The invention of shrapnel. Shrapnel - what is it? Artillery projectile. What is the difference between buckshot and shrapnel. The history of the combat use of shrapnel shells

Shrapnel got its name in honor of its inventor, the English officer Henry Shrapnel, who developed this projectile in 1803. In its original form, shrapnel was an explosive spherical grenade for smooth-bore guns, into the inner cavity of which, along with black powder, lead bullets were poured.

In 1871, the Russian artilleryman V.N. Shklarevich developed a diaphragm shrapnel with a bottom chamber and a central tube for the newly appeared rifled guns (see fig.1 ). She did not yet meet the modern concept of shrapnel, as she had a fixed tube burning time. Only two years after the adoption of the first Russian remote tube of the 1873 model, the shrapnel acquired its finished classic look. This year can be considered the birth year of Russian shrapnel.

The 1873 remote tube had a single swivel remote ring with a slow-burning pyrotechnic composition (see fig.2 ). The maximum burning time of the composition was 7.5 s, which made it possible to fire at a distance of up to 1100 m.

The inertial mechanism for igniting the tube when fired (the combat screw) was stored separately and inserted into the tube immediately before the shot. The bullets were cast from an alloy of lead and antimony. The space between the bullets was filled with sulfur. Characteristics of Russian shrapnel shells for rifled guns mod. 1877 caliber 87 and 107 mm are presented intable 1 .

Table 1
Caliber, mm	87	107
Projectile weight, kg	6,85	12,5
Initial speed, m/s	442	374
Number of bullets	167	345
Mass of one bullet, g	11	11
Total mass of bullets, kg	1,83	3,76
Relative mass of bullets	0,27	0,30
Powder mass expelling charge, g	68	110

Until the First World War, bullet shrapnel made up the bulk of the ammunition of field horse artillery guns armed with 76-mm cannons, and a significant part of the ammunition of guns of larger calibers (see fig.3 ). The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, in which the Japanese for the first time on a massive scale used percussion fragmentation grenades equipped with melinite, shook the position of shrapnel, but in the first period of the World War it still remained the most massive projectile. The high efficiency of its action on openly located accumulations of manpower was confirmed by numerous examples. So, on August 7, 1914, the 6th battery of the 42nd French regiment, opening fire with 75 mm shrapnel at a distance of 5000 m at the marching column of the 21st German dragoon regiment, destroyed the regiment with sixteen shots, incapacitating 700 people.

However, already in the middle period of the war, characterized by the transition to the massive use of artillery and positional combat operations and the deterioration in the qualifications of artillery officers, major shortcomings of shrapnel began to be revealed:

Small lethal effect of low-velocity spherical shrapnel bullets;

The complete impotence of shrapnel with flat trajectories against manpower located in trenches and communications, and with any trajectories - against manpower in dugouts and caponiers;

The low efficiency of firing shrapnel (a large number of high-altitude gaps and the so-called "pecks") by poorly trained officer personnel, who came in large numbers from the reserve;

The high cost and complexity of shrapnel in mass production.

Therefore, during the war, shrapnel began to be quickly replaced by a fragmentation grenade with a percussion fuse, which did not have these shortcomings and, moreover, had a strong psychological effect. At the final stage of the war and in the post-war period, due to the rapid development of military aviation, shrapnel began to be used to combat aircraft. For this purpose, rod shrapnel and shrapnel with capes were developed (in Russia - 76 mm Rosenberg rod shrapnel, containing 48 prismatic rods weighing 45–55 g, stacked in two tiers, and 76 mm Hartz shrapnel, containing 28 capes weighing 85 g each). The capes were pairs of lead-filled steel tubes connected by short cables, designed to break the racks and stretch marks of airplanes. Shrapnels with capes were also used to destroy barbed wire. In a sense, shrapnel with capes can be seen as a prototype of modern rod warheads (see fig. 4 and 5 ).

By the beginning of the Second World War, shrapnel had almost completely lost its significance. The time for shrapnel seemed to be gone forever. However, as is often the case in technology, in the 60s, a return to the old shrapnel structures suddenly began.

The main reason was the widespread dissatisfaction of the military with the low effectiveness of fragmentation grenades with an impact fuse. This low efficiency had the following reasons:

The low density of fragments inherent in circular fields;

The unfavorable orientation of the fragmentation field relative to the earth's surface, in which the bulk of the fragments goes into the air and soil. The use of expensive proximity fuses, which provide an air gap of the projectile over the target, increases the effectiveness of the fragments in the lower hemisphere of expansion, but does not fundamentally change the overall low level of action;

Shallow depth of damage during flat shooting;

Random nature of fragmentation of shell cases, leading, on the one hand, to a non-optimal distribution of fragments by mass, on the other hand, to an unsatisfactory shape of fragments.

In this case, the most negative role is played by the process of destruction of the shell by longitudinal cracks moving along the generators of the hull, leading to the formation of heavy long fragments (the so-called "sabers"). These fragments take up to 80% of the mass of the hull, increasing efficiency by less than 10%. Many years of research on the search for steels that give high-quality fragmentation spectra, carried out in many countries, have not led to cardinal changes in this area. Attempts to use various methods of a given crushing were also unsuccessful due to a sharp increase in the cost of production and a decrease in the strength of the hull.

To this was added the unsatisfactory (not instantaneous) action of impact fuses, which was especially pronounced in the specific conditions of the post-war regional wars (the rice fields of Vietnam flooded with water, the sandy Middle Eastern deserts, the swampy soils of the lower Mesopotamia).

On the other hand, the revival of shrapnel was facilitated by such objective factors as the changing nature of hostilities and the emergence of new targets and types of weapons, including the general trend of moving from shooting at area targets to shooting at specific single targets, saturation of the battlefield with anti-tank weapons, the increased role small-caliber automatic systems, equipping the infantry with personal armor protection, the sharply aggravated problem of combating small air targets, including anti-ship cruise missiles. An important role was also played by the appearance of heavy alloys based on tungsten and uranium, which sharply increased the penetrating effect of ready-made submunitions.

In the 1960s, during the Vietnam campaign, the US Army first used shrapnel with arrow-shaped submunitions (SPE). The mass of steel SPE was 0.7–1.5 g, the number in the projectile was 6000–10000 pieces. The SPE monoblock was a set of arrow-shaped elements laid parallel to the axis of the projectile with a pointed part forward. For denser laying, alternate laying with a pointed part back and forth can also be used. The XLPEs in the block are filled with a binder with reduced adhesion, such as wax. The speed of block ejection by a powder expelling charge is 150–200 m/s. It was noted that an increase in the ejection velocity above these limits due to an increase in the mass of the expelling charge and an increase in the energy characteristics of the powder leads to an increase in the probability of destruction of the glass and to a sharp increase in the deformation of the SPE due to the loss of their longitudinal stability, especially in the lower part of the monoblock, where the pressing load during firing reaches maximum. In order to protect the CPE from deformation when fired, some US shrapnel projectiles use a multi-tiered CPE stacking, in which the load from each tier is perceived by the diaphragm, which, in turn, rests on the ledges of the central tube.

In the 1970s, the first warheads with swept PE for unguided aircraft missiles (NARs) appeared. An American NAR of 70 mm caliber with an M235 warhead (1200 arrow-shaped PEs weighing 0.4 g each with a total initial speed of 1000 m / s) when detonated at a distance of 150 m from the target provides a kill zone with a frontal area of 1000 sq.m. The speed of the elements when they meet the target is 500–700 m/s. NAR with arrow-shaped PE of the French company "Thomson-Brandt" is available in versions designed to hit lightly armored targets (weight of one SPE 190 g, diameter 13 mm, armor penetration 8 mm at a speed of 400 m / s). In the caliber NAR 68 mm, the number of PPEs is 8 and 36, respectively, in the caliber 100 mm - 36 and 192. The expansion of the PPE occurs at a projectile velocity of 700 m/s in an angle of 2.5°.

BEI Defense Systems (USA) is developing high-speed HVR missiles equipped with tungsten alloy swept-back missiles and designed to destroy air and ground targets. In this case, the experience gained in the course of work on the program for creating a separable penetrating element of kinetic energy SPIKE (Separating Penetrator Kinetic Energy) is used. The high-speed missile "Persuader" ("Spurs") was demonstrated, which, depending on the mass of the warhead, has a speed of 1250-1500 m / s and allows you to hit targets at a distance of up to 6000 m. The warhead is performed in various versions: 900 arrow-shaped PE weighing 3.9 g each, 216 swept PEs of 17.5 g each or 20 PEs of 200 g each. The scattering of the rocket does not exceed 5 mrad, the cost is not more than $ 2,500.
It should be noted that anti-personnel shrapnel with arrow-shaped PE, although not included in the list of weapons officially banned by international conventions, is nevertheless negatively assessed by world public opinion as an inhumane type of weapon of mass destruction. This is indirectly evidenced by such facts as the absence of data on these shells in catalogs and reference books, the disappearance of their advertising in military-technical periodicals, etc.

Shrapnels of small calibers have been intensively developed in recent decades due to the growing role of small-caliber automatic guns in all branches of the armed forces. The smallest known caliber of a shrapnel projectile is 20 mm (DM111 projectile from the German company Diehl for automatic guns Rh200, Rh202) (see fig.6 ). The last gun is in service with the BMP "Marder". The projectile has a mass of 118 g, an initial velocity of 1055 m/s, and contains 120 balls that pierce a duralumin sheet 2 mm thick at a distance of 70 m from the point of impact.

The desire to reduce the loss of PE speed in flight led to the development of projectiles with elongated bullet-shaped PE. Bullet-shaped PE are laid parallel to the axis of the projectile and during one revolution of the projectile also make one revolution around their own axis and, therefore, after being ejected from the body, they will be gyroscopically stabilized in flight.

Domestic 30 mm shrapnel (multi-element) projectile designed for aircraft guns Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-30, GSh-301, GSh-30K, developed by the State Research and Production Enterprise "Pribor" (see fig.7 ). The projectile contains 28 bullets weighing 3.5 g, stacked in four tiers of seven bullets each. Bullets are ejected from the body using a small expelling powder charge ignited by a pyrotechnic retarder at a distance of 800-1300 m from the shot. Cartridge weight 837 g, projectile weight 395 g, cartridge case powder charge weight 117 g, cartridge length 283 mm, muzzle velocity 875-900 m/s, probable muzzle velocity deviation 6 m/s. The bullet spread angle is 8°. The obvious drawback of the projectile is the fixed value of the time interval between the shot and the projectile. Successful firing of such projectiles requires highly skilled pilots.

The Swiss company Oerlikon-Kontraves produces a 35-mm shrapnel projectile, AHEAD (Advanced Hit Efficiency and Destruction) for automatic anti-aircraft guns, equipped with a fire control system (FCS), which ensures the detonation of shells at the optimal distance from the target (ground-based towed double-barreled systems "Skygard » GDF-005, Skyshield 35, Skyshield and Millennium 35/100 ship single-barrel launchers). The projectile is equipped with a high-precision electronic remote fuse located in the bottom of the projectile, and the installation includes a rangefinder, a ballistic computer and a muzzle input channel for a temporary installation. There are three solenoid rings on the muzzle of the gun. With the help of the first two rings located along the projectile, the velocity of the projectile in a given shot is measured. The measured value, together with the range to the target measured by the range finder, is entered into the ballistic computer, which calculates the flight time, the value of which is entered into the remote fuse through the ring with a setting step of 0.002 s.

The mass of the projectile is 750 g, the muzzle velocity is 1050 m/s, and the muzzle energy is 413 kJ. The projectile contains 152 cylindrical HPEs made of tungsten alloy weighing 3.3 g (total mass of the GPE 500 g, relative weight of the GPE 0.67). Emission of GGE occurs with the destruction of the projectile body. Relative projectile massFROM q (mass in kg, referred to a cube of caliber in dm) is 17.5 kg / cu.dm, i.e., 10% higher than the corresponding value for conventional high-explosive fragmentation projectiles.

The projectile is designed to destroy aircraft and guided missiles at a distance of up to 5 km.

From a methodological point of view, a multi-element projectile, an AHEAD projectile, NAR warheads, the charge of which (powder or blasting) does not impart additional axial velocity, but essentially performs only the function of separation, it is advisable to separate into a separate class of so-called kinetic beam projectiles (KPS), and the term "shrapnel" should be reserved only for the classic shrapnel projectile, which has a body with a bottom expelling charge, providing a noticeable additional GGE speed. An example of a shell-type CPS design is a projectile with a set of rings of a given crushing, patented by Oerlikon. This set is put on the hollow core of the body and pressed by the head cap. A small explosive charge is placed in the inner cavity of the rod, calculated in such a way that it ensures the destruction of the rings into fragments without imparting to them a noticeable radial velocity. As a result, a narrow beam of fragments of a given fragmentation is formed.

The main disadvantages of powder shrapnel are as follows:

There is no blasting explosive charge and, as a result, it is impossible to hit covered targets;

The heavy steel case (glass) of the shrapnel essentially performs the transport and barrel functions and is not used directly for destruction.

In this regard, in recent years, intensive development of the so-called fragmentation-beam projectiles has begun. They are understood as a projectile equipped with a high-explosive explosive, with a GGE unit located in the front part, creating an axial flow (“beam”). circular fragmentation field.

The first serial fragmentation-beam tracer HETF-T projectiles (35 mm DM42 projectile and 50 mm M-DN191 projectile) were developed by the German company Diehl for the Mauser Rh503 automatic gun, which is part of the Rheinmetall concern » (Rheinmetall). The shells have a double-acting bottom fuse (remote-percussion) located inside the shell body and a head command receiver located in the head plastic cap. The receiver and the fuse are connected by an electrical conductor passing through the explosive charge. Thanks to the bottom initiation of the explosive charge, the throwing of the block occurs due to the incident detonation wave, which increases the throwing speed. Lightweight head cap does not interfere with the passage of the GGE block. (Rice. 8 )

Conical block of 35 mm DM41 projectile containing 325 pcs. spherical HGE with a diameter of 2.5 mm, made of heavy alloy (approximate weight 0.14 g) rests directly on the front end of the explosive charge weighing 65 g. cartridge 1670 g, mass of powder charge in the cartridge 341 g, muzzle velocity 1150 m/s. The expansion of the GGE occurs in the body with an angle of 40°. Entering a command for the type of action and entering a temporary setting is carried out in a non-contact way immediately before loading.

To a certain extent, the critical element of this non-diaphragm design is the direct support of the GGE on the explosive charge. With a block mass of 0.14 x 325 = 45 g and a barrel overload of 50,000, the GGE block, when fired, will put pressure on the explosive charge with a force of 2.25 tons, which in principle can lead to destruction and even ignition of the explosive charge. Attention is drawn to the excessively small mass of the HPE (0.14 g), which is clearly insufficient to hit even light targets. A certain disadvantage of the design is the spherical shape of the HGE, which reduces the stacking density of the block and leads to a decrease in the speed of its throwing due to energy losses for the deformation of the GGE. A comparison of Oerlikon's 35-mm AHEAD projectiles and Diehl's HETF-T projectiles is given intable 2 .

table 2
Characteristic	AHEAD	HETF-T
projectile type	Shrapnel	fragmentation-beam
Fuse	Remote	Remote shock
Entering commands	After departure	When loading
Projectile weight, g	750	610
Number of GGEs	152	325
Mass of one GGE, g	3,3	0,14
Total mass of HPE, g	500	45
Departure angle, deg.	10	40
GGE form	cylinder	sphere
Shard Circle Field	No	eat
Penetrating high-explosive action	No	eat
Cost (estimated calculation), c.u.	5–6	1

Comparative evaluation of projectiles according to the "cost-effectiveness" criterion when firing at air and ground targets does not reveal a tangible superiority of one projectile over another. This may seem strange, given the huge difference in axial flow masses (the AHEAD projectile has an order of magnitude more). The explanation, on the one hand, lies in the very high cost of AHEAD projectiles (2/3 of the projectile consists of an expensive and scarce heavy alloy), on the other hand, in a sharp increase in the ability to adapt the HETF-T beam-fragmentation projectile to the conditions of combat use. For example, when acting on anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCs), both projectiles equally do not provide target destruction of the “instant destruction of a target in the air” type, achieved by penetrating the armor-piercing hull and penetrating the HPE into the explosive charge with excitation of its detonation. At the same time, a direct hit of a Dil HETF-T explosive projectile on the anti-ship missile airframe when the fuse is set to percussion causes much more damage than a direct hit by an inert AHEAD, which can be realized by setting the fuse for the maximum time.

The company "Dil" currently occupies a leading position in the development of fragmentation munitions of directional axial action. Among its most famous patented developments of fragmentation-beam ammunition are a tank projectile, a multiple barreled mine, a cluster submunition descending by parachute with an adaptive split-axial action. (Rice. 9, 10 ).

Of considerable interest are the developments of the Swedish company Bofors AB. She patented a fragmentation-beam rotating projectile with a GGE flow directed at an angle to the axis of the projectile. Undermining at the moment when the axis of the GGE unit is aligned with the direction to the target is provided by the target sensor. Bottom initiation of the explosive charge is provided by a bottom detonator displaced relative to the axis of the projectile and connected by wire to the target sensor. (Fig.11 )

Rheinmetall (Germany) has patented a feathered fragmentation-beam projectile for a smoothbore tank gun, designed primarily to combat anti-tank helicopters (US Pat. No. 5261629). In the head compartment of the projectile there is a block of target sensors. After determining the position of the target relative to the trajectory of the projectile, the axis of the projectile is turned to the target with the help of impulse jet engines, the head compartment is fired with the help of an annular explosive charge and the projectile is detonated with the formation of a GGE stream directed at the target. The shooting of the head compartment is necessary for the unhindered passage of the GGE unit.

Domestic patents for fragmentation-beam projectiles No. 2018779, 2082943, 2095739, 2108538, 21187790 (patent holder N.E. Bauman Moscow State Technical University) cover the most promising areas for the development of these projectiles (Fig.12, 13 ). The projectiles are designed both for hitting air targets and for deep hitting ground targets, and are equipped with bottom fuses of remote or non-contact (type "range finder") action. The fuse is equipped with an impact mechanism with three settings, which allows the projectile to be used when firing on the usual types of action of standard high-explosive fragmentation projectiles - fragmentation-compression, high-explosive fragmentation and penetrating high-explosive. Instant fragmentation detonation occurs with the help of the head contact assembly, which has an electrical connection with the bottom fuse. The input of a command that determines the type of action is made through the head or bottom command receivers.

The speed of the GGE unit, as a rule, does not exceed 400–500 m/s, i.e., a very small part of the energy of the explosive charge is spent on its acceleration. This is explained, on the one hand, by the small contact area of the explosive charge with the GPE unit, and, on the other hand, by the rapid drop in the pressure of the detonation products due to the expansion of the projectile shell. According to the data of high-frequency optical survey and the results of computer simulation, it is clear that the process of radial expansion of the shell is much faster than the process of axial movement of the block. The desire to increase the share of the charge energy that goes into the kinetic energy of the axial movement of the GGE has given rise to many proposals for the implementation of multi-end structures. (Fig.10 ).

One of the most promising areas of application of beam projectiles is tank artillery. In conditions of saturation of the battlefield with anti-tank weapon systems, the problem of tank defense against them is extremely acute. Recently, in the development trends of tank weapons, there has been a desire to implement the principle of "beat an equal", according to which the main task of the tank is to fight enemy tanks as representing the main danger, and its defense from tank-dangerous means should be carried out by infantry fighting vehicles accompanying it, equipped with automatic guns , and self-propelled anti-aircraft guns. In addition, the problem of combating tank-dangerous weapons located in structures, for example, in buildings, during combat operations in populated areas is considered insignificant. With this approach, a high-explosive fragmentation projectile in the tank's ammunition load is considered unnecessary. For example, in the ammunition load of the 120-mm smoothbore gun of the German Leopard-2 tank, there are only two types of projectile - the armor-piercing sub-caliber DM13 and the fragmentation-cumulative (multi-purpose) DM12. The extreme expression of this trend is the recent decisions that the ammunition load of the developed 140-mm smoothbore guns of the USA (XM291) and Germany (NPzK) will include only one type of projectile - a feathered armor-piercing sub-caliber.

It should be noted that the concept based on the notion that the main threat to a tank is created by an enemy tank is not supported by the experience of military operations. So, during the fourth Arab-Israeli war of 1973, tank losses were distributed as follows: from the action of anti-tank systems - 50%, from the actions of aviation, hand-held anti-tank grenade launchers, anti-tank mines - 28%, from tank fire only - 22%.

Another concept, on the contrary, comes from the view of the tank as an autonomous weapon system capable of independently solving all combat missions, including the task of self-defense. This task cannot be solved by regular high-explosive fragmentation projectiles with impact fuses, for the reason that when these projectiles are flat-fired for fragmentation of single targets, the scattering density of projectile impact points and the coordinate law of destruction are extremely unsatisfactorily consistent. The scattering ellipse, which at a distance of 2 km has a ratio of major axes of approximately 50:1, is extended in the direction of firing, while the area affected by fragments is located perpendicular to this direction. As a result, only a very small area is realized, where the dispersion ellipse and the affected area overlap each other. The consequence of this is the low probability of hitting a single target with one shot, according to various estimates, not exceeding 0.15 ... 0.25.

The design of a multifunctional high-explosive fragmentation beam feathered projectile for a smoothbore tank gun is protected by patents No. 2018779, 2108538 of the Russian Federation. The presence of a heavy head block GGE and the associated shift of the center of mass forward increases the aerodynamic stability of the projectile in flight and the accuracy of fire. The unloading of the explosive charge from the pressure created by the pressing mass of the GGE unit during firing is carried out by an insert diaphragm resting on an annular ledge in the body, or by a diaphragm made integral with the body.

The GGE block is made of steel or heavy alloy based on tungsten (density 16...18 g/cc) in a form that ensures their tight packing in the block, for example, in the form of hexagonal prisms. The dense packing of the GPE contributes to the preservation of their shape in the process of explosive throwing and reduces the energy loss of the explosive charge for the deformation of the GPE. The required expansion angle (usually 10–15°) and the optimal HPE distribution in the beam can be achieved by changing the headband thickness, the shape of the diaphragm, placing inserts made of easily compressible material inside the GGE block, and changing the shape of the incident detonation wave front. It is provided to control the angle of expansion of the block with the help of an explosive charge placed along its axis. The time interval between the detonations of the main and axial charges is generally regulated by the projectile detonation control system, which makes it possible to obtain optimal spatial distributions of the main and hull fragments in a wide range of firing conditions. The head cap with the head contact assembly, filled inside with polyurethane foam, must have a minimum mass, which ensures the minimum loss of GGE speed during explosive throwing. A more radical way is to drop the head cap with a pyrotechnic device before detonating the main charge or destroy it with a liquidation charge. In this case, the destructive effect of detonation products on the GGE unit should be excluded. The optimal mass of the GGE block varies within 0.1 ... 0.2 of the mass of the projectile. The speed of ejection of the HGE block from the body, depending on its mass, the characteristics of the explosive charge and other design parameters, varies in the range of 300 ...

The optimal mass of a single projectile, calculated according to the condition of defeating manpower equipped with heavy bulletproof vests of the 5th protection class according to GOST R50744-95 "Armored clothing", is 5 g. This also ensures the defeat of most of the nomenclature of unarmored vehicles. If it is necessary to hit heavier targets with steel equivalents of 10 ... 15 mm, the mass of the HGE should be increased, which will lead to a decrease in the flux density of the HGE. Optimal HGE masses for hitting various classes of targets, levels of kinetic energy, number of HGEs with a block mass of 2.5 kg and field density at a half-angle of 10 ° at a distance of 20 m (the radius of the circle of destruction is 3.5 m, the area of the circle is 38 sq.m) shown intable 3 .

table 3
Target class	Weight one GPE, g	Kinetic energy, j, at speed		number GGE	Raft- ness, 1/cu.m
Target class	Weight one GPE, g	500 m/s	1000 m/s	number GGE	Raft- ness, 1/cu.m
Manpower in bulletproof vests of the 5th class and unarmored vehicles	5	625	2500	500	13,2
Lightly armored targets of class "A" (armored personnel carriers, armored helicopters)	10	1250	5000	250	6,6
Lightly armored targets class "B" (infantry fighting vehicles)	20	2500	10000	125	3,3

The inclusion of two types of fragmentation-beam projectiles in the tank ammunition, designed respectively to combat manpower and armored vehicles, is hardly feasible, given the limited size of the ammunition load (in the T-90S tank - 43 shots) and without that already a large range of projectiles (armor-piercing feathered sub-caliber projectile (BOPS), cumulative projectile, high-explosive fragmentation projectile, guided projectile 9K119 "Reflex"). In the long term, when a high-speed assembly manipulator appears in a tank, it is possible to use modular designs of fragmentation-beam projectiles with interchangeable head blocks for various purposes (patent No. 2080548 of the Russian Federation, NII SM).

The input of a command that determines the type of action, and the input of a temporary setting when firing with a trajectory gap, is made through the head or bottom command receivers. The operation cycle of the detonation control system includes determining the range to the target using a laser range finder, calculating the flight time to the predetermined point of detonation on the on-board computer and entering this time into the fuse using the AUDV (automatic remote fuse installer). Since the predicted detonation range is a random variable, the variance of which is determined by the sum of the dispersions of the range to the target measured by the rangefinder and the path traveled by the projectile by the time of detonation, and these dispersions are large enough, the spread of the predicted range turns out to be excessively large (for example, ± 30 m at a nominal value of the lead range of 20 m). This circumstance imposes rather stringent requirements on the accuracy of the control system for detonation (setting step is not more than 0.01 s with a square deviation of the same order). One of the possible ways to improve accuracy is to eliminate the error in the initial velocity of the projectile. For this purpose, after the projectile takes off, its velocity is measured in a non-contact way, the specific value obtained is entered into the calculation of the temporary setting, and then the latter is fed using a coded laser beam at a speed of 20 ... 40 kbit / s through the channel of the stabilizer tube into the optical window of the bottom fuse. When firing at targets that are clearly separated from the environment, a proximity fuse of the "Range finder" type can be used instead of a remote fuse.

A design of a fragmentation-beam projectile with an axial arrangement of a cylindrical GPE block inside an explosive charge is proposed. A promising design is the design of the projectile, which creates a beam of GGE with an oval cross section, creeping along the surface of the earth. In patents No. 2082943, 2095739, the designs of fragmentation-kinetic projectiles are proposed, respectively, with the front and rear location of the GGE unit, a shock tube and a dual-use detonation-capable solid fuel charge. Depending on the conditions of use, this charge is used as a bursting charge (as an explosive) or as an accelerator (as a solid propellant). The second main idea of the development is the destruction of the body into fragments by hitting its inner surface with a tube accelerated by an explosion. Such a scheme provides the so-called destruction without throwing, i.e., the destruction of the hull without giving its fragments a noticeable radial velocity, which allows them to be included in the axial flow. The implementation of full-fledged crushing upon impact with a tube was confirmed experimentally. (Fig.14, 15 )

Of considerable interest are the "hybrid" designs of projectiles, which use both powder and blasting charges. Examples are a shrapnel projectile with crushing of the hull after ejection of a block of arrow-shaped PE (Patent No. 2079099 of the Russian Federation, NII SM), a Swedish projectile "R" with a powder ejection of propellant blocks containing an explosive charge, an adaptive projectile with an ejected cylindrical layer of GPE and a "piston", containing an explosive charge (application No. 98117004, NII SM). (Fig.16, 17 )

The development of fragmentation-beam projectiles for small-caliber automatic guns (MKAP) is constrained by the limitations imposed by the size of the caliber. At present, the 30 mm caliber is practically the monopoly caliber of the domestic MCAPs of the Ground Forces, the Air Force and the Navy. 23-mm MKAPs are still in service (the Shilka self-propelled gun, the GSH-6-23 six-barreled aircraft gun, etc.), but most experts believe that they no longer meet modern efficiency requirements.The use of one caliber in all branches of the Armed Forces and the unification of ammunition is an undeniable advantage. At the same time, a rigid fixation of the caliber will already begin to limit the combat capabilities of the ICAP, especially in the fight against anti-ship missiles. In particular, studies show that the implementation of an effective beam-fragmentation projectile in this caliber is very difficult. At the same time, calculations based on the criterion of the maximum probability of hitting a target with a burst for a fixed number of bursts and the mass of the weapon system, including the firing unit and ammunition load, show that the 30 mm caliber is not optimal, and the optimum is in the range of 35-45 mm. For the development of new MCAPs, the preferred caliber is 40 mm, which is a member of a series of normal linear dimensions Ra10, which provides the possibility of interspecific unification (Navy, Air Force, Ground Forces), global standardization and expansion of exports, taking into account the widespread use of 40 mm MCAPs abroad (towed ZAK L70 Bofors infantry fighting vehicle CV-90, ship ZAK "Trinity", "Fast Forti", "Dardo", etc.). All of the listed 40-mm systems, except for the Dardo and Fast Forti, are single-barreled with a low rate of fire of 300 rds / min. Double-barreled systems "Dardo" and "Fast Forti" have a total rate of fire, respectively, 600 and 900 rds / min. Alliant Technologies (USA) has developed a 40-mm CTWS cannon with a telescopic shot and a transverse loading scheme. The gun has a rate of fire of 200 rds / min.

From the foregoing, it is clear that in the coming years we should expect the appearance of a new generation of weapons - 40-mm cannons with a rotating block of barrels, capable of resolving the contradiction discussed above.

One of the common objections to the introduction of the 40 mm caliber into the weapons system is based on the difficulties of using 40 mm guns on aircraft due to the high recoil forces (the so-called dynamic incompatibility), which excludes the possibility of spreading interspecific unification to the armament of the Air Force and tactical aviation of the Ground Forces .

In this case, it should be noted that the 40-mm MKAP will be primarily intended for use in shipborne air defense systems, where the restrictions on the total mass of the weapon system are not overly stringent. Obviously, it is expedient to combine guns of both calibers (30 and 40 mm) in the ship's air defense system with an optimal separation of anti-ship missile interception ranges between them. Secondly, this objection is refuted by historical experience. MKAP of large calibers were successfully used in aviation during the Second World War and after it. These include domestic aircraft guns Nudelman-Suranov NS-37, NS-45 and the 37-mm American gun M-4 of the R-39 Airacobra fighter. The 37 mm NS-37 gun (projectile weight 735 g, muzzle velocity 900 m/s, rate of fire 250 rds/min) was mounted on the Yak-9T fighter (30 rounds of ammunition) and on the IL-2 attack aircraft (two cannons with 50 rounds of ammunition). cartridges each). In the final period of the Great Patriotic War, Yak-9K fighters with a 45-mm NS-45 cannon were successfully used (projectile weight 1065 g, muzzle velocity 850 m/s, rate of fire 250 rds/min). In the post-war period, the NS-37 and NS-37D guns were installed on jet fighters.

The transition to a caliber of 40 mm opens up the possibility of developing not only fragmentation-beam projectiles, but also other promising projectiles, including corrected, cumulative, with a programmable proximity fuse, with an annular submunition, etc.

A very promising area of application of the principle of explosive axial throwing of the GGE is formed by over-caliber grenades of underbarrel, hand and rifle grenade launchers. An over-caliber fragmentation-beam grenade for an underbarrel grenade launcher (patent No. 2118788 of the Russian Federation, NII SM) is intended mainly for flat shooting at short distances (up to 100 m) in self-defense. The grenade contains a caliber part with an expelling charge and protrusions included in the rifling of the grenade barrel, and an over-caliber part containing a remote fuse, an explosive charge and a GPE layer. The diameter of the over-caliber part depends on the distance between the axes of the bullet and grenade barrel.

The total mass of a promising beam grenade for the 40-mm grenade launcher GP-25 is 270 g, the initial velocity of the grenade is 72 m / s, the diameter of the over-caliber part is 60 mm, the mass of the explosive charge (phlegmatized hexogen A-IX-1) is 60 g, finished submunitions in the form of a cube with a rib of 2.5 mm weighing 0.25 g are made of tungsten alloy with a density of 16 g/cc; single-layer HGE laying, number of HGEs - 400 pieces, throwing speed - 1200 m / s, lethal interval - 40 m from the break point, fuse installation step - 0.1 s (Fig.18 ).

In this article, the issues of the development of axial-action fragmentation ammunition are considered mainly in relation to barreled projectiles, which, to one degree or another, are the development of classical shrapnel. In a broader aspect, the principle of hitting targets with directed GGE streams is used in a wide variety of types of weapons (SAM and NAR warheads, engineered directed fragmentation mines, directed fragmentation ammunition for active protection of tanks, cannon-shot weapons, etc.).

"Pray for Colonel Shrapnel on my behalf for his projectiles - they work wonders!"

In 1779, Henry Shrapnel, at the age of 18, joined the Royal Artillery as a cadet. In 1784, a young lieutenant was working day and night to improve an artillery projectile that would “grind” enemy infantry in open areas. "Spherical container", as the British military would later call his invention. He was able to combine a lethal damaging effect and a large radius of impact with an area of \u200b\u200babout 150-200 meters in length and 20-30 meters in width.

projectile climb

Externally, the projectile was a solid sphere, inside of which there was a sheaf of bullets and a charge of gunpowder. Ideally, the sphere should explode exactly where the gunner is counting, but premature detonation has repeatedly delayed the moment of glory for English officer Henry Shrapnel. In 1787, he was sent to Gibraltar, where he pestered the new leadership with the opportunity to test his offspring. During the period of the Great Siege of Gibraltar 1779-1783, there was an opportunity to test new artillery. After the first use in combat conditions and in the future, Henry Shrapnel began to receive letters of thanks from soldiers and officers, which was for him the highest recognition of merit.

On June 7, 1803, the commission presented a positive opinion on the effect produced by Shrapnel shells. As for Henry Shrapnel himself, on November 1 of the same 1803 he was awarded the rank of major.

On April 30, 1804, during an attack on Fort New Amsterdam in Dutch Guiana (Suriname), Shrapnel shells were used. That same year, on July 20, Henry Shrapnel was promoted to lieutenant colonel.

On January 17, 1806, Shrapnel cores were successfully used in southern Africa, where British troops were increasing their country's possessions.

August 21, 1808 - Battle of Weimar. The British used explosive shells filled with musket bullets against the French troops, the French infantry suffered serious losses.

June 18, 1815 - Battle of Waterloo. A significant contribution to the completion of Napoleonic history belongs to shrapnel shells, accurate calculations of artillery sharply reduced the size of the French army, already bled.

Shrapnel in the 20th century

On August 7, 1914, during the battle between the armies of France and Germany, the effectiveness of shrapnel was demonstrated by the captain of the French army, Lombal. He noticed the approach of German troops at a distance of 5000 meters from their positions. The captain ordered 75 mm guns to open fire with shrapnel rounds at this concentration of troops. 4 guns fired 4 shots each. As a result of the shelling, the regiment ceased to exist as a combat unit.

In the 1930s of the twentieth century, shrapnel was replaced by more powerful fragmentation and high-explosive fragmentation projectiles.

The warheads of some anti-aircraft missiles are built on the principles of a shrapnel projectile. Including the warhead of S-75 air defense missiles equipped with ready-made striking elements in the form of steel balls or in some modifications of pyramids, the total number is about 29 thousand.

For his contribution, Shrapnel Henry (1761-1842), a British lieutenant general, was awarded an impressive life pension, and the projectile would receive the name of its inventor many years later.

The core was ineffective, because the core can only hit one person, and the lethal force of the core is clearly excessive to disable it. In fact, the infantry, armed with pikes, fought in close formations, most effective for hand-to-hand combat. The musketeers were also built in several rows to use the caracol technique. When hit in such a formation, a cannonball usually hit several people standing one behind the other. However, the development of hand firearms, an increase in their rate of fire, accuracy and firing range made it possible to abandon the pike, arm all infantry with rifles with bayonets and introduce linear formations. Infantry, built not in a column, but in a line, suffered significantly lower losses from cannonballs.

To defeat manpower with the help of artillery, they began to use buckshot - metal spherical bullets poured into the gun barrel along with a powder charge. However, the use of buckshot was inconvenient due to the method of loading.

Somewhat improved the situation shotgun projectile. Such a projectile was a cylindrical box made of cardboard or thin metal, in which bullets were stacked in the right amount. Before firing, such a projectile was loaded into the gun barrel. At the moment of the shot, the body of the projectile was destroyed, after which the bullets flew out of the barrel and hit the enemy. Such a projectile was more convenient to use, but the buckshot still remained ineffective: the bullets fired in this way quickly lost their destructive power and were already unable to hit the enemy at distances of the order of 400-500 meters. In those days, when the infantry was armed with smoothbore guns, firing at a distance of up to 300 meters, this did not present a significant problem. But when the infantry received rifled guns, which made it possible to shoot gun servants from a distance of more than a kilometer, shooting with grapeshot lost all effectiveness.

Henry Shrapnel's card grenade

A new type of projectile to destroy manpower was invented by Henry Shrapnel. The buckshot grenade designed by Henry Shrapnel was a solid hollow sphere, inside of which were bullets and a charge of gunpowder. A distinctive feature of the grenade was the presence of a hole in the body, into which an ignition tube was inserted, made of wood and containing a certain amount of gunpowder. This tube served both as a fuse and as a moderator. When fired, even when the projectile was in the bore, gunpowder ignited in the ignition tube. During the flight of the projectile there was a gradual combustion of gunpowder in the ignition tube. When this gunpowder burned out completely, the fire passed to the powder charge located in the grenade itself, which led to the explosion of the projectile. As a result of the explosion, the body of the grenade collapsed into fragments, which, together with the bullets, scattered to the sides and hit the enemy.

An important design feature was that the length of the ignition tube could be changed immediately before firing. Thus, it was possible with a certain accuracy to achieve the detonation of the projectile in the desired place and at the desired time.

By the time of the invention of his grenade, Henry Shrapnel had been in military service with the rank of captain (which is why he is often referred to in sources as "Captain Shrapnel") for 8 years. In 1803, Shrapnel-designed grenades were adopted by the British Army. They quickly demonstrated their effectiveness against infantry and cavalry. For his invention, Henry Shrapnel was adequately rewarded: already on November 1, 1803, he received the rank of major, then on July 20, 1804 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, in 1814 he was assigned a salary from the British government in the amount of 1200 pounds per year, subsequently he was promoted to general.

diaphragm shrapnel

In 1871, the Russian artilleryman V. N. Shklarevich developed a diaphragm shrapnel with a bottom chamber and a central tube for the newly appeared rifled guns. The Shklarevich projectile was a cylindrical body, divided by a cardboard partition (diaphragm) into 2 compartments. In the bottom compartment was an explosive charge. In another compartment were spherical bullets. A tube filled with a slowly burning pyrotechnic composition passed along the axis of the projectile. A head with a primer was put on the front end of the barrel. At the time of the shot, the capsule explodes and ignites the composition in the longitudinal tube. During the flight of the projectile, the fire through the central tube is gradually transferred to the bottom powder charge. Ignition of this charge leads to its explosion. This explosion pushes the diaphragm and the bullets behind it forward along the projectile, which leads to the separation of the head and the departure of bullets from the projectile.

Such a design of the projectile made it possible to use it in rifled artillery of the late 19th century. In addition, he had an important advantage: when the projectile was detonated, the bullets did not fly evenly in all directions (like the Shrapnel spherical grenade), but directed along the projectile flight axis with a deviation from it to the side. This increased the combat effectiveness of the projectile.

At the same time, this design contained a significant drawback: the burning time of the moderator charge was constant. That is, the projectile was designed for firing at a predetermined distance and was ineffective when firing at other distances. This shortcoming was eliminated in 1873, when a tube for remote detonation of a projectile with a swivel ring was developed. The design difference was that the path of fire from the primer to the explosive charge consisted of 3 parts, one of which was (as in the old design) the central tube, and the other two were channels with a similar pyrotechnic composition located in the rotary rings. By turning these rings, it was possible to adjust the total amount of pyrotechnic composition that would burn out during the flight of the projectile, and thus ensure that the projectile was detonated at a given firing distance.

In the colloquial speech of the gunners, the terms were used: the projectile is installed (placed) “on buckshot”, if the remote tube is set for a minimum burning time, and “on shrapnel”, if the projectile should be detonated at a considerable distance from the gun.
As a rule, the divisions on the rings of the remote tube coincided with the divisions on the gun sight. Therefore, in order to force the projectile to explode in the right place, it was enough for the commander of the gun crew to command the same installation of the tube and sight. For example: sight 100; tube 100.
In addition to the mentioned positions of the distance tube, there was also the position of the rotary rings “on impact”. In this position, the path of fire from the primer to the explosive charge was completely interrupted. Undermining the main explosive charge of the projectile occurred at the moment the projectile hit the obstacle.

The history of the combat use of shrapnel shells

Shrapnel artillery shells were used extensively from their invention until the First World War. Moreover, for field and mountain artillery of 76 mm caliber, they made up the vast majority of shells. Shrapnel shells were also used in larger caliber artillery. By 1914, significant shortcomings of shrapnel shells were identified, but the shells continued to be used.

The most significant in terms of effectiveness of the use of shrapnel shells is the battle that took place on August 7, 1914 between the armies of France and Germany. The commander of the 6th battery of the 42nd regiment of the French army, Captain Lombal, during the battle, discovered German troops leaving the forest at a distance of 5000 meters from their positions. The captain ordered 75 mm guns to open fire with shrapnel rounds at this concentration of troops. 4 guns fired 4 shots each. As a result of this shelling, the 21st Prussian Dragoon Regiment, which was reorganizing at that moment from a marching column into battle formation, lost about 700 people and about the same number of horses killed and ceased to exist as a combat unit.

low lethal effect of low-velocity spherical shrapnel bullets;
the complete impotence of shrapnel with flat trajectories against manpower located in trenches and communications, and with any trajectories - against manpower in dugouts and caponiers;
the low efficiency of firing shrapnel (a large number of high-altitude gaps and the so-called "pecks") by poorly trained officer personnel, who came in large numbers from the reserve;
the high cost and complexity of shrapnel in mass production.

Idea development

Although shrapnel projectiles are no longer used as an anti-personnel weapon, the ideas on which the design of the projectile was based continue to be used:

Ammunition with a similar device principle is used, in which rod, arrow-shaped or bullet-shaped striking elements are used instead of spherical bullets. In particular, the United States during the Vietnam War used howitzer shells with striking elements in the form of small steel feathered arrows. These shells showed their high efficiency in the defense of gun positions. There are also ammunition for anti-aircraft artillery in the form of containers with ready-made submunitions, some types of which can be opened before contact with the target when the fuse is triggered, forming a cloud of GGE.
The warheads of some anti-aircraft missiles are built on the principles of a shrapnel projectile. For example, the warhead of S-75 air defense missiles is equipped with ready-made striking elements in the form of steel balls or, in some modifications, pyramids. The weight of one such element is less than 4 g, the total number in the warhead is about 29 thousand.

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Auxiliary purpose

An excerpt characterizing Shrapnel

Without answering anything to his wife or mother-in-law, Pierre once got ready for the road late in the evening and left for Moscow to see Iosif Alekseevich. Here is what Pierre wrote in his diary.
Moscow, November 17th.
I have just arrived from a benefactor, and I hasten to write down everything that I experienced at the same time. Iosif Alekseevich lives in poverty and suffers for the third year from a painful bladder disease. No one ever heard from him a groan, or a word of grumbling. From morning until late at night, with the exception of the hours in which he eats the simplest food, he works on science. He received me graciously and sat me down on the bed on which he was lying; I made him the sign of the knights of the East and Jerusalem, he answered me the same, and with a meek smile asked me about what I had learned and acquired in the Prussian and Scottish lodges. I told him everything as well as I could, conveying the grounds that I offered in our St. Petersburg box and reported on the bad reception that had been given to me, and about the break that had occurred between me and the brothers. Iosif Alekseevich, after a considerable pause and thought, presented to me his view of all this, which instantly illuminated for me everything that had passed and the whole future path that lay before me. He surprised me by asking me if I remember what the threefold purpose of the order is: 1) to keep and know the sacrament; 2) in the purification and correction of oneself for the perception of it, and 3) in the correction of the human race through the desire for such purification. What is the main and first goal of these three? Certainly own correction and purification. Only towards this goal can we always strive, regardless of all circumstances. But at the same time, this goal requires the most labor from us, and therefore, deluded by pride, we, missing this goal, either take on the sacrament that we are unworthy to receive because of our impurity, or take on the correction of the human race, when we ourselves are an example of abomination and depravity. Illuminism is not a pure doctrine precisely because it is carried away by social activities and is full of pride. On this basis, Iosif Alekseevich condemned my speech and all my activities. I agreed with him in the depths of my soul. On the occasion of our conversation about my family affairs, he said to me: - The main duty of a true Mason, as I told you, is to perfect himself. But often we think that by removing all the difficulties of our life from ourselves, we will more quickly achieve this goal; on the contrary, my lord, he told me, only in the midst of secular unrest can we achieve three main goals: 1) self-knowledge, for a person can know himself only through comparison, 2) improvement, only by struggle is it achieved, and 3) achieve the main virtue - love for death. Only the vicissitudes of life can show us the futility of it and can contribute to our innate love for death or rebirth to a new life. These words are all the more remarkable because Iosif Alekseevich, despite his severe physical suffering, is never burdened by life, but loves death, for which, despite all the purity and loftiness of his inner man, he still does not feel himself sufficiently prepared. Then the benefactor fully explained to me the meaning of the great square of the universe and pointed out that the triple and the seventh number are the foundation of everything. He advised me not to distance myself from communication with the St. Petersburg brothers and, occupying only positions of the 2nd degree in the lodge, to try, distracting the brothers from the hobbies of pride, to turn them to the true path of self-knowledge and improvement. In addition, for himself personally, he advised me first of all to take care of myself, and for this purpose he gave me a notebook, the same one in which I write and will continue to enter all my actions.
Petersburg, November 23rd.
“I live with my wife again. My mother-in-law came to me in tears and said that Helen was here and that she begged me to listen to her, that she was innocent, that she was unhappy at my abandonment, and much more. I knew that if I only allowed myself to see her, I would no longer be able to refuse her desire. In my doubt, I did not know whose help and advice to resort to. If the benefactor were here, he would tell me. I retired to my room, reread the letters of Joseph Alekseevich, remembered my conversations with him, and from everything I deduced that I should not refuse the one who asks and should give a helping hand to anyone, especially a person so connected with me, and should bear my cross. But if I forgave her for the sake of virtue, then let my union with her have one spiritual purpose. So I decided and so I wrote to Joseph Alekseevich. I told my wife that I ask her to forget everything old, I ask her to forgive me what I could be guilty of before her, and that I have nothing to forgive her. I was glad to tell her this. Let her not know how hard it was for me to see her again. Settled in a large house in the upper chambers and experiencing a happy feeling of renewal.

As always, even then, high society, uniting together at court and at big balls, was divided into several circles, each with its own shade. Among them, the most extensive was the French circle, the Napoleonic Union - Count Rumyantsev and Caulaincourt "a. In this circle, Helen occupied one of the most prominent places as soon as she and her husband settled in St. Petersburg. She visited the gentlemen of the French embassy and a large number of people, known for their intelligence and courtesy, who belonged to this direction.
Helen was in Erfurt during the famous meeting of the emperors, and from there she brought these connections with all the Napoleonic sights of Europe. In Erfurt, she had a brilliant success. Napoleon himself, noticing her in the theater, said about her: "C" est un superbe animal. "[This is a beautiful animal.] Her success as a beautiful and elegant woman did not surprise Pierre, because over the years she became even more beautiful than before But what surprised him was that in these two years his wife managed to acquire a reputation for herself
"d" une femme charmante, aussi spirituelle, que belle. "[A charming woman, as smart as beautiful.] The famous Prince de Ligne [Prince de Ligne] wrote letters to her on eight pages. Bilibin saved his mots [words], to say them for the first time in the presence of Countess Bezukhova.To be received in the salon of Countess Bezukhova was considered a diploma of the mind; young people read books before Helen's evening, so that there was something to talk about in her salon, and the secretaries of the embassy, and even envoys, confided diplomatic secrets to her, so that Helene was a force in some way. Pierre, who knew that she was very stupid, with a strange feeling of bewilderment and fear, sometimes attended her parties and dinners, where politics, poetry and philosophy were discussed. At these evenings he experienced a similar feeling which the conjurer must experience, expecting every time that his deceit is about to be revealed.But whether because stupidity was needed to run such a salon, or because the deceived themselves not in this deceit, the deceit was not revealed, and the reputation of d "une femme charmante et spirituelle was so unshakably established for Elena Vasilyevna Bezukhova that she could speak the biggest vulgarities and stupidities, and yet everyone admired her every word and looked for deep meaning in it which she herself did not suspect.
Pierre was exactly the husband that was needed for this brilliant, secular woman. He was that absent-minded eccentric, the husband of a grand seigneur [great gentleman], who does not interfere with anyone and not only does not spoil the general impression of the high tone of the living room, but, by his opposite to the grace and tact of his wife, serves as an advantageous background for her. Pierre, in these two years, as a result of his constant concentrated occupation with immaterial interests and sincere contempt for everything else, learned in his wife’s company that did not interest him that tone of indifference, carelessness and favor to everyone, which is not acquired artificially and which therefore inspires involuntary respect . He entered his wife's drawing room as if into a theatre, knew everyone, was equally happy with everyone, and was equally indifferent to everyone. Sometimes he entered into a conversation that interested him, and then, without thinking about whether or not there were les messieurs de l "ambassade [employees at the embassy], mumbled his opinions, which were sometimes completely out of tune with the present moment. But the opinion about the eccentric husband de la femme la plus distinguee de Petersbourg [the most remarkable woman in Petersburg] was already so established that no one took au serux [seriously] his antics.
Among the many young people who daily visited Helen's house, Boris Drubetskoy, who had already been very successful in the service, was, after Helen's return from Erfurt, the closest person in the Bezukhovs' house. Helen called him mon page [my page] and treated him like a child. Her smile towards him was the same as towards everyone, but sometimes it was unpleasant for Pierre to see this smile. Boris treated Pierre with special, dignified and sad respect. This shade of deference also bothered Pierre. Pierre suffered so painfully three years ago from the insult inflicted on him by his wife that now he saved himself from the possibility of such an insult, firstly by the fact that he was not the husband of his wife, and secondly by the fact that he did not allow himself to suspect.
“No, now having become a bas bleu [blue stocking], she forever abandoned her former hobbies,” he said to himself. “There was no example of bas bleu having passions of the heart,” he repeated to himself, from no one knew where, a rule he had undeniably believed. But, strangely, the presence of Boris in his wife's living room (and he was almost constantly) had a physical effect on Pierre: it bound all his members, destroyed his unconsciousness and freedom of movement.
“Such a strange antipathy,” thought Pierre, “and before that I even liked him very much.
In the eyes of the world, Pierre was a great gentleman, a somewhat blind and ridiculous husband of a famous wife, an intelligent eccentric, doing nothing, but not harming anyone, a glorious and kind fellow. In the soul of Pierre, during all this time, a complex and difficult work of inner development took place, which revealed a lot to him and led him to many spiritual doubts and joys.

He continued his diary, and this is what he wrote in it during this time:
“November 24th.
“I got up at eight o’clock, read Holy Scripture, then went to the office (Pierre, on the advice of a benefactor, entered the service of one of the committees), returned to dinner, dined alone (the countess has many guests, unpleasant to me), ate and drank moderately and after dinner he copied plays for the brothers. In the evening he went down to the countess and told a funny story about B., and only then remembered that he should not have done this, when everyone was already laughing out loud.
“I go to bed with a happy and peaceful spirit. Great Lord, help me to walk in Your paths, 1) overcome the part of the wrath - quietness, slowness, 2) lust - abstinence and disgust, 3) move away from the hustle and bustle, but not excommunicate myself from a) state affairs of service, b) from family worries , c) from friendly relations and d) economic pursuits.
“November 27th.
“I got up late and woke up for a long time lying on the bed, indulging in laziness. My God! help me and strengthen me so that I may walk in Your ways. I read Holy Scripture, but without the proper feeling. Brother Urusov came and talked about the vanities of the world. He spoke about the new plans of the sovereign. I began to condemn, but I remembered my rules and the words of our benefactor that a true Freemason should be an assiduous worker in the state when his participation is required, and a calm contemplator of what he is not called to. My tongue is my enemy. Brothers G. V. and O. visited me, there was a preparatory conversation for the acceptance of a new brother. They make me the speaker. I feel weak and unworthy. Then the discussion turned to the explanation of the seven pillars and steps of the temple. 7 sciences, 7 virtues, 7 vices, 7 gifts of the Holy Spirit. Brother O. was very eloquent. In the evening, the acceptance took place. The new arrangement of the premises greatly contributed to the splendor of the spectacle. Boris Drubetskoy was accepted. I proposed it, I was the rhetorician. A strange feeling agitated me throughout my stay with him in the dark temple. I found in myself a feeling of hatred for him, which I vainly strive to overcome. And therefore I would have wished to truly save him from evil and lead him on the path of truth, but bad thoughts about him did not leave me. It seemed to me that his purpose in joining the fraternity was only a desire to get close to people, to be in favor with those in our lodge. Apart from the fact that he asked several times if N. and S. were in our box (to which I could not answer him), except that, according to my observations, he was not able to feel respect for our holy Order and was too busy and pleased with the outward man, in order to desire spiritual improvement, I had no reason to doubt him; but he seemed insincere to me, and all the time when I stood with him eye to eye in the dark temple, it seemed to me that he smiled contemptuously at my words, and I really wanted to prick his bare chest with the sword that I held, put to it . I could not be eloquent and could not sincerely convey my doubt to the brothers and the great master. Great Architect of nature, help me to find the true paths leading out of the labyrinth of lies.
After that, three sheets were omitted from the diary, and then the following was written:
“I had an instructive and long conversation alone with brother B., who advised me to stick to brother A. Much, although unworthy, was revealed to me. Adonai is the name of the creator of the world. Elohim is the name of the ruler of all. The third name, the name of the utterance, having the meaning of the All. Conversations with Brother V. reinforce, refresh, and establish me on the path of virtue. With him there is no room for doubt. It is clear to me the difference between the poor teaching of the social sciences and our holy, all-embracing teaching. Human sciences subdivide everything - in order to understand, they kill everything - in order to consider. In the holy science of the Order, everything is one, everything is known in its totality and life. Trinity - the three principles of things - sulfur, mercury and salt. Sulfur of unctuous and fiery properties; in conjunction with salt, its fieryness arouses hunger in it, by means of which it attracts mercury, seizes it, holds it, and jointly produces separate bodies. Mercury is a liquid and volatile spiritual essence - Christ, the Holy Spirit, He.

Shrapnel is one of the most effective weapons against large masses of infantry in open areas. It eliminates the main drawback of buckshot - the short range of fire caused by the fact that buckshot bullets quickly lose speed. The shrapnel projectile carries many bullets almost to the very target, minimizing air resistance losses, and disperses them at a given point, ensuring the destruction of the enemy.

Nowadays, shrapnel is associated with the diaphragm scheme, invented in 1871. In this version, the projectile is a small cannon with a low initial velocity (70-150 m / s). Diaphragm shrapnel in combination with a rifled gun is clearly too complicated for a hit, although it is quite interesting to compensate for the low muzzle velocity with additional shrapnel acceleration. Half a dozen of these guns and several hundred shells could turn the tide of any battle of the Napoleonic Wars or the Crimean War (at the beginning of the 19th century, a hitman would no longer need to create production facilities from scratch).

For a hitman, ball shrapnel is much more interesting. Studying the evolution of this weapon reveals many simple but belated improvements - an ideal situation for a hitman.

The forerunner of shrapnel was the conventional mortar bomb, a hollow cast-iron core filled with gunpowder and detonated by gunpowder slowly burning in an ignition tube. Such shells began to be used from the very beginning of the development of firearms (early 15th century), but the inventors immediately ran into a problem. When loading the tube down to the gunpowder, the pressure of the gases during the shot often pressed the tube into the body. The gunpowder ignited and the bomb exploded inside the mortar. When loading the tube up, it was set on fire in advance - a damn dangerous practice. It was not until the 1650s that it was discovered that the flame of a shot overtakes a bomb and ignites the pipe in any position. An elementary fact, but how long did it take to install it!

After that, the mortar quickly (within fifty years, by the beginning of the 18th century) becomes an obligatory participant in any siege. A bomb was lowered into the short barrel of the mortar by hooking it to a special eyelet, which made it easy to control the position of the tube. But this method was not suitable for cannons - you cannot lower a bomb into a horizontal barrel. As a result, the idea arises to connect the bomb with a wooden pallet. This allowed it to be pushed into the barrel of the gun, while maintaining the orientation of the tube. After this "high-tech" invention, the howitzer quickly (by the middle of the 18th century) became an integral part of field artillery. It is interesting that the initial speeds of the bombs in the mortars of the time of Peter and the bomb-shooting unicorns of the time of Catherine are the same, which means that the delay cannot be explained by an improvement in the technology of making bombs.

When falling on solid ground, the bomb often split, so they tried to set the fuse to break before the collision. The gunners noticed that even with a high gap, the fragments retained their lethal force. But the low-bristle action of gunpowder crushed the shell into a small number of fragments (for 18 pounds, only 50-60 pieces). The idea arose to place ready-made striking elements in the shell. But when fired, friction between the elements and gunpowder often led to an explosion.

In 1784, Lieutenant Shrapnel begins to closely deal with this issue. He proposes to use musket bullets mixed with sulfur-free powder (it has a higher ignition temperature) for filling shells. To undermine the projectile in front of the enemy, he suggests using three pre-calibrated multi-colored tubes with intermediate marks. To reduce the time before detonation, the gunner drilled the wall of the tube with a gimlet. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, in particular in the Battle of Waterloo, Shrapnel's shells proved to be excellent, bringing the inventor the rank of major general and a solid pension.

Shrapnel's system was not without flaws. Approximately 7% of the shells exploded in the barrel, and about 10% did not explode at all. But the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the creation of the Holy Alliance mothballed the existing political systems and slowed down progress in the weapons business. Only in 1852, Colonel Boxer proposed to separate gunpowder from bullets with an iron diaphragm. This immediately reduced the gap percentage to 3%.

At the same time, Boxer's shrapnel used the same wooden tube as a fuse, in the wall of which a hole was drilled before the shot. New shells did not hit the Crimean War, and gunners rarely used the old unreliable shrapnel. And after the Crimean War, the widespread introduction of rifled guns began and ball shrapnel sunk into oblivion.

It is interesting to recall another delusion of our ancestors. They were afraid that the rapid flight of the bomb would extinguish the fire of the tube and made a thickening on the opposite side of the body - so that the projectile would fly back as a tube. Gradually it became clear that this did not help to stabilize the projectile, and the tube did not go out even without thickening. But in Boxer's shrapnel we see all the same thickening, but already on the side of the tube. Apparently Boxer also wanted to stabilize the projectile and achieve a more even distribution of projectiles. It is sometimes believed that the thickening should have held the pipe better, but it is easy to see that its dimensions are much larger than necessary for this. Because of this, 15-20% fewer bullets were placed in Boxer's shrapnel than in European shrapnel cases of the same time. Ignorance of the experimental method is costly ... However, what to talk about if in the books of the middle of the 19th century gunners had to explain that the effect of air resistance on the projectile should not be neglected. And this despite the fact that the resulting deviation of the trajectory from the parabola can be observed with the naked eye!

So what will the hitman's shrapnel look like? Let's take for example a projectile for a 12-pound gun - the weight is about 5.5 kg, the diameter is about 120 mm.

The body is a hollow sphere, about a centimeter thick, cast iron. Exposure of cast iron at a high temperature with air access allows you to burn out some of the carbon and reduce brittleness. 80-90 musket bullets of 17.5 mm caliber are placed in the body, it is better to increase the hardness of lead by adding antimony or tin. The gaps between the bullets are filled with a fixing compound - this reduces the impact of the bullets on the body when fired. In reality, the bullets were fixed by pouring molten sulfur, resin with pieces of paper (to prevent sticking), or a mixture of rubber and cork. In the center, in a strong iron case, there is a small (tens of grams) charge of gunpowder - an explosive charge. Coloring agents are added to the gunpowder (for example, a mixture of antimony and manganese) - to make it easier to see the gap. The charge is connected by a tube to the fuse of the Bormann system.

Invented by the Belgian Bormann, the fuse increased the reliability and accuracy of shrapnel, but in real history, he only had time for the American Civil War, when rifled small arms drastically reduced the effectiveness of artillery. It was a disk of soft metal (tin or lead) with a spiral cavity filled with gunpowder. The artilleryman pierced the metal with an awl nearby in a place next to the number he needed. When fired, the powder gases ignited the gunpowder, starting the countdown to burst. A simple and convenient scheme that allows you to completely isolate shrapnel gunpowder from the external environment. The range of such a projectile will be about 1-1.5 km.

It is interesting to note that diaphragm shrapnel outperforms conventional high explosive artillery grenades when firing at unburrowed infantry. For example, according to the 1942 shooting rules, 30-35 76-mm grenades or only 20-25 76-mm shrapnels were required to reliably suppress an unburied infantry group or firing point. Ball shrapnel is less effective due to the slower speed of the bullets, which has to be compensated by their greater weight, but given the difficulty of mass production of explosives and the low accuracy of smoothbore guns (shrapnel is less sensitive to accuracy), it is definitely better for a hitman.

Ballistic calculations and discussion of the article you can find