factors, along with the growth of internal problems (the impoverishment of the peasantry, the agrarian crisis, financial difficulties, the fight against the opposition, etc.), predetermined Russia's failure in the Livonian War. The last weight thrown on the scales of the titanic confrontation was the military talent of King Batory, who turned the tide of the war and snatched the cherished fruit of his many years of efforts from the tenacious hands of the Russian Tsar.

Defense of Velikie Luki (1580). The following year, Batory continued his attack on Russia in a northeasterly direction. By this, he sought to cut off the communication of the Russians with Livonia. Starting the campaign, the king had hopes for the dissatisfaction of part of society with the repressive policies of Ivan the Terrible. But the Russians did not respond to the king's calls to raise an uprising against their king. At the end of August 1580, Batory's army (50 thousand people) laid siege to Velikie Luki, which covered the path to Novgorod from the south. The city was defended by a garrison headed by the governor Voeikov (6-7 thousand people). 60 km east of Velikiye Luki, in Toropets, there was a large Russian army of governor Khilkov. But he did not dare to go to the aid of Veliky Luki and limited himself to individual sabotage, waiting for reinforcements.
Meanwhile, Bathory launched an attack on the fortress. The besieged responded with bold sorties, during one of which they captured the royal banner. Finally, the besiegers managed to set fire to the fortress with red-hot cannonballs. But even under these conditions, its defenders continued to fight valiantly, turning around to protect themselves from fire with wet skins. On September 5, the fire reached the fortress arsenal, where gunpowder was stored. Their explosion destroyed part of the walls, which made it possible for Batory's soldiers to break into the fortress. The fierce battle continued inside the fortress. In a ruthless massacre, almost all the defenders of Velikiye Luki fell, including the governor Voeikov.

Battle of Toropetsk (1580). Having mastered Velikiye Luki, the king sent a detachment of Prince Zbarazhsky against the voivode Khilkov, who stood inactive at Toropets. On October 1, 1580, the Poles attacked the Russian regiments and won. The defeat of Khilkov deprived the southern regions of the Novgorod lands from protection and allowed the Polish-Lithuanian detachments to continue military operations in this area in the winter. In February 1581 they raided Lake Ilmen. During the raid, the city of Kholm was captured and Staraya Russa was burned. In addition, the fortresses of Nevel, Ozerische and Zavolochye were taken. Thus, the Russians were not only completely ousted from the possessions of the Commonwealth, but also lost significant territories on their western borders. These successes ended the Batory campaign of 1580.

Battle of Nastasino (1580). When Batory took Velikiye Luki, a 9,000-strong Polish-Lithuanian detachment of the local commander Philon, who had already declared himself the governor of Smolensk, set out from Orsha from Orsha. Having passed through the Smolensk regions, he planned to connect with Batory at Velikie Luki. In October 1580, Philon's detachment was met and attacked near the village of Nastasino (7 km from Smolensk) by the Russian regiments of the voivode Buturlin. Under their onslaught, the Polish-Lithuanian army retreated to the wagon train. During the night, Philo abandoned his fortifications and began to withdraw. Acting energetically and persistently, Buturlin organized the persecution. Having overtaken Philon's units 40 versts from Smolensk, on Spassky Lugakh, the Russians again decisively attacked the Polish-Lithuanian army and inflicted a complete defeat on them. 10 guns and 370 prisoners were captured. According to the chronicle, Philo himself "barely walked into the forest." This single major Russian victory in the 1580 campaign protected Smolensk from a Polish-Lithuanian attack.

Defense of Padis (1580). Meanwhile, the Swedes resumed the onslaught in Estonia. In October - December 1580, the Swedish army laid siege to Padis (now the Estonian city of Paldiski). The fortress was defended by a small Russian garrison led by the governor Danila Chikharev. Deciding to defend himself to the last extreme, Chikharev ordered the death of a Swedish truce envoy who had come with an offer to surrender. Lacking food supplies, the defenders of Padis suffered a terrible famine. They ate all the dogs, cats, and at the end of the siege they ate straw and skins. Nevertheless, the Russian garrison staunchly held back the onslaught of the Swedish troops for 13 weeks. Only after the third month of the siege did the Swedes manage to storm the fortress, which was defended by half-dead ghosts. After the fall of Padis, its defenders were exterminated. The capture of Padis by the Swedes put an end to the Russian presence in the western part of Estonia.

Pskov defense (1581). In 1581, having hardly obtained the consent of the Sejm for a new campaign, Batory moved to Pskov. Through this largest city was the main connection between Moscow and the Livonian lands. By taking Pskov, the king planned to finally cut off the Russians from Livonia and end the war victoriously. On August 18, 1581, the army of Bathory (from 50 to 100 thousand people according to various sources) approached Pskov. The fortress was defended by up to 30,000 archers and armed townspeople under the command of governor Vasily and Ivan Shuisky.
The general attack began on 8 September. The attackers managed to break through the fortress wall with gun fire and capture the Svina and Pokrovskaya towers. But the defenders of the city, led by the brave governor Ivan Shuisky, blew up the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles, and then knocked them out from all positions and closed the breach. In the battle near the gap, courageous Pskovite women came to the aid of the men, who brought water and ammunition to their soldiers, and at a critical moment they themselves rushed into hand-to-hand combat. Having lost 5 thousand people, Batory's army retreated. The losses of the besieged amounted to 2.5 thousand people.
Then the king sent a message to the besieged with the words: "Surrender peacefully: you will have honor and mercy, which you do not deserve from the Moscow tyrant, and the people will benefit, unknown in Russia ... In case of insane stubbornness, death to you and the people!". The answer of the Pskovites has been preserved, conveying through the centuries the appearance of the Russians of that era.

"Let your majesty, the proud ruler of Lithuania, King Stephen, know that in Pskov even five years old a Christian child will laugh at your madness... us your holy Christian faith and submit to your mold? And what gain of honor is there in leaving us your sovereign and submitting to an infidel foreigner and becoming like the Jews? .. Or do you think to seduce us with crafty caress or empty flattery or vain wealth? But also the whole world of treasures we do not want for our kiss on the cross, by which we swore allegiance to our sovereign. And why do you, king, scare us with bitter and shameful deaths? If God is for us, then no one is against us! We are all ready to die for our faith and for our sovereign, but we will not surrender the city of Pskov... Get ready for the battle with us, and who will defeat whom, God will show."

A worthy response from the Pskovites finally destroyed Batory's hopes of exploiting Russia's internal difficulties. Having information about the oppositional moods of a part of Russian society, the Polish king did not have real information about the opinion of the overwhelming majority of the people. It did not bode well for the invaders. In the campaigns of 1580-1581. Batory met with stubborn resistance, which he did not count on. Acquainted with the Russians in practice, the king noted that they “did not think about life in defense of cities, cold-bloodedly took the place of the dead ... and blocked the gap with their chests, fighting day and night, eating only bread, dying of hunger, but not surrendering” . The defense of Pskov also revealed the weak side of the mercenary army. Russians died defending their land. Mercenaries fought for money. Having met with a staunch rebuff, they decided to save themselves for other wars. In addition, the maintenance of a mercenary army required huge funds from the Polish treasury, which by that time was already empty.
On November 2, 1581, a new assault took place. He was not distinguished by his former pressure and also failed. During the siege, the Pskovites destroyed tunnels and made 46 bold sorties. Simultaneously with Pskov, the Pskov-Caves Monastery also heroically defended itself, where 200 archers, led by the governor Nechaev, together with the monks, managed to repel the onslaught of a detachment of Hungarian and German mercenaries.

Yam-Zapolsky truce (signed on 15.01.1582 near Zapolsky Yam, south of Pskov). With the onset of cold weather, the mercenary army began to lose discipline and demand an end to the war. The battle for Pskov was the final chord of Batory's campaigns. It is a rare example of a successfully completed defense of the fortress without outside help. Having failed at Pskov, the Polish king was forced to start peace negotiations. Poland did not have the means to continue the war and borrowed money from abroad. After Pskov, Batory could no longer get a loan secured by his success. The Russian tsar also no longer hoped for a favorable outcome of the war and was in a hurry to take advantage of the difficulties of the Poles in order to get out of the fight with the least losses. On January 6 (15), 1582, the Yam-Zapolsky truce was concluded. The Polish king renounced claims to Russian territories, including Novgorod and Smolensk. Russia ceded the Livonian lands and Polotsk to Poland.

Defense of Nut (1582). While Batory was at war with Russia, the Swedes, having reinforced their army with Scottish mercenaries, continued offensive operations. In 1581 they finally ousted the Russian troops from Estonia. The last to fall was Narva, where 7,000 Russians perished. Then the Swedish army under the command of General Pontus Delagaree transferred hostilities to Russian territory, capturing Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. But the attempt of the Swedes to take Oreshek (now Petrokrepost) in September - October 1582 ended in failure. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the governors of Rostov, Sudakov and Khvostov. Delagardie tried to take Nut on the move, but the defenders of the fortress fought off the attack. Despite the setback, the Swedes did not retreat. On October 8, 1582, in a strong storm, they launched a decisive assault on the fortress. They managed to break the fortress wall in one place and break inside. But they were stopped by a bold counterattack by the garrison units. The autumn flood of the Neva and its strong excitement that day did not allow Delagardie to send reinforcements to the units that broke into the fortress in time. As a result, they were killed by the defenders of Nut and thrown into a stormy river.

Plyussky truce (concluded on the Plyussa River in August 1583). At that time, Russian cavalry regiments under the command of governor Shuisky were already hurrying from Novgorod to help the besieged. Having learned about the movement of fresh forces to Nut, Delagardie lifted the siege of the fortress and left the Russian possessions. In 1583, the Russians concluded the Truce of Plus with Sweden. The Swedes had not only Estonian lands, but also captured Russian cities: Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, Korela with districts.

Thus ended the 25-year Livonian War. Its completion did not bring peace to the Baltics, which henceforth for a long time became the object of fierce rivalry between Poland and Sweden. This struggle seriously distracted both powers from affairs in the east. As for Russia, its interest in entering the Baltic has not disappeared. Moscow saved up strength and waited in the wings until Peter the Great completed the work begun by Ivan the Terrible.