What are the climates. Earth's climate. Climate-forming factors on Earth. Extreme climatic indicators

Introduction

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………3

Climate and its types…………………………………………………………………………………4

Climate-forming factors…………………………………………………………………….6

Anthropogenic impact on climate change……………………………………………..8

Non-climatic factors and their impact on climate change…………………………..11

The impact of climate on humans…………………………………………………………………….12

References…………………………………………………………………...………...14

At present, humanity is on the verge of an ecological crisis, i.e., such a state of the environment, which, due to the changes that have occurred in it, turns out to be unsuitable for human life. The expected crisis is anthropogenic in origin, as changes in the Earth's biosphere, associated with human impact on it, lead to it.

The natural wealth of the planet is divided into non-renewable and renewable. Non-renewable, for example, include minerals, the reserves of which are limited. The trend in changes in renewable natural resources can be seen in the example of the forest. At present, about a third of the land is covered with forest, while in prehistoric times at least 70% was occupied by it.

The destruction of forests, first of all, sharply violates the water regime of the planet. Rivers become shallow, their bottom is covered with silt, and this, in turn, leads to the destruction of spawning grounds and a decrease in the number of fish. The reserves of groundwater are reduced, a lack of moisture in the soil is created. Melt water and rain streams wash away, and winds, not restrained by a forest barrier, weather the soil layer. The result is soil erosion. Wood, branches, bark, bedding accumulate mineral plant nutrients. The destruction of forests leads to the washing out of these soil elements and, consequently, a drop in its fertility. With deforestation, the birds, animals, insects-entomophagous inhabiting them perish. As a result, pests of agricultural crops reproduce freely.

The forest cleans the air from toxic pollution, in particular, it traps radioactive fallout and prevents their further spread, i.e. deforestation eliminates an important component of air self-purification. Finally, the destruction of forests on mountain slopes is a significant cause of the formation of ravines and mudflows.

Industrial waste, pesticides used to control pests of agricultural crops, radioactive substances, in particular, in the testing of nuclear and thermonuclear weapons, pollute the natural environment. So, only cars in large cities emit about 50 million m 3 of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere per year, in addition, each car emits about 1 kg of lead annually. It was found that in the body of people living near major highways, the lead content is increased.

Human activity changes the structure of the earth's surface, alienating the territory occupied by natural biogeocenoses for agricultural land, the construction of settlements, communications, reservoirs. To date, about 20% of the land has been converted in this way.

The negative impacts include unregulated fishing for fish, mammals, invertebrates, algae, changes in the chemical composition of water, air, and soil as a result of industrial, transport, and agricultural waste discharges.

Climate (ancient Greek κλίμα (genus p. κλίματος) - slope) is a long-term weather regime characteristic of a given area due to its geographical location. Climate is a statistical ensemble of states through which the system passes: hydrosphere → lithosphere → atmosphere over several decades. By climate it is customary to understand the average value of weather over a long period of time (of the order of several decades), that is, climate is the average weather. Thus, the weather is an instantaneous state of some characteristics (temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure). The deviation of the weather from the climatic norm cannot be considered as climate change, for example, a very cold winter does not indicate a cooling of the climate. To detect climate change, a significant trend in the characteristics of the atmosphere over a long period of time of the order of ten years is needed.

Climatic zones and climate types vary significantly in latitude, ranging from the equatorial zone to the polar zone, but climatic zones are not the only factor, the proximity of the sea, the atmospheric circulation system and altitude above sea level also have an important influence.

Brief description of the climates of Russia:

· Arctic: January t −24…-30, summer t +2…+5. Precipitation - 200-300 mm.

· Subarctic: (up to 60 degrees north latitude). summer t +4…+12. Precipitation 200-400 mm.

In Russia and on the territory of the former USSR, a classification of climate types was used, created in 1956 by the famous Soviet climatologist B.P. Alisov. This classification takes into account the features of atmospheric circulation. According to this classification, four main climatic zones are distinguished for each hemisphere of the Earth: equatorial, tropical, temperate and polar (in the northern hemisphere - arctic, in the southern hemisphere - antarctic). Between the main zones are transitional belts - subequatorial belt, subtropical, subpolar (subarctic and subantarctic). In these climatic zones, in accordance with the prevailing circulation of air masses, four types of climate can be distinguished: continental, oceanic, the climate of the western and the climate of the eastern coasts.

equatorial belt

Equatorial climate

Subequatorial belt

Tropical monsoon climate

Monsoon climate on tropical plateaus

Tropical belt

Tropical dry climate

Tropical humid climate

Subtropical belt

Mediterranean climate

Subtropical continental climate

Subtropical monsoon climate

The climate of the high subtropical highlands

Subtropical climate of the oceans

· Temperate zone

temperate maritime climate

temperate continental climate

Moderate sharply continental climate

temperate monsoon climate

Subpolar belt

Subarctic climate

Subantarctic climate

Polar belt: Polar climate

Arctic climate

Antarctic climate

The classification of climates proposed by the Russian scientist W. Köppen (1846-1940) is widespread in the world. It is based on the temperature regime and the degree of moisture. According to this classification, eight climatic zones with eleven types of climate are distinguished. Each type has precise parameters for temperature values, the amount of winter and summer precipitation.

Also in climatology, the following concepts related to climate characteristics are used:

Continental climate

Maritime climate

Alpine climate

Arid climate

Humid climate

Nival climate

solar climate

Monsoon climate

· Passat climate

Climatic zones are continuous or discontinuous regions that are parallel to the latitudes of the planet. Between themselves, they differ in the circulation of air currents and the amount of solar energy. The terrain, proximity to or are also important climate-forming factors.

According to the classification of the Soviet climatologist B.P. Alisov, there are seven main types of Earth's climate: equatorial, two tropical, two temperate and two polar (one each in the hemispheres). In addition, Alisov identified six intermediate belts, three in each hemisphere: two subequatorial, two subtropical, as well as subarctic and subantarctic.

Arctic and Antarctic climate zone

Arctic and Antarctic climate zone on the world map

The polar region adjacent to the North Pole is called the Arctic. It includes the territory of the Arctic Ocean, margins and Eurasia. The belt is represented by icy and, which are characterized by long severe winters. The maximum summer temperature is +5°C. Arctic ice affects the climate of the Earth as a whole, preventing it from overheating.

The Antarctic belt is located in the very south of the planet. Nearby islands are also under his influence. The cold pole is located on the mainland, so winter temperatures average -60°C. Summer figures do not rise above -20°C. The territory is located in the Arctic desert zone. The mainland is almost completely covered with ice. Land areas are found only in the coastal zone.

Subarctic and Subantarctic climate zone

Subarctic and Subantarctic climate zone on the world map

The subarctic zone includes Northern Canada, the south of Greenland, Alaska, the north of Scandinavia, the northern regions of Siberia and the Far East. The average winter temperature is -30°C. With the advent of a short summer, the mark rises to +20°C. In the north of this climatic zone dominates, which is characterized by high humidity, swampiness and frequent winds. The south is located in the forest-tundra zone. The soil has time to warm up during the summer, so bushes and woodlands grow here.

Within the subantarctic belt are the islands of the Southern Ocean near Antarctica. The zone is subject to the seasonal influence of air masses. In winter, arctic air dominates here, and in summer masses come from the temperate zone. The average temperature in winter is -15°C. Storms, fogs and snowfalls often occur on the islands. In the cold season, the entire water area is occupied by ice, but with the onset of summer, they melt. Warm months average -2°C. The climate can hardly be called favorable. The flora is represented by algae, lichens, mosses and herbs.

temperate climate zone

Temperate climate zone on the world map

In the temperate zone lies a quarter of the entire surface of the planet: North America, and. Its main feature is a clear expression of the seasons of the year. The prevailing air masses give high humidity and low pressure. The average winter temperature is 0°C. In summer, the mark rises above fifteen degrees. Cyclones prevailing in the northern part of the zone provoke snow and rain. Most of the precipitation falls as summer rain.

Territories deep into the continents are prone to droughts. represented by an alternation of forests and arid regions. It grows in the north, the flora of which is adapted to low temperatures and high humidity. Gradually it is replaced by a zone of mixed broad-leaved forests. The strip of steppes in the south encircles all the continents. The zone of semi-deserts and deserts covers the western part of North America and Asia.

Temperate climates are subdivided into the following subtypes:

nautical;
temperate continental;
sharply continental;
monsoon.

Subtropical climate zone

Subtropical climate zone on the world map

In the subtropical zone there is a part of the Black Sea coast, the southwest and, the south of the North and. In winter, the territories are influenced by air moving from the temperate zone. The thermometer rarely drops below zero. In summer, the climate zone is affected by subtropical cyclones, which warm the earth well. Humid air prevails in the eastern part of the continents. There are long summers and mild winters without frost. The western coasts are characterized by dry summers and warm winters.

Temperatures are much higher in the interior regions of the climate zone. The weather is almost always clear. Most of the precipitation falls during the cold period, when the air masses shift to the side. On the coasts, hard-leaved forests grow with an undergrowth of evergreen shrubs. In the northern hemisphere, they are replaced by a zone of subtropical steppes, smoothly flowing into the desert. In the southern hemisphere, the steppes turn into broad-leaved and deciduous forests. Mountain areas are represented by forest-meadow zones.

In the subtropical climate zone, the following climate subtypes are distinguished:

subtropical oceanic climate and Mediterranean climate;
subtropical inland climate;
subtropical monsoon climate;
climate of high subtropical highlands.

Tropical climate zone

Tropical climate zone on the world map

The tropical climate zone covers separate territories in everything except Antarctica. An area of high pressure dominates the oceans all year round. Because of this, there is little rainfall in the climate zone. Summer temperatures in both hemispheres exceed +35°C. Average winter temperatures are +10°C. The average daily temperature fluctuation is felt in the interior of the continents.

Most of the time the weather is clear and dry. Most of the precipitation occurs during the winter months. Significant temperature fluctuations provoke dust storms. On the coasts, the climate is much milder: winters are warm, and summers are mild and humid. Strong winds are practically absent, precipitation falls in the calendar summer. The dominant natural areas are tropical forests, deserts and semi-deserts.

The tropical climate zone includes the following climate subtypes:

trade wind climate;
tropical dry climate;
tropical monsoon climate;
monsoon climate on tropical plateaus.

Subequatorial climate zone

Subequatorial climatic zone on the world map

The subequatorial climatic zone affects both hemispheres of the Earth. In summer, the zone is influenced by equatorial wet winds. In winter, the trade winds dominate. The average annual temperature is +28°C. Daily temperature fluctuations are insignificant. Most of the precipitation falls during the warm season under the influence of the summer monsoons. The closer to the equator, the more abundant it rains. In summer, most rivers overflow their banks, and in winter they dry up completely.

The flora is represented by monsoon mixed forests and light forests. The foliage on the trees turns yellow and falls during the drought period. With the arrival of rains, it is restored. In the open spaces of the savannas, cereals and herbs grow. The plant world adapted to periods of rain and drought. Some remote forest areas have not yet been studied by man.

Equatorial climate zone

Equatorial climate zone on the world map

The belt is located on both sides of the equator. The constant flow of solar radiation creates a hot climate. Weather conditions are affected by air masses coming from the equator. The difference between winter and summer temperatures is only 3°C. Unlike other climatic zones, the equatorial climate remains virtually unchanged throughout the year. Temperatures do not fall below +27°C. Due to heavy rainfall, high humidity, fogs and clouds are formed. Strong winds are practically absent, which favorably affects the flora.

The classification of climates provides an ordered system for characterizing climate types, their zoning and mapping. Climate types that prevail over vast areas are called macroclimates. A macroclimatic region should have more or less uniform climatic conditions that distinguish it from other regions, although they are only a generalized characteristic (since there are no two places with an identical climate), more in line with realities than the allocation of climatic regions only on the basis of belonging to a certain latitude. - geographic zone.

Territories that are inferior in size to macroclimatic regions also have climatic features that deserve special study and classification. Mesoclimates (from the Greek meso - medium) are the climates of territories several square kilometers in size, for example, wide river valleys, intermountain depressions, basins of large lakes or cities. In terms of distribution area and nature of differences, mesoclimates are intermediate between macroclimates and microclimates. The latter characterize the climatic conditions in small areas of the earth's surface. Microclimatic observations are carried out, for example, on the streets of cities or on test sites established within a homogeneous plant community.

Ice sheet climate dominates in Greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below 0 °C. During the dark winter season, these regions receive absolutely no solar radiation, although there are twilight and auroras. Even in summer, the sun's rays fall on the earth's surface at a slight angle, which reduces the heating efficiency. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by the ice. In both summer and winter, low temperatures prevail in the elevated regions of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. The climate of the interior of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since the southern mainland is large and high, and the Arctic Ocean moderates the climate, despite the wide distribution of pack ice. In summer, during short periods of warming, drift ice sometimes melts.

Precipitation on ice sheets falls in the form of snow or small particles of ice mist. Inland regions receive only 50-125 mm of precipitation annually, but more than 500 mm can fall on the coast. Sometimes cyclones bring clouds and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds that carry significant masses of snow, blowing it off the rocks. Strong katabatic winds with snowstorms blow from the cold ice sheet, bringing snow to the coast.

subpolar climate manifests itself in the tundra regions on the northern outskirts of North America and Eurasia, as well as on the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent islands. In eastern Canada and Siberia, the southern boundary of this climatic zone runs well south of the Arctic Circle due to the strongly pronounced influence of vast land masses. This leads to long and extremely cold winters. Summers are short and cool with average monthly temperatures rarely exceeding +10°C. To some extent, long days compensate for the short duration of summer, however, in most of the territory, the heat received is not enough to completely thaw the soil. Permanently frozen ground, called permafrost, inhibits plant growth and the infiltration of melt water into the ground. Therefore, in summer, flat areas turn out to be swampy. On the coast, winter temperatures are somewhat higher, and summer temperatures are somewhat lower than in the interior of the mainland. In summer, when humid air is over cold water or sea ice, fog often occurs on Arctic coasts.

The annual amount of precipitation usually does not exceed 380 mm. Most of them fall in the form of rain or snow in summer, during the passage of cyclones. On the coast, the bulk of precipitation can be brought by winter cyclones. But the low temperatures and clear weather of the cold season, characteristic of most areas with a subpolar climate, are unfavorable for significant snow accumulation.

subarctic climate It is also known under the name "taiga climate" (according to the predominant type of vegetation - coniferous forests). This climatic zone covers the temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere - the northern regions of North America and Eurasia, located immediately south of the subpolar climatic zone. There are sharp seasonal climatic differences due to the position of this climatic zone at fairly high latitudes in the interior of the continents. Winters are long and extremely cold, and the further north you go, the shorter the days. Summers are short and cool with long days. In winter, the period with negative temperatures is very long, and in summer the temperature can sometimes exceed +32°C. In Yakutsk, the average temperature in January is -43°C, in July - +19°C, i.e. the annual temperature range reaches 62°C. A milder climate is typical for coastal areas, such as southern Alaska or northern Scandinavia.

In most of the considered climatic zone, less than 500 mm of precipitation per year falls, and their amount is maximum on the windward coasts and minimum in the interior of Siberia. Very little snow falls in winter, snowfalls are associated with rare cyclones. Summers are usually wetter, and it rains mainly during the passage of atmospheric fronts. The coasts are often foggy and overcast. In winter, in severe frosts, icy fogs hang over the snow cover.

Humid continental climate with short summers characteristic of a vast band of temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, it extends from the prairies in south-central Canada to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, and in Eurasia it covers most of Eastern Europe and parts of Central Siberia. The same type of climate is observed in the Japanese island of Hokkaido and in the south of the Far East. The main climatic features of these regions are determined by the prevailing westerly transport and the frequent passage of atmospheric fronts. In severe winters, average air temperatures can drop to -18°C. Summers are short and cool, with a frost-free period of less than 150 days. The annual temperature range is not as large as in the subarctic climate. In Moscow, the average January temperatures are -9°C, July - +18°C. In this climatic zone, spring frosts pose a constant threat to agriculture. In the coastal provinces of Canada, in New England and on about. Hokkaido's winters are warmer than inland areas, as easterly winds occasionally bring in warmer ocean air.

Annual rainfall ranges from less than 500 mm in the interior of the continents to over 1000 mm on the coasts. In most of the region, precipitation occurs mainly in summer, often during thunderstorms. Winter precipitation, mainly in the form of snow, is associated with the passage of fronts in cyclones. Blizzards are often observed in the rear of a cold front.

Humid continental climate with long summers. Air temperatures and the duration of the summer season increase to the south in areas of humid continental climate. This type of climate is manifested in the temperate latitudinal zone of North America from the eastern part of the Great Plains to the Atlantic coast, and in southeastern Europe - in the lower reaches of the Danube. Similar climatic conditions are also expressed in northeastern China and central Japan. Here, too, western transport predominates. The average temperature of the warmest month is +22°С (but temperatures can exceed +38°С), summer nights are warm. Winters are not as cold as in areas of humid continental climate with short summers, but temperatures sometimes drop below 0°C. The annual temperature range is usually 28°C, as, for example, in Peoria (Illinois, USA), where the average temperature in January is -4°C, and in July - +24°C. On the coast, the annual temperature amplitudes decrease.

Most often, in a humid continental climate with a long summer, from 500 to 1100 mm of precipitation falls annually. The greatest amount of precipitation is brought by summer thunderstorms during the growing season. In winter, rains and snowfalls are mainly associated with the passage of cyclones and related fronts.

Maritime climate of temperate latitudes inherent in the western coasts of the continents, primarily in northwestern Europe, the central part of the Pacific coast of North America, southern Chile, southeastern Australia and New Zealand. The prevailing westerly winds blowing from the oceans have a softening effect on the course of air temperature. Winters are mild with average temperatures of the coldest month above 0°C, but when the Arctic air currents reach the coasts, there are also frosts. Summers are generally quite warm; during intrusions of continental air during the daytime, the temperature can rise to +38°C for a short time. This type of climate with a small annual temperature range is the most moderate among the climates of temperate latitudes. For example, in Paris, the average temperature in January is +3°С, in July - +18°С.

In areas of temperate maritime climate, the average annual precipitation ranges from 500 to 2500 mm. The windward slopes of the coastal mountains are the most humid. Precipitation is fairly even throughout the year in many areas, with the exception of the US Pacific Northwest, which has very wet winters. Cyclones moving from the oceans bring a lot of precipitation to the western continental margins. In winter, as a rule, cloudy weather persists with light rains and occasional short-term snowfalls. Fogs are common on the coasts, especially in summer and autumn.

Humid subtropical climate characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution are the southeastern United States, some southeastern regions of Europe, northern India and Myanmar, eastern China and southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, the coast of Natal in South Africa and the east coast of Australia. Summer in the humid subtropics is long and hot, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds +27°C, and the maximum temperature is +38°C. Winters are mild, with average monthly temperatures above 0°C, but occasional frosts have a detrimental effect on vegetable and citrus plantations.

In the humid subtropics, the average annual precipitation ranges from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation over the seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rains and rare snowfalls are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful inflows of warm and humid oceanic air, which are characteristic of the monsoonal circulation of East Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) appear in late summer and autumn, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.

Subtropical climate with dry summers typical of the western coasts of the continents north and south of the tropics. In Southern Europe and North Africa, such climatic conditions are typical for the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, which was the reason for calling this climate also Mediterranean. The same climate is in southern California, the central regions of Chile, in the extreme south of Africa and in a number of areas in southern Australia. All these regions have hot summers and mild winters. As in the humid subtropics, there are occasional frosts in winter. In inland areas, summer temperatures are much higher than on the coasts, and often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. In summer, on the coasts near which ocean currents pass, there are often fogs. For example, in San Francisco, summers are cool, foggy, and the warmest month is September.

The maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing westerly air currents shift towards the equator. The influence of anticyclones and downward air currents under the oceans determine the dryness of the summer season. The average annual precipitation in a subtropical climate ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches maximum values on the coasts and mountain slopes. In the summer, there is usually not enough rainfall for the normal growth of trees, and therefore a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation develops there, known as maquis, chaparral, mali, machia and fynbosh.

Semi-arid climate of temperate latitudes(synonym - steppe climate) is characteristic mainly for inland regions, remote from the oceans - sources of moisture - and usually located in the rain shadow of high mountains. The main regions with a semi-arid climate are the intermountain basins and the Great Plains of North America and the steppes of central Eurasia. Hot summers and cold winters are due to the inland position in temperate latitudes. At least one winter month has an average temperature below 0°C, and the average temperature of the warmest summer month exceeds +21°C. The temperature regime and the duration of the frost-free period vary significantly depending on the latitude.

The term "semiarid" is used to characterize this climate because it is less dry than the actual arid climate. The average annual precipitation is usually less than 500 mm but more than 250 mm. Since the development of steppe vegetation at higher temperatures requires more precipitation, the latitudinal-geographical and altitudinal position of the area is determined by climatic changes. For a semi-arid climate, there are no general regularities in the distribution of precipitation throughout the year. For example, areas bordering the subtropics with dry summers experience a maximum of precipitation in winter, while areas adjacent to areas of a humid continental climate experience rainfall mainly in summer. Mid-latitude cyclones bring most of the winter precipitation, which often falls as snow and can be accompanied by strong winds. Summer thunderstorms often come with hail. The amount of precipitation varies greatly from year to year.

Arid climate of temperate latitudes is inherent mainly in the Central Asian deserts, and in the western United States - only in small areas in intermountain basins. Temperatures are the same as in regions with a semi-arid climate, but the precipitation here is not enough for the existence of a closed natural vegetation cover and the average annual amounts usually do not exceed 250 mm. As in semi-arid climatic conditions, the amount of precipitation that determines aridity depends on the thermal regime.

Semi-arid climate of low latitudes mostly typical of the fringes of tropical deserts (eg the Sahara and the deserts of central Australia), where downdrafts in subtropical high pressure zones preclude precipitation. The climate under consideration differs from the semi-arid climate of temperate latitudes by very hot summers and warm winters. Average monthly temperatures are above 0°C, although frosts occasionally occur in winter, especially in areas furthest from the equator and located at higher altitudes. The amount of precipitation required for the existence of dense natural herbaceous vegetation is higher here than in temperate latitudes. In the equatorial zone, it rains mainly in summer, while on the outer (northern and southern) margins of the deserts, the maximum precipitation occurs in winter. Precipitation mostly falls in the form of thunderstorms, and in winter the rains are brought by cyclones.

Arid climate of low latitudes. This is a hot dry climate of tropical deserts, stretching along the Northern and Southern tropics and being influenced by subtropical anticyclones for most of the year. Salvation from the sweltering summer heat can only be found on the coasts washed by cold ocean currents, or in the mountains. On the plains, the average summer temperatures noticeably exceed +32°C, while winter temperatures are usually above +10°C.

In most of this climatic region, the average annual precipitation does not exceed 125 mm. It happens that at many meteorological stations for several years in a row precipitation is not recorded at all. Sometimes the average annual precipitation can reach 380 mm, but this is still enough only for the development of sparse desert vegetation. Occasionally, precipitation occurs in the form of short-lived heavy thunderstorms, but the water quickly drains to form flash floods. The driest regions are along the western coasts of South America and Africa, where cold ocean currents prevent cloud formation and precipitation. These coasts often have fogs formed by the condensation of moisture in the air over the colder surface of the ocean.

Variable humid tropical climate. Areas with such a climate are located in tropical sublatitudinal zones, a few degrees north and south of the equator. This climate is also called tropical monsoon, as it prevails in those parts of South Asia that are influenced by monsoons. Other areas with such a climate are the tropics of Central and South America, Africa and Northern Australia. Average summer temperatures are usually approx. + 27 ° С, and winter - approx. +21°С. The hottest month usually precedes the summer rainy season.

Average annual rainfall ranges from 750 to 2000 mm. During the summer rainy season, the intertropical convergence zone exerts a decisive influence on the climate. There are often thunderstorms here, sometimes continuous cloud cover with prolonged rains persists for a long time. Winter is dry, as subtropical anticyclones dominate this season. In some areas, rain does not fall for two to three winter months. In South Asia, the wet season coincides with the summer monsoon, which brings moisture from the Indian Ocean, and Asian continental dry air masses spread here in winter.

humid tropical climate, or the climate of tropical rainforests, common in equatorial latitudes in the Amazon basin in South America and the Congo in Africa, on the Malay Peninsula and on the islands of Southeast Asia. In the humid tropics, the average temperature of any month is not less than + 17 ° C, usually the average monthly temperature is approx. +26°С. As in the variable humid tropics, due to the high midday position of the Sun above the horizon and the same length of the day throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Humid air, cloudiness and dense vegetation prevent nighttime cooling and maintain maximum daytime temperatures below +37°C, lower than at higher latitudes.

The average annual rainfall in the humid tropics ranges from 1500 to 2500 mm, the distribution over the seasons is usually fairly even. Precipitation is mainly associated with the intratropical convergence zone, which is located slightly north of the equator. Seasonal shifts of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two precipitation maxima during the year, separated by drier periods. Every day, thousands of thunderstorms roll over the humid tropics. In the intervals between them, the sun shines in full force.

Highland climates. In highland areas, a significant variety of climatic conditions is due to the latitudinal-geographical position, orographic barriers, and different exposure of the slopes in relation to the Sun and moisture-carrying air currents. Even at the equator in the mountains there are snowfields-migrations. The lower boundary of the eternal snows descends towards the poles, reaching sea level in the polar regions. Like it, other boundaries of high-altitude thermal belts decrease as they approach high latitudes. Windward slopes of mountain ranges receive more precipitation. On mountain slopes open to the intrusions of cold air, a drop in temperature is possible. In general, the climate of the highlands is characterized by lower temperatures, higher cloudiness, more precipitation, and a more complex wind regime than the climate of the plains at the corresponding latitudes. The nature of seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation in the highlands is usually the same as in the adjacent plains.

In the article brought to your attention, we want to talk about the types of climate in Russia. Weather conditions remain always the same, despite the fact that they can change and transform slightly. This constancy makes some regions attractive for recreation, while others - difficult to survive.

It is important to note that Russia's climate is unique and cannot be found in any other country. Of course, this can be explained by the vast expanses of our state and its length. And the uneven location of water resources and the diversity of the relief only contribute to this. On the territory of Russia, you can find both high mountain peaks and plains that lie below sea level.

Climate

Before we look at the types of climate in Russia, we suggest getting acquainted with this term itself.

Thousands of years ago in ancient Greece, people discovered a connection between the weather, which is regularly repeated, and the angle of incidence of the sun's rays on the Earth. At the same time, the word "climate" began to be used for the first time, meaning slope. What did the Greeks mean by this? It's very simple: climate is the inclination of the sun's rays relative to the earth's surface.

What is meant by climate today? This term is commonly used to call the long-term weather regime prevailing in a given area. It is determined by observations over many years. What are the characteristics of the climate? These include:

temperature;
the amount of precipitation;
precipitation regime;
Direction of the wind.

This is, so to speak, the average state of the atmosphere in a certain area, which depends on many factors. What exactly is at stake, you will learn in the next section of the article.

Factors influencing climate formation

Considering the climatic zones and types of climate in Russia, one cannot but pay attention to the factors that are fundamental for their formation.

Climate-forming factors in Russia:

geographical position;
relief;
large reservoirs;
solar radiation;
wind.

What is the main climate-forming factor? Of course, the angle of incidence of the sun's rays on the surface of the Earth. It is this slope that leads to the fact that different territories receive an unequal amount of heat. It depends on the geographic latitude. Therefore, it is said that the climate of any locality, to begin with, depends on the geographical latitude.

Imagine this situation: our Earth, or rather its surface, is homogeneous. Let's assume that this is a continuous land, which consists of plains. If this were the case, then our story could be completed on climate-forming factors. But the surface of the planet is far from homogeneous. We can find continents, mountains, oceans, plains and so on on it. They are the reason for the existence of other factors that affect the climate.

Particular attention can be paid to the oceans. What is it connected with? Of course, with the fact that water masses heat up very quickly, and cool down extremely slowly (compared to land). And the seas and oceans are a significant part of the surface of our planet.

Speaking about the types of climate on the territory of Russia, of course, I would like to pay special attention to the geographical position of the country, since this factor is fundamental. In addition, the distribution of solar radiation and air circulation depend on the HP.

We propose to highlight the main features of the geographical position of Russia:

large extent from north to south;
availability of access to three oceans;
simultaneous presence in four climatic zones at once;
the presence of territories that are far removed from the oceans.

Types

In this section of the article you can see the table "Types of climates in Russia". Before that, a little preface. Our country is so large that it stretches for four and a half thousand kilometers from north to south. Most of the area is located in the temperate climate zone (from the Kaliningrad region to Kamchatka). However, even in the temperate zone, the influence of the oceans is not uniform. Now let's move on to the table.

	Location	t (January)	Rainfall (mm)		Vegetation
Arctic	Islands of the Arctic Ocean		200 to 400		Moss, lichen and algae.
Subarctic	Russian and West Siberian Plains outside the Arctic Circle		400 to 800	UVM and AVM	Polar varieties of willow and birch, as well as lichens.
temperate continental	European part of the country		600 to 800		Larch, maple, ash, spruce, pine, cedar, shrubs, herbs, oak, cranberries, feather grass and so on.
Continental	Western part of Siberia		400 to 600		Siberian and Daurian larch, honeysuckle, spruce, pine, feather grass, wild rosemary.
sharp continental	East of Siberia		200 to 400		Wormwood, Dahurian larch.

From the table on geography “Types of climates in Russia” presented in this section of the article, it becomes clear how diverse our country is. But the characteristics of the belts are given extremely concisely, we propose to consider each of them in more detail.

Arctic

The first in our table is the arctic type of weather conditions. Where can it be found? These are zones located near the pole. In total, two types of arctic climate are distinguished:

in the Antarctic;
in the Arctic.

With regard to weather conditions, these territories6 are distinguished by their harsh nature, which does not imply comfortable living for people in this area. Temperatures are sub-zero all year round, and the polar summer comes for only a few weeks or is absent altogether. The temperature at this moment does not exceed ten degrees Celsius. There is very little rainfall in these areas. Based on such weather conditions, there is very little vegetation in the Arctic belt.

Moderate

Considering the types of climate in Russia, one cannot lose sight of the temperate zone, since these are the most common weather conditions in our country.

What characterizes the temperate climate zone? First of all, this is the division of the year into four seasons. As you know, two of them are transitional - spring and autumn, in summer it is warm in these territories, and cold in winter.

Another feature is periodic cloudiness. Precipitation here is a fairly common occurrence, they are formed under the influence of cyclones and anticyclones. There is one interesting pattern: the closer the area is to the ocean, the more noticeable this effect.

It is also important to note that most of our country is located in a temperate climate. In addition, such weather conditions are characteristic of the United States and much of Europe.

Subpolar

Speaking about the characteristics of the types of climate in Russia, one cannot ignore the intermediate option. For example, anyone can determine the climate in the Arctic, but what about the tundra? Difficult to answer? It is important to note that this territory simultaneously combines a temperate and polar climate. For this reason, scientists have identified intermediate climatic zones.

Now we are talking about northern Russia. There is very poor evaporation, but an incredibly high level of precipitation. All this leads to the formation of swamps. Quite severe weather conditions: short summer with a maximum temperature of fifteen degrees above zero, long and cold winters (up to -45 degrees Celsius).

Nautical

Although this species is not included in the main types of Russian climate, I would like to pay a little attention to it. Here you can make small distinctions:

moderate;
tropical.

These varieties of maritime climate have similarities, despite the fact that there are a number of impressive differences. As the name implies, the maritime climate is typical for coastal areas. Here you can observe a very smooth transition of the seasons, minimal temperature fluctuations. Its characteristic features:

strong wind;
high cloudiness;
constant humidity.

Continental

Among the types of climate in Russia, it is worth highlighting the continental. It can be divided into several types:

moderate;
cutting;
usual.

The most striking example is the central part of Russia. Among the features of the climate are the following:

sunny weather;
anticyclones;
strong temperature fluctuations (daily and annual);
rapid change from winter to summer.

As can be seen from the table, these regions are rich in vegetation, and the temperature varies greatly depending on the season.

In accordance with the classification of climates by B.P. Alisov, in various climatic zones on the land the following main types of climate are formed ( fig.10).

Fig.10. Climatic zones of the Earth:

1 - equatorial; 2 - subequatorial; 3 - tropical; 4 - subtropical; 5 - moderate; 6 - subarctic; 7 - subantarctic; 8 - arctic; 9 - Antarctic

equatorial belt located in equatorial latitudes, reaching 8° latitude in places. The total solar radiation is 100–160 kcal/cm2 year, the radiation balance is 60–70 kcal/cm2 year.

Equatorial hot humid climate occupies the western and central parts of the continents and the islands of the Indian Ocean and the Malay Archipelago in the equatorial belt. Average monthly temperatures are +25 - +28° all year round, seasonal fluctuations are 1–3°. The circulation is monsoonal: in January, the winds are northern, in July - southern. Annual precipitation is usually 1000–3000 mm (sometimes more), with uniform precipitation throughout the year. Humidification is excessive. Constantly high temperatures and high air humidity make this type of climate extremely difficult for a person, especially for a European. There is the possibility of year-round tropical farming with the cultivation of two crops per year.

FROM at backquato R ial belts are located in the subequatorial latitudes of both hemispheres, reaching in places 20 ° latitude, as well as in equatorial latitudes on the eastern margins of the continents. The total solar radiation is 140–170 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance 70–80 kcal/cm 2 year. In connection with the seasonal movement of the intertropical baric depression from one hemisphere to another following the zenithal position of the Sun, there is a seasonal change in air masses, winds and weather. In winter, each hemisphere is dominated by CTs, trade winds towards the equator, and anticyclonic weather. In the summer of each hemisphere, computers dominate, winds (equatorial monsoon) of the counter-trade wind from the equator, cyclonic weather.

Subequatorial climate with sufficient moisture adjoins directly to the equatorial climate and occupies most of the subequatorial belts, except for regions adjacent to tropical climates. Average temperatures in winter are +20 - +24°, in summer - +24 - +29°, seasonal fluctuations are within 4–5°. The annual precipitation is usually 500–2000 mm (maximum in Cherrapunji). The dry winter season is associated with the dominance of continental tropical air, the wet summer season is usually associated with the equatorial monsoon and the passage of cyclones along the ETC line and lasts more than six months. The exceptions are the eastern slopes of the Hindustan and Indochina peninsulas and northeast Sri Lanka, where the maximum precipitation is winter, due to the saturation of the winter continental monsoon with moisture over the South China Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Humidification on average per year is from close to sufficient to excessive, but it is distributed very unevenly over the seasons. The climate is favorable for growing tropical crops.

Subequatorial climate with insufficient moistureeniem adjoins tropical climates: in South America - Caatinga, in Africa - the Sahelip-s of Somalia, in Asia - the west of the Indo-Gangetic lowland and north-west of Hindustan, in Australia - the south coast of the Carpentaria and Arnhemland peninsula. high in the northern hemisphere (due to the vast area of \u200b\u200bthe continents in these latitudes) + 27 - + 32 °, somewhat lower in the southern - + 25 - + 30 °; seasonal fluctuations are 6–12°. Here, most of the year (up to 10 months) is dominated by CT and anticyclonic weather. The annual rainfall is 250–700 mm. The dry winter season is due to the dominance of tropical air; the wet summer season is associated with the equatorial monsoon and lasts less than half a year, in some places only 2 months. Moisture is inadequate everywhere. The climate makes it possible to grow tropical crops after carrying out measures to improve soil fertility and with additional irrigation.

T R optically e belts located in tropical latitudes, reaching 30–35° latitude in places; and on the western margins of South America and Africa in the southern hemisphere, the tropical belt wedges out, because here, due to cold ocean currents, the intertropical baric depression is located north of the equator all year round and the southern subtropical climatic zone reaches the equator. Tropical air masses and trade wind circulation dominate throughout the year. The total solar radiation reaches its maximum on the planet: 180–220 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance 60–70 kcal/cm2 year.

Tropical climate bedesert deserts formed on the western outskirts of the continents under the influence of cold ocean currents. Average winter temperatures are +10 - +20°, summer - +16 - +28°, seasonal temperature fluctuations are 6–8°. Tropical sea chilled air is carried throughout the year by the trade winds blowing along the coast. The annual amount of precipitation is low due to the trade wind inversion - 50–250 mm and only in some places up to 400 mm. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of clouds and fogs. Humidification is severely inadequate. Tropical farming is possible only in oases with artificial irrigation and systematic work to improve soil fertility.

ClAndmat of tropical continental deserts typical for the interior regions of the continents and is distinguished by the most pronounced features of continentality within the tropical zones. The average winter temperatures are +10 - + 24 °, summer - in the northern hemisphere +29 - + 38 °, in the southern - + 24 - + 32 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations in the northern hemisphere 16–19°, in the southern - 8–14°; diurnal fluctuations often reach 30°. Throughout the year, dry KTV dominates, carried by trade winds. The annual amount of precipitation is 50–250 mm. Precipitation falls sporadically, extremely unevenly: in some areas it may not rain for several years, and then a downpour will pass. There are frequent cases when raindrops do not reach the ground, evaporating in the air when approaching the hot surface of a rocky or sandy desert. Humidification is severely inadequate. Due to extremely high summer temperatures and dryness, this type of climate is extremely unfavorable for agriculture: tropical farming is possible only in oases on abundantly and systematically irrigated lands.

The climate is tropicalesky wet confined to the eastern margins of the continents. Formed under the influence of warm ocean currents. Average temperatures in winter are +12 - +24°, in summer - +20 - +29°, seasonal temperature fluctuations are 4–17°. The warmed MTV, brought from the ocean by trade winds, dominates all year round. The annual precipitation is 500–3000 mm, and the eastern windward slopes receive approximately twice as much precipitation as the western leeward slopes. Precipitation falls throughout the year with a summer maximum. Humidification is sufficient, only in some places on the leeward slopes it is somewhat insufficient. The climate is favorable for tropical agriculture, but the combination of high temperatures with high humidity makes it hard to bear for humans.

subtropical e belt located beyond the tropical belts in subtropical latitudes, reaching 42–45 ° latitude. Everywhere there is a seasonal change of air masses: moderate air masses dominate in winter, and tropical ones in summer. The total solar radiation is within 120–170 kcal/cm2 year. The radiation balance is usually 50–60 kcal/cm 2 year, only in some places it decreases to 45 kcal (in South America) or rises to 70 kcal (in Florida).

subtropical avgeMediterranean climate formed on the western outskirts of the mainland and adjacent islands. Average winter temperatures under the influence of the MU invasion are homogeneous: +4 - + 12 °, frosts occur, but rare and short; summer temperatures in the northern hemisphere +16 - + 26 ° and in the southern - +16 - + 20 °, only in Australia reach +24 °; seasonal fluctuations in temperatures 12–14 °. There is a seasonal change of air masses, winds and weather. The winter of each hemisphere is dominated by ISW, westerly winds and cyclonic weather; in summer - KTV, trade winds and anticyclonic weather. Annual precipitation is 500–2000 mm. Precipitation is extremely uneven: western windward slopes usually receive twice as much precipitation as eastern leeward slopes. Periods alternate: wet winter (due to the ISW and the passage of cyclones along the polar front) and dry summer (due to the predominance of CTs). Precipitation falls more often in the form of rains, in winter occasionally - in the form of snow, moreover, a stable snow cover does not form and after a few days the fallen snow melts. Humidification is sufficient on the western and insufficient on the eastern slopes. This climate is the most comfortable for living on the planet. It is favorable for agriculture, especially subtropical (irrigation is sometimes required on the leeward slopes), and is also very favorable for human habitation. This contributed to the fact that it was in the areas of this type of climate that the most ancient civilizations were born and a large number of the population has long been concentrated. Currently, there are many resorts in the areas of the Mediterranean climate.

subtropical continenal arid climate confined to the interior regions of the continents in subtropical zones. Average winter temperatures in the northern hemisphere are often negative -8 - + 4 °, in the southern - +4 - + 10 °; summer temperatures in the northern hemisphere + 20 - + 32 ° and in the southern - + 20 - + 24 °; °, in the south - 14–16 °. Continental air masses dominate throughout the year: moderate in winter, tropical in summer. Annual precipitation in the northern hemisphere is 50–500 mm, in the southern hemisphere - 200–500 mm. Humidification is insufficient, especially sharply insufficient in the northern hemisphere. In this climate, agriculture is possible only with artificial irrigation, pasture cattle breeding is also possible.

Subtropicalequal toerno wetmonsoonalclimate characteristic of the eastern margins of the continents in the subtropical belts. Formed under the influence of warm ocean currents. Average winter temperatures in the northern hemisphere are -8 - +12° and in the southern - +6 - +10°, in summer in the northern hemisphere +20 - +28° and in the southern - +18 - +24°; seasonal temperature fluctuations in the northern hemisphere are 16–28° and in the southern hemisphere - 12–14°. There is a seasonal change in air masses and winds during year-round cyclonic weather: in winter, the KUV dominates, brought by the winds of the western directions, in summer - the warm MTV, brought by the winds of the eastern directions. Annual rainfall is 800–1500 mm, in some places up to 2000 mm. At the same time, precipitation falls throughout the year: in winter due to the passage of cyclones along the polar front, in summer they are brought by oceanic monsoons formed from trade winds. In winter, precipitation in the form of snow prevails in the northern hemisphere, while in the southern hemisphere, winter snowfalls are very rare. In the northern hemisphere, snow cover can form for weeks to months (especially in inland areas), while in the southern hemisphere, as a rule, no snow cover forms. Humidification is sufficient, on the eastern slopes - somewhat excessive. This type of climate is favorable for human habitation and for economic activity, however, in some regions, winter frosts limit the spread of subtropical agriculture.

Mind R military belts are located beyond the subtropical belts in both hemispheres, reaching in places 58–67 ° N latitude. in the northern hemisphere and 60–70° S.l. - in the south. The total solar radiation is usually in the range of 60–120 kcal/cm 2 year, and only over the northern part of Central Asia, due to the predominance of anticyclonic weather there, does it reach 140–160 kcal/cm 2 year. The annual radiation balance in the northern hemisphere is 25–50 kcal/cm 2 and 40–50 kcal/cm 2 in the southern hemisphere due to the predominance of land areas adjacent to the subtropical zone. Moderate air masses dominate throughout the year.

Diedecurrent maritime climate It is formed on the western outskirts of the continents and adjacent islands under the influence of warm ocean currents, and only in South America - the cold Peruvian current. Winters are mild: average temperatures are +4 - +8°, summers are cool: average temperatures are +8 - +16°, seasonal temperature fluctuations are 4–8°. All-the-year-round prevailing winds and westerly transfer winds, the air is characterized by high relative and moderate absolute humidity, fogs are frequent. The windward slopes of western exposure receive especially a lot of precipitation: 1000–3000 mm/year; on the eastern leeward slopes, precipitation is 700–1000 mm. The number of cloudy days in a year is very high; precipitation falls throughout the year with a summer maximum associated with the passage of cyclones along the polar front. Humidification is excessive on the western slopes and sufficient on the eastern ones. The mildness and humidity of the climate are favorable for horticulture and meadow growing, and in connection with this, dairy farming. There are conditions for year-round marine fisheries.

temperate climate, laneerunning frommaritimeto continental, is formed in areas immediately adjacent from the east to areas of temperate maritime climate. Winter is moderately cold: in the northern hemisphere 0 - -16 °, there are thaws, in the southern - 0 - + 6 °; summer is not hot: +12 - +24° in the northern hemisphere, +9 - +20° in the southern hemisphere; seasonal temperature fluctuations in the northern hemisphere are 12–40°, in the southern hemisphere - 9–14°. This transitional climate is formed when the influence of western transport is weakened as the air moves eastward, as a result, the air cools and loses moisture in winter, and warms up more strongly in summer. Precipitation is 300–1000 mm/year; the maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones along the polar front: at higher latitudes in summer, at lower latitudes in spring and autumn. Due to significant differences in temperature and precipitation, humidification is from excessive to insufficient. In general, this type of climate is quite favorable for human habitation: it is possible to grow crops with a short growing season and livestock, especially dairy.

temperate continental climate formed in the interior of the continents only in the northern hemisphere. Winter is the coldest in temperate zones, long, with persistent frosts: average temperatures in North America are -4 - -26 °, in Eurasia - -16 - -40 °; summer is the hottest in temperate zones: average temperatures are +16 - +26°, in some places up to +30°; seasonal temperature fluctuations in North America are 30–42°, in Eurasia - 32–56°. A more severe winter in Eurasia is due to the larger size of the continent in these latitudes and the vast expanses occupied by permafrost. The WHC dominates all year round; in winter, stable winter anticyclones with anticyclonic weather are established over the territory of these regions. The annual precipitation is more often in the range of 400–1000 mm, only in Central Asia it decreases to less than 200 mm. Precipitation falls unevenly throughout the year, the maximum is usually confined to the warm season and is associated with the passage of cyclones along the polar front. Humidification is heterogeneous: there are areas with sufficient and unstable moisture, there are also arid regions. Human habitat conditions are quite diverse: logging, forestry and fisheries are possible; opportunities for agriculture and animal husbandry are limited.

Moderatemonsoonalclimate formed on the eastern outskirts of Eurasia. Winter is cold: average temperatures are -10 - -32 °, summer is not hot: average temperatures are +12 - + 24 °; seasonal fluctuations in temperatures 34–44 °. There is a seasonal change in air masses, winds, and weather: in winter, KUV, northwestern winds, and anticyclonic weather prevail; in summer - MUW, southeasterly winds and cyclonic weather. Annual precipitation is 500–1200 mm with a pronounced summer maximum. In winter, a small snow cover forms. Humidification is sufficient and somewhat excessive (on the eastern slopes), the continentality of the climate increases from east to west. The climate is favorable for human habitation: agriculture and various animal husbandry, forestry and crafts are possible.

Temperate climate with cold and snowy winters is formed on the northeastern margins of the continents of the northern hemisphere within the temperate zone under the influence of cold ocean currents. Winter is cold and long: average temperatures are -8 - -28 °; summer is relatively short and cool: average temperatures are +8 - +16 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 24–36°. In winter, the KUV dominates, sometimes the KAV breaks through; MUV penetrates in summer. The annual rainfall is 400–1000 mm. Precipitation falls throughout the year: in winter, heavy snowfalls are generated by the invasion of cyclones along the Arctic front, a long and stable snow cover exceeds 1 m; in summer, precipitation is brought by the oceanic monsoon and is associated with cyclones along the polar front. Humidification is excessive. The climate is difficult for human habitation and economic activity: there are conditions for the development of reindeer herding, breeding sled dogs, and fishing; farming opportunities are limited by a short growing season.

Suba R ktictic belt located beyond the temperate belt in subarctic latitudes and reaches 65–75° N. latitude. The total solar radiation is 60–90 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance +15 - +25 kcal / cm 2 year. Seasonal change of air masses: arctic air masses dominate in winter, moderate in summer.

Subarcticmaritime climate confined to the marginal regions of the continents in the subarctic zone. Winter is long, but moderately severe: average temperatures are -14 - -30 °, only in Western Europe warm currents soften the winter to -2 °; summer is short and cool: average temperatures are +4 - +12 °; seasonal fluctuations in temperatures 26–34 °. Seasonal change of air masses: Arctic predominantly sea air in winter, moderate sea air in summer. The annual amount of precipitation is 250–600 mm, and on the windward slopes of the coastal mountains - up to 1000–1100 mm. Precipitation falls throughout the year. Winter precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones along the Arctic front, which bring snowfalls and snowstorms. In summer, precipitation is associated with the penetration of ISW - it falls in the form of rain, but there are also snowfalls, dense fogs are often observed, especially in coastal areas. Humidification is sufficient, and on the coasts - excessive. The conditions for human habitation are rather harsh: the development of agriculture is limited to a cool short summer with a corresponding short growing season.

Subarcticcontinemental climate is formed in the interior of the continents in the subarctic zone. In winter, long, severe and persistent frosts: average temperatures -24 - -50 °; summer is cool and short: average temperatures are +8 - +14 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations are 38–58°, and in some years they can reach 100°. In winter, the CAW dominates, which spreads in different directions from winter continental anticyclones (Canadian and Siberian); in summer, the EHW and its inherent western transport predominate. Precipitation is 200–600 mm per year, the summer maximum of precipitation is clearly pronounced due to the penetration of the ISW into the mainland at this time; snowy winter. Humidification is sufficient. The conditions for human habitation are very harsh: farming at low summer temperatures and a short growing season is difficult, there are opportunities for forestry and crafts.

Subantarctic belt is located beyond the southern temperate zone and reaches 63–73°S. The total solar radiation is 65–75 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance +20 - +30kcal/cm2 year. Seasonal change of air masses: Antarctic air dominates in winter, moderate in summer.

Subantarcticmaritime climate occupies the entire subantarctic belt, land only on the Antarctic Peninsula and on individual islands. Winter is long and moderately severe: average temperatures are -8 - -12 °; summer is short, very cool and damp: average temperatures are +2 - + 4 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations are 10 - 12 °. eastward winds inherent in it, while the CAW, as it passes over the ocean, heats up a little and transforms into MAW; in summer, ISW and westward winds dominate. The annual precipitation is 500–700 mm with a winter maximum associated with the passage of cyclones along the Antarctic front. Humidification is excessive. The conditions for human habitation are harsh, there is an opportunity for the development of seasonal marine fisheries.

arctic belt located in the northern subpolar latitudes. The total solar radiation is 60–80 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance +5 - +15 kcal / cm 2 year. Arctic air masses dominate throughout the year.

Arctic climate with relatively mild winters confined to areas of the Arctic belt subject to the softening influence of the relatively warm waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans: in North America - the coast of the Beaufort Sea, the north of Baffin Island and the coast of Greenland; in Eurasia - on the islands from Svalbard to Severnaya Zemlya and on the mainland from the Yamal Peninsula to western Taimyr. Winter is long, relatively mild: average temperatures are -16 - -32 °; summer is short, average temperatures are 0 - + 8 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 24–32°. Arctic, predominantly maritime air masses dominate all year round, sea air has a softening effect. The annual precipitation is 150–600 mm at the summer maximum associated with the passage of cyclones along the Arctic front. Humidification is sufficient and excessive. The climate for human habitation is unfavorable due to its severity and constancy of low temperatures; there is the possibility of seasonal fisheries.

Arctic climate with cold winters occupies the rest of the Arctic belt, except for the interior of Greenland, is influenced by the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. Winter is long and severe: average temperatures are -32 - -38 °; summers are short and cold: average temperatures are 0 - + 8 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 38–40°. KAV dominates all year round. The annual rainfall is 50–250 mm. Humidification is sufficient. Conditions for human habitation are extreme due to constantly low temperatures. Life is possible only if there are stable external ties to provide food, fuel, clothing, etc. Seasonal marine fisheries are possible.

Arctic climate with coldest winters stands out in the interior of Greenland, is formed under the year-round influence of the Greenland ice sheet and the Greenland anticyclone. Winter lasts almost the whole year, severe: average temperatures are -36 - -49 °; in summer, there are no stable positive temperatures: average temperatures are 0 - -14 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 35–46°. Year-round dominance of the KAV and spreading winds in all directions. Humidification is sufficient. Climatic conditions for human habitation are the most extreme on the planet due to constant very low temperatures in the absence of local sources of heat and food. Life is possible only if there are stable external ties to provide food, fuel, clothing, etc. There are no opportunities for fishing.

Antarctic belt is located in the southern subpolar latitudes, mainly on the Antarctic continent, and the climate is formed under the dominant influence of the ice sheet of Antarctica and the Antarctic belt of relatively high pressure. The total solar radiation is 75–120 kcal/cm2 year. Due to the year-round dominance of the continental Antarctic air, dry and transparent over the ice sheet, and the multiple reflection of the sun's rays during the polar day in summer from the surface of ice, snow and clouds, the value of the total solar radiation in the interior of Antarctica reaches the value of the total radiation in the subtropical zone. However, the radiation balance is -5 - -10 kcal / cm 2 year, and the whole year it is negative, which is due to the large albedo of the ice sheet surface (up to 90% of solar radiation is reflected). The exceptions are small oases, freed from snow in summer. Antarctic air masses dominate throughout the year.

Antarctic climate with comparatively mild winters formed over the marginal waters of the Antarctic continent. Winter is long and somewhat softened by Antarctic waters: average temperatures are -10 - -35 °; summer is short and cold: average temperatures are -4 - -20 °, only in oases are summer temperatures of the surface air layer positive; seasonal temperature fluctuations 6–15°. The Antarctic maritime air has a moderating effect on the climate, especially in summer, penetrating with cyclones along the Antarctic front. The annual precipitation of 100–300 mm with a summer maximum is associated with cyclonic activity along the Antarctic front. Precipitation in the form of snow prevails throughout the year. Humidification is excessive. The climate for human habitation is unfavorable due to its severity and the constancy of low temperatures; it is possible to conduct seasonal fisheries.

Antarctic climate with the coldest winter confined to the interior regions of the Antarctic continent. Temperatures are negative all year round, there are no thaws: average winter temperatures are -45 - -72 °, summer - -25 - -35 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 20–37°. Continental Antarctic air dominates all year round, winds spread from the anticyclonic center of the periphery, southeast direction prevails. The annual precipitation is 40–100 mm, precipitation falls in the form of ice needles and hoarfrost, less often in the form of snow. Throughout the year, anticyclonic cloudy weather prevails. Humidification is sufficient. Living conditions for humans are similar to the Arctic climate with cold winters.