What reforms did louis philippe make. Louis Philippe is the king of the bourgeoisie. The last attempt to restore the monarchy in France
30th King of France
Louis XIII the Just (fr. Louis XIII le Juste; September 27, 1601, Fontainebleau - May 14, 1643, Saint-Germain-en-Laye) - King of France from May 14, 1610. From the Bourbon dynasty.
Reign of Marie de Medici
He ascended the throne at the age of 8 after the assassination of his father, Henry IV. During Louis' infancy, his mother Marie de' Medici, as regent, retreated from the policy of Henry IV, entering into an alliance with Spain and betrothing the king to Infanta Anna of Austria, daughter of Philip III. This aroused the fears of the Huguenots. Many nobles left the court and began to prepare for war, but the court on May 5, 1614 made peace with them at Sainte-Menehould. The marriage with Anna took place only in 1619, but Louis's relationship with his wife did not work out and he preferred to spend time in the company of his minions Luyne and Saint-Mar, in whom rumors saw the king's lovers. Only at the end of the 1630s did relations between Louis and Anna improve, and in 1638 and 1640 their two sons were born, the future Louis XIV and Philip I of Orleans.
Richelieu's reign
A new era began, after Louis' long hesitation, only in 1624, when Cardinal Richelieu became minister and soon took control of affairs and unlimited power over the king into his own hands. The Huguenots were pacified and lost La Rochelle. In Italy, the French House of Nevers was granted the succession to the throne in Mantua, after the War of the Mantua Succession (1628-1631). Later, France was very successful against Austria and Spain.
Internal opposition was becoming increasingly irrelevant. Louis destroyed the plans directed against Richelieu by the princes (including his brother, Gaston of Orleans), nobles and the queen mother, and constantly supported his minister, who acted for the benefit of the king and France. Thus, he gave complete freedom to Richelieu against his brother, Duke Gaston of Orleans, during the conspiracy of 1631 and the rebellion of 1632. In practice, this support of Richelieu limited the personal participation of the king in the affairs of government.
After the death of Richelieu (1642), his place was taken by his student, Cardinal Mazarin. However, the king outlived his minister by only a year. Louis died a few days before the victory at Rocroix.
In 1829, in Paris, on the Place des Vosges, a monument (equestrian statue) was erected to Louis XIII. It was erected on the site of a monument erected by Richelieu in 1639, but destroyed in 1792 during the revolution.
Louis XIII - artist
Louis was a passionate lover of music. He played the harpsichord, masterfully owned a hunting horn, sang the first bass part in the ensemble, performing polyphonic courtly songs (airs de cour) and psalms.
He began to learn dancing from childhood and in 1610 made his official debut in the Dauphine Court Ballet. Louis performed noble and grotesque roles in court ballets, and in 1615 in the Ballet Madame he performed the role of the Sun.
Louis XIII - the author of courtly songs and polyphonic psalms; his music also sounded in the famous Merleson ballet (1635), for which he composed dances (Simphonies), invented costumes, and in which he himself performed several roles.
31st King of France
Louis XIV de Bourbon, who received at birth the name Louis-Dieudonné ("given by God", French Louis-Dieudonné), also known as the "Sun King" (Fr. Louis XIV Le Roi Soleil), also Louis XIV the Great, (5 September 1638), Saint-Germain-en-Laye - September 1, 1715, Versailles) - King of France and Navarre from May 14, 1643. He reigned 72 years - longer than any other European monarch in history. Louis, who survived the wars of the Fronde in his youth, became a staunch supporter of the principle of absolute monarchy and the divine right of kings (he is often credited with the expression “The State is me”), he combined the strengthening of his power with the successful selection of statesmen for key political posts.
Marriage of Louis XIV, Duke of Burgundy
Portrait of Louis XIV with his family
Louis XIV and Maria Teresa in Arras 1667 during the War of Devolution
Louis XIV and Maria Theresa at Arras 1667 during the war
32nd King of France
Louis XV fr. Louis XV, official nickname Beloved (fr. Le Bien Aimé) (February 15, 1710, Versailles - May 10, 1774, Versailles) - King of France from September 1, 1715 from the Bourbon dynasty.
Miraculously surviving heir.
The great-grandson of Louis XIV, the future king (who bore the title of Duke of Anjou from birth) was at first only fourth in line to the throne. However, in 1711, the boy's grandfather, the only legitimate son of Louis XIV the Grand Dauphin, died; at the beginning of 1712, Louis's parents, the Duchess (February 12) and the Duke (February 18) of Burgundy, and then (March 8) and his older 4-year-old brother, the Duke of Brittany, died one after another from chickenpox. The two-year-old Louis himself survived only thanks to the perseverance of his tutor, the Duchess de Vantadour, who did not allow the doctors to apply strong bloodletting to him, which killed his older brother. The death of his father and brother made the two-year-old Duke of Anjou the direct heir of his great-grandfather, he received the title of Dauphin of Vienne.
Louis XV during classes in the presence of Cardinal Fleury (c) Anonyme
On September 4, 1725, 15-year-old Louis married 22-year-old Maria Leszczynska (1703-1768), daughter of Stanisław, the former King of Poland. They had 10 children (plus one stillborn), of whom 1 son and 6 daughters survived to adulthood. Only one, the eldest, of the daughters married. The younger unmarried daughters of the king took care of their orphaned nephews, the children of the dauphin, and after the accession of the eldest of them, Louis XVI, to the throne, they were known as "Lady Aunts" (fr. Mesdames les Tantes).
Marie-Louise O "Murphy (1737-1818), mistress of Louis XV
Cardinal Fleury died at the beginning of the war, and the king, reiterating his intention to govern the state himself, appointed no one as first minister. In view of the inability of Louis to deal with affairs, this led to complete anarchy: each of the ministers managed his ministry independently of his comrades and inspired the sovereign with the most contradictory decisions. The king himself led the life of an Asian despot, at first obeying either one or the other of his mistresses, and from 1745 falling completely under the influence of the Marquise de Pompadour, who skillfully pandered to the base instincts of the king and ruined the country with her extravagance.
Mignonne et Sylvie, chiens de Louis XV (c) Oudry Jean Baptiste (1686-1755)
33rd King of France
Louis XVI (August 23, 1754 - January 21, 1793) - King of France from the Bourbon dynasty, son of the Dauphin Louis Ferdinand, succeeded his grandfather Louis XV in 1774. Under him, after the convocation of the States General in 1789, the Great French Revolution began. Louis first accepted the constitution of 1791, renounced absolutism and became a constitutional monarch, but soon he began to hesitantly oppose the radical measures of the revolutionaries and even tried to flee the country. On September 21, 1792, he was deposed, tried by the Convention, and executed on the guillotine.
He was a man of good heart, but of an insignificant mind and indecisive character. Louis XV did not like him for his negative attitude towards the court way of life and contempt for Dubarry and kept him away from public affairs. The upbringing given to Louis by the Duke of Voguyon gave him little practical and theoretical knowledge. He showed the greatest inclination towards physical pursuits, especially locksmithing and hunting. Despite the debauchery of the court around him, he retained the purity of morals, was distinguished by great honesty, ease of handling and hatred of luxury. With the kindest feelings, he ascended the throne with a desire to work for the benefit of the people and to destroy the existing abuses, but he did not know how to boldly move forward towards a consciously intended goal. He obeyed the influence of those around him, either aunts, or brothers, or ministers, or the queen (Marie Antoinette), canceled decisions made, and did not complete the reforms that had begun.
Escape attempt. constitutional monarch
On the night of June 21, 1791, Louis and his entire family secretly left in a carriage towards the eastern border. It is worth noting that the escape was prepared and carried out by the Swedish nobleman Hans Axel von Fersen, who was madly in love with the king's wife Marie Antoinette. In Varennes, Drouet, the son of the caretaker of one of the postal stations, saw in the carriage window the profile of the king, whose image was minted on coins and was well known to everyone, and raised the alarm. The king and queen were arrested and returned to Paris under escort. They were greeted with the deathly silence of the people crowding in the streets. On September 14, 1791, Louis took the oath of a new constitution, but continued to negotiate with the emigrants and foreign powers, even when he officially threatened them through his Girondin ministry, and on April 22, 1792, with tears in his eyes, declared war on Austria. Louis's refusal to sanction the decree of the assembly against the emigrants and rebellious priests and the removal of the patriotic ministry imposed on him caused a movement on June 20, 1792, and his proven relations with foreign states and emigrants led to an uprising on August 10 and the overthrow of the monarchy (September 21).
Louis was imprisoned with his family in the Temple and accused of plotting against the freedom of the nation and of a number of attempts against the security of the state. On January 11, 1793, the trial of the king in the Convention began. Louis behaved with great dignity and, not content with the speeches of his chosen defenders, defended himself against the accusations brought against him, referring to the rights given to him by the constitution. On January 20, he was sentenced to death by a majority of 383 votes to 310. Louis listened to the sentence with great calmness and on January 21 ascended the scaffold. His last words on the scaffold were: “I die innocent, I am innocent of the crimes of which I am accused. I tell you this from the scaffold, preparing to stand before God. And I forgive everyone who is responsible for my death."
Interesting Facts
When the future King of France, Louis XVI, was still a child, his personal astrologer warned him that the 21st of every month was his unlucky day. The king was so shocked by this prediction that he never planned anything important for the 21st. However, not everything depended on the king. On June 21, 1791, the king and queen were arrested while trying to leave revolutionary France. That same year, on September 21, France declared itself a republic. And in 1793, on January 21, King Louis XVI was beheaded.
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette's tomb in Saint Denis Basilica, Paris
Napoleon I
Napoleon I Bonaparte (Italian Napoleone Buonaparte, French Napoléon Bonaparte, August 15, 1769, Ajaccio, Corsica - May 5, 1821, Longwood, Saint Helena) - Emperor of France in 1804-1815, French commander and statesman who laid foundations of the modern French state.
Napoleone Buonaparte (as his name was pronounced until about 1800) began his professional military service in 1785 with the rank of second lieutenant of artillery; advanced during the French Revolution, reaching the rank of brigade under the Directory (after the capture of Toulon on December 17, 1793, the appointment took place on January 14, 1794), and then the divisional general and the post of commander of the rear military forces (after the defeat of the rebellion of 13 Vendemière 1795 ), and then the commander of the army.
In November 1799, he carried out a coup d'état (18 Brumaire), as a result of which he became the first consul, thereby effectively concentrating all power in his hands. May 18, 1804 proclaimed himself emperor. Established a dictatorial regime. He carried out a number of reforms (the adoption of a civil code (1804), the foundation of the French Bank (1800), etc.).
The victorious Napoleonic wars, especially the 2nd Austrian campaign of 1805, the Prussian campaign of 1806, and the Polish campaign of 1807 contributed to the transformation of France into the main power on the continent. However, Napoleon's unsuccessful rivalry with the "mistress of the seas" Great Britain did not allow this status to be fully consolidated. The defeat of the Grand Army in the war of 1812 against Russia and in the "battle of the nations" near Leipzig marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire of Napoleon I. The entry of troops of the anti-French coalition into Paris in 1814 forced Napoleon I to abdicate. He was exiled to Fr. Elbe. Re-occupied the French throne in March 1815 (One Hundred Days). After the defeat at Waterloo, he abdicated a second time (June 22, 1815). He spent the last years of his life on about. St. Helena a prisoner of the British. His body has been in the Les Invalides in Paris since 1840.
dream vision
dream vision
Surrealism
Coronation of Napoleon, 1805-1808 (c) Jacques Louis David
Josephine kneeling before Napoleon during her coronation at Notre Dame (c) Jacques-Louis David
Premiere distribution des décorations de la Légion d "honneur dans l" église des Invalides, le 14 juillet 1804.
Tableau de Jean-Baptiste Debret, 1812. Musée national du château de Versailles.
Battle of Austerlitz, 1810 (c) François Pascal Simon Gérard (1770–1837)
Napoleon's tomb in Les Invalides. The material for the manufacture of the monument erected here, carved from a rare Ural stone, was kindly donated to the French government by Emperor Alexander III.
34th King of France (not crowned)
Louis XVIII, fr. Louis XVIII (Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, fr. Louis Stanislas Xavier) (November 17, 1755, Versailles - September 16, 1824, Paris) - King of France (1814-1824, with a break in 1815), brother of Louis XVI, who wore during his reign, the title of Count of Provence (fr. comte de Provence) and the honorary title of Monsieur (fr. Monsieur), and then, during emigration, he took the title of comte de Lille. He took the throne as a result of the Bourbon Restoration, which followed the overthrow of Napoleon I.
35th King of France
Charles X (fr. Charles X; October 9, 1757, Versailles - November 6, 1836, Görtz, Austria, now Gorizia in Italy), King of France from 1824 to 1830, the last representative of the senior Bourbon line on the French throne.
Louis Philippe I - 36th King of France
Louis-Philippe I (fr. Louis-Philippe Ier, October 6, 1773, Paris - August 26, 1850, Clermont, Surrey, near Windsor). Lieutenant General of the Kingdom from July 31 to August 9, 1830, King of France from August 9, 1830 to February 24, 1848 (according to the constitution he was titled "King of the French", roi des Français), received the nickname "King Citizen" ("le Roi-Citoyen") , a representative of the Orleans branch of the Bourbon dynasty. The last French monarch to hold the title of king.
Louis-Philippe d'Orleans, leaving the Palais-Royal, goes to the city hall, July 31, 1830,
two days after the July Revolution. 1832
Louis Philippe d'Orléans, appointed lieutenant general, arrives at the Hôtel de Ville
Napoleon III Bonaparte
Napoleon III Bonaparte (fr. Napoléon III Bonaparte, full name Charles Louis Napoleon (fr. Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte); April 20, 1808 - January 9, 1873) - President of the French Republic from December 20, 1848 to December 1, 1852, Emperor of the French from 1 December 1852 to September 4, 1870 (from September 2, 1870 was in captivity). The nephew of Napoleon I, after a series of conspiracies to seize power, came to her peacefully as President of the Republic (1848). Having made the coup of 1851 and eliminated the legislature, he established an authoritarian police regime by means of "direct democracy" (plebiscite), and a year later proclaimed himself emperor of the Second Empire.
After ten years of rather tight control, the Second Empire, which became the embodiment of the ideology of Bonapartism, moved to some democratization (1860s), which was accompanied by the development of the French economy and industry. A few months after the adoption of the liberal constitution of 1870, which returned the rights to parliament, the Franco-Prussian war put an end to Napoleon's rule, during which the emperor was captured by the Germans and never returned to France. Napoleon III was the last monarch of France.
Napoleon Eugene
Napoleon Eugene (Napoleon Eugene Louis Jean Joseph Bonaparte, fr. Napoléon Eugène Louis Jean Joseph, Prince Impérial; March 16, 1856 - June 1, 1879) - Prince of the Empire and the son of France, was the only child of Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie Montijo. The last heir to the French throne, who never became emperor.
Heir
Before his birth, the heir to the Second Empire was the uncle of Napoleon III, the younger brother of Napoleon I, Jerome Bonaparte, whose relationship with the children of the emperor was strained. Starting a family was a political task for Napoleon III from the moment the empire was proclaimed on December 2, 1852; being single at the time of the seizure of power, the newly-made emperor was looking for a bride from the reigning house, but was forced to be content already in 1853 with marriage to the Spanish noblewoman Eugenia Montijo. The birth of a son to the Bonaparte couple, after three years of marriage, was widely celebrated in the state; 101 shots were fired from the cannons in Les Invalides. Pope Pius IX became the prince's godfather in absentia. From the moment of birth (childbirth, according to the French royal tradition, took place in the presence of the highest dignitaries of the state, including the children of Jerome Bonaparte), the prince of the empire was considered the successor of his father; he was the last French heir to the throne and the last bearer of the title "son of France". He was known as Louis or, diminutively, Prince Lulu.
The heir was brought up in the Tuileries Palace along with his maternal cousins, the Princesses of Alba. Since childhood, he had a good command of English and Latin, and also received a good mathematical education.
At the beginning of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871, the 14-year-old prince accompanied his father to the front and near Saarbrücken, on August 2, 1870, he bravely accepted a baptism of fire; the spectacle of the war, however, caused him a psychological crisis. After his father was captured on September 2, and the empire was declared overthrown in the rear, the prince was forced to leave Chalons for Belgium, and from there to Great Britain. He settled with his mother at the Camden House estate in Chislehurst, Kent (now within the boundaries of London), where Napoleon III, who was released from German captivity, then arrived.
Head of the dynasty
After the death of the ex-emperor in January 1873 and the 18th birthday of the prince, who turned in March 1874, the Bonapartist party proclaimed "Prince Lulu" the pretender to the imperial throne and the head of the dynasty as Napoleon IV (fr. Napoléon IV). His opponents in the struggle for influence on the French monarchists were the Legitimist party, led by the Count of Chambord, grandson of Charles X, and the Orleanist party, led by the Count of Paris, grandson of Louis Philippe I (the latter also lived in Great Britain).
The prince had a reputation as a charming and talented young man, his personal life was impeccable. His chances of regaining power in France during the unstable existence of the Third Republic in the 1870s were quoted quite high (especially since the Count of Chambord card was actually won back after his refusal of the tricolor banner in 1873). Napoleon IV was considered an enviable groom; in her diary, half-jokingly, the possibility of marriage with him is mentioned by Maria Bashkirtseva. At one time a marriage proposal was discussed between him and Queen Victoria's youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice.
The prince entered the British Military College at Woolwich, graduated from it in 1878 as the 17th in graduation and began service in the artillery (like his great great-uncle). He became friends with representatives of the Swedish royal family (King Oscar II of Sweden was a descendant of the Napoleonic Marshal Jean Bernadotte (Charles XIV Johan) and the great-grandson of Josephine Beauharnais).
Doom
After the outbreak of the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879, the prince of the empire, with the rank of lieutenant, voluntarily went to this war. The reason for this fatal act, many biographers consider the dependence on the mother that burdened the young Napoleon.
After arriving in South Africa (Natal), he almost did not participate in skirmishes with the Zulus, since the commander-in-chief, Lord Chelmsford, fearing political consequences, ordered to follow him and prevent his participation in the conflict. However, on June 1, Napoleon and Lieutenant Carey, with a small detachment, went to one kraal for reconnaissance (reconnaissance). Not noticing anything suspicious, the group settled down on a halt near the Itiotoshi River. There they were attacked by a group of 40 Zulus and put to flight: two Britons were killed, and then the prince, who defended himself fiercely. 31 wounds from the Zulu assegai were found on his body; a blow to the eye was certainly fatal. In British society, the question was discussed whether Lieutenant Carey had fled the battlefield, leaving the prince to his fate. The prince died just a month before the British captured the Zulu royal kraal near Ulundi in July 1879 and ended the war.
The death of Napoleon Eugene led to the loss of practically all the hopes of the Bonapartists for the restoration of their home in France; supremacy in the family passed to the inactive and unpopular descendants of Jerome Bonaparte (however, before the fateful departure to Africa, the prince appointed as his successor not the eldest in the family of his cousin uncle, "Prince Napoleon", known as "Plon-Plon", because of his bad reputation , and the son of the latter, Prince Victor, aka Napoleon V). On the other hand, just in the year of the death of the prince (1879), the monarchist Marshal McMahon was replaced in the Elysee Palace by the staunch Republican President Jules Grevy, under whom the monarchist conspiracies (see Boulanger) were defeated and the state system of the Third Republic was strengthened.
Memory
The prince's body was brought by ship to England and buried at Chisleheart, and subsequently, along with his father's ashes, was transferred to a special mausoleum erected for her husband and son by Eugenie in the imperial crypt of St. Michael's Abbey in Farnborough, Hampshire. Eugenia, according to British law, was supposed to identify her son's body, but it was so mutilated that only a postoperative scar on her thigh helped her. The funeral was attended by Victoria, Edward the Prince of Wales, all the Bonapartes and several thousand Bonapartists. Eugenia herself, who outlived her relatives by almost half a century, was buried there in 1920.
Many famous European artists painted the prince as a child, including the portrait painter of monarchs Franz Xavier Winterhalter. The Musée d'Orsay in Paris has a marble statue by Jean-Baptiste Carpeau, which is part of the museum's exposition, depicting a 10-year-old prince with Nero the dog. The sculpture gained great fame and became the subject of numerous replicas (after the fall of the empire, the Sevres manufactory produced replica figurines already under the name “Child with a dog”).
In 1998, the asteroid-moon "Little Prince" discovered by French-Canadian astronomers, a satellite of the asteroid Eugene named after his mother, was named after the prince. The name refers, in addition to Napoleon IV, to the famous story by Antoine de Saint-Exupery, where the Little Prince lives on his own small planet. The official explanation for the choice of the name of the planet emphasizes the parallels between the two princes - Napoleon and the hero Exupery (both princes were young, brave and short, left their cozy world, their journey tragically ended in Africa). Perhaps this coincidence is not accidental, and Prince Lulu really served as the prototype of Exupery's hero (there are indications of this in the English and Polish Wikipedias).
Karl XLouis XVIII died childless. Therefore, the crown under the name of Charles X was inherited by the younger brother of the late king, Count d "Artois.
The nobles awarded him the flattering nickname "knight king". But the French society quickly rejected the new king.
In an effort to emphasize the God-given power of his power, Charles X on May 29, 1825 was crowned in Reims Cathedral.
This medieval ceremony made a depressing impression on society. The French, who had long forgotten the way to the church, were unpleasantly struck by the sight of Charles X prostrate before the altar. He looked ridiculous in their eyes even when he went around the ranks of scrofulous patients, overshadowing them with a cross and saying: “The king has touched you, God will heal you!” (Ancient belief attributed healing power to the touch of the king, and, by the way, of the 120 sick people whom Charles touched, five were actually healed.)
Before his government, Charles X set the task of restoring royal absolutism.
In pursuance of his will, the famous ordinances of July 25, 1830 appeared on the abolition of freedom of the press and the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies. One can only marvel at the arrogance of the government, which did not give any orders in case of mass unrest in the capital. Charles X himself, having signed the ordinances, went hunting with a clear conscience.
Society's response was a new revolution.
Crowds of indignant people gathered on the streets of Paris, who began to arm themselves and build barricades. Soon the whole city was in the hands of the rebels. But Charles X until the last moment was not aware of what was happening. As a result, abandoned by everyone, he was forced to sign an abdication in favor of his young grandson, Henry V.
During the 16 years of post-revolutionary rule of the Bourbons, France has made significant progress in industry and agriculture. And for science, literature and art, the Restoration was even more so almost a golden age. But the Bourbons did not manage to fully use the chance that history gave them in 1814. According to the popular expression of Emperor Alexander I, they did not forget anything and did not learn anything. Therefore, history ruthlessly swept them from the French throne.
The shortest reign
On August 2, 1830, the aged Charles X of Bourbon, yielding to the demands of the revolutionary Parisians, signed an abdication in favor of his grandson, Henry V.
However, at that time he had a living and capable son - Louis-Antoine, Duke of Angouleme, who was 55 years old.
French society did not have much sympathy for him. The heir to the throne was rather clumsy, twitchy to a man who, for his angularity and impulsive movements behind his eyes, was called a “spoiled automaton” (by analogy with mechanical puppets that caused a sensation at one time). However, he could not be denied decisiveness and military talents. The Duke of Angouleme was famous for the military campaign of 1823 in revolutionary Spain, when he, at the head of a 100,000-strong army, first occupied Madrid without firing a shot and returned the throne to the deposed Ferdinand VII. However, this act of his was not particularly popular in Paris.
In addition, Louis-Antoine was married to Princess Marie-Therese, daughter of the executed Louis XVI.
Let me remind you that as a 14-year-old girl she ended up in the Temple prison and experienced the death of all her relatives who were with her - her father, mother and brother. Her marriage to the heir turned out to be childless - as many suspected, due to the mutual coldness of the spouses. In the opinion of contemporaries, the Duke of Angouleme remained primarily the husband of the daughter of the executed king. She was an eternal reproach, a living reminder of the bloody events of the recent past. And the very appearance of Maria Theresa did not dispose to complacency. Masculine and unsmiling, she always seemed to be in mourning for her martyred loved ones. It is no coincidence that the people called her "Madame Grudge". Of course, few people in France dreamed of seeing her queen.
Charles X, having signed a renunciation in favor of his grandson at the request of the leaders of the revolution, violated the law on succession to the throne. So he asked his son to do the same. But those few minutes, until Louis-Antoine Duke of Angouleme signed the abdication, he was formally considered king. He entered the history of the Bourbon dynasty under the name of Louis XIX, setting a sad record for the shortest reign.
Bourbons in exile
After the abdication of 1830, the Bourbons again found themselves in the same place they came from - in a foreign land. Most of them never saw French soil again. They found refuge first in England, then moved to Prague, and finally settled in the small town of Hertz (now Gorizia in Italy).
A strange and exotic picture was this family, in which at the same time there were three kings at once. Charles X, despite the abdication in favor of his grandson, continued to consider himself king. His son Louis XIX, for his part, treated his abdication like a piece of paper. True, they did not formally challenge the rights of 10-year-old Henry V.
The last attempt to restore the Bourbons to the throne was made by the mother of Henry V, the Duchess of Berry.
In April 1832, she landed near Marseilles with a handful of supporters to start a royalist uprising and march on Paris. But the royalist "Hundred Days" did not work out. The heroic epic turned into a farce. The rebellion was crushed, and the duchess was arrested and imprisoned in the castle of Blay near Bordeaux. In prison, she gave birth to a girl, confessing that she had entered into a secret marriage with the Neapolitan Count of Lucchesi-Palli. The scandalized Bourbons renounced her.
In 1836 Charles X died of cholera. Louis XIX officially took the title of king in exile, but with the obligation to transfer it to his nephew immediately after the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy.
After the death of Louis XIX, Henry V acquired the rights of the only legitimate contender for the throne and immediately moved to Frosdorf Castle (near the city of Wiener Neustadt), which from now on became his residence.
The Revolution of 1848 provided Henry V with a long-awaited opportunity to regain the throne. The deputies of the National Assembly seriously discussed the question of the next restoration of the Bourbons. However, Henry V showed himself to be a worthy heir to his ancestors - under no circumstances did he wish to make his divine right to the throne dependent on the result of the elections.
The proclamation of the empire in 1852 returned him once again to the routine life of an exiled king.
Orléans dynasty
The Orleans belonged to the younger branch of the Bourbons. The finest hour of the Orleans dynasty came on August 7, 1830. On this day, the Chamber of Deputies, which removed Charles X from the throne, offered him to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, and his descendants in the male line. Two days later, the civil coronation ceremony took place: the Duke of Orleans took the oath of allegiance to the constitution and signed the Charter, after which he was awarded the royal regalia. From now on, he became known as Louis-Philippe I, "King of the French."
The life path of the new king was unusual. His father, during the revolution, openly broke with the dynasty and became a deputy of the National Assembly under the name of "Citizen Philip Egalite" (i.e. Philip Egalit).
In January 1793, the unheard of happened: a member of the royal family voted for the execution of Louis XVI, but soon he himself was condemned to death by a revolutionary tribunal.
Louis Philippe escaped arrest and left the country, however, he did not join the royalist emigration either. For some time he was in Switzerland, earning a living by teaching. Then he made a trip to Scandinavia, traveled to the United States, where, among other things, he made acquaintance with George Washington. Finally, in 1800, Louis Philippe settled in London, where he waited for the restoration of the Bourbons, which followed 14 years later.
The royalists regarded him with suspicion, as the offspring of a regicide. At every step, Louis Philippe was made aware of his guilt before the dynasty. Warming to himself from the side of the court, he felt only under Charles X, who granted him the honorary title of "Royal Highness".
The accession of Louis Philippe to the throne marked an important milestone in the development of the French monarchy. The power of the king was no longer based on divine right, but on the sovereignty of the nation, which freely chose the monarch and concluded with him a constitutional treaty - the Charter. The king was obliged to respect the constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens. In other words, within the framework of the monarchy, a major step was taken towards the elective method of transferring state power. Under the Orleans, a certain intermediate form of statehood arose in France: not yet a republic, but no longer a hereditary monarchy.
Louis Philippe I - "bourgeois king"
The ease with which the Duke of Orléans ascended the throne in 1830 was due in large part to his popularity among the middle classes, commonly referred to as bourgeois. Louis-Philippe I owed this popularity to his way of life, close and understandable to thousands of his fellow citizens.
The new king was an aristocrat with the appearance and habits of a bourgeois. Idleness and frivolous amusements were alien to him. Economical and prudent, Louis-Philippe avoided ostentatious luxury. But his ancestral palace, the Palais Royal, was open to everyone, like a public museum. In addition, the new monarch was known as an exemplary husband and father. His wife bore him ten children, of whom seven reached adulthood: five sons and two daughters. When Louis Philippe went for a walk arm in arm with his wife and surrounded by children, this picture could not but touch any respectable Frenchman.
The bourgeois king seemed to set out to refute all current ideas about the greatness of royal power. Victor Hugo recalled: “He rarely attended mass, did not go hunting and never appeared at the opera. He did not have weakness for priests, kennels and dancers ... He did not have a yard at all. He went out into the street with a rain umbrella under his arm, and this umbrella became one of the components of his fame for a long time. In short, Louis Philippe I behaved not like a king, but as one would expect from an official ruling on the basis of a "treaty" with the nation.
The flip side of the king's personal popularity was a marked decline in the prestige of royalty. In the reign of Louis Philippe, she lost the halo of mystery and inaccessibility, which she still retained under the last Bourbons. Few of the then French writers spoke of the "bourgeois king" with reverence.
The House of Orleans fell off its pedestal in 1848, when another revolution broke out in Paris. Without waiting for an invitation, Louis Philippe I hastily renounced the crown and fled the capital in a randomly hired carriage.
The family of the ex-king found refuge in England. Here, on August 26, 1850, in Claremont Castle near London, Louis Philippe I died.
The last attempt to restore the monarchy in France
In February 1919, the peoples of Europe were hardly recovering from the bloody upheavals of the First World War. Letters and telegrams were sent to the peace conference, which met in Paris, expressing hopes for the final triumph of reason and justice in relations between peoples. One letter attracted the increased attention of officials involved in dismantling the mail. One can imagine their surprise when they read the author's demand to restore justice to "the late King Louis XVII, as well as his offspring." Even more amazement was caused by the signature under this strange message: "Prince Louis of Bourbon."
The author of the letter introduced himself as the great-grandson of Louis XVII, the son of the executed Louis XVI. According to him, contrary to the official news of the death of the young Bourbon during the revolution, he allegedly escaped death.
During the years of the Restoration and the July Monarchy, a man was really known who pretended to be the unfortunate son of the executed king, under the name of Count Naundorff. It must be said that the evidence he referred to in support of his royal origin did not seem so absurd to some contemporaries. In any case, the "bourgeois king" Louis Philippe I thought it best to take action against the enigmatic pretender. On July 15, 1836, Count Naundorff, who was in Paris, was arrested, and all the papers he had with him were confiscated by the police.
He died in 1845, and traces of the papers confiscated from him were lost. The only thing that the descendants of Count Naundorff, who still considered themselves princes of royal blood, managed to establish was that the documents were not immediately destroyed, but most likely buried in the depths of the secret archives of France.
The delegates of the Paris Peace Conference ignored the letter of "Prince Louis of Bourbon". His appeal to the President of the French Republic, Raymond Poincaré, did not yield any results either. The legal point in the case of the claims of the descendants of Count Naundorff to the family name of the Bourbons was put by the decision of the Court of Appeal of the city of Paris, which on July 7, 1954 rejected their claim to establish kinship.
The fate of the monarchy in France
The history of the French monarchy in the 20th century is connected with the fate of the representatives of the Orleans dynasty, the younger branch of the Bourbons.
In general, they are, as they say, already the seventh water on jelly. The ancestor of the living Orleans is Henry VI, Count of Paris, born in 1908. The French legislation of that time forbade the descendants of the Bourbons, Orleans and Bonapartes to live in France. Henry VI was forced to move from place to place for many years. Only after 1950, when the law on the expulsion of monarchs was repealed, was he able to return to his homeland.
The applicant harbored ambitious plans for participation in French politics. However, his political career did not work out. Family life also failed: in 1975, Heinrich of Paris divorced his wife Isabelle, Duchess of Orleans and Bragana, and moved to live with governess Monica Frisch. In her house, he died 24 years later, on the eve of his 91st birthday. The owner of a multi-billion dollar fortune left his heirs six handkerchiefs and a pair of slippers. True, the handkerchiefs were embroidered with royal coats of arms. Where the money went is still unclear.
Henry VI and Isabelle had eleven children. The eldest son, also Heinrich, Count of Clermont, received a military education, but in recent years he worked as a consultant for travel companies, was engaged in journalism and led the public Center for the Study of Modern France. He devoted his free time to painting. Several exhibitions of his paintings were successful, the sale of which is an important source of income for him.
His mother Isabelle, Countess of Orleans and Braganza is optimistic about the future, hoping that at least one of her 60 grandchildren will be able to return the crown.
These dreams could be classified as curiosities, if not for one circumstance: according to opinion polls, 17% of the French population supports a return to monarchical rule. Too much for a country that has committed one regicide, several anti-monarchist revolutions and has been living under a republican system for more than a century. So the motto of the monarchy in France may well be the words: "All is not lost yet!".
LOUIS PHILIPPE - THE KING OF THE BOURGEOISIE
This was an interesting person. For a king - just extraordinary. When, in his old age, poisonous newspaper cartoonists began to liken his royal head to a pear, Louis-Philippe was driving one day in a carriage (and not in a carriage) - and suddenly he saw a boy who, puffing, tried to depict something similar on the fence. The sovereign immediately came to his aid - and it turned out well.
No aristocratic ambition, no swagger. It was in someone. His father during the revolution was at one time the favorite of the crowd, was a regular in the Jacobin club. He even received the nickname "Duke Egalite" - that is, "Equality". So it began to be written in official documents: "Philip Egalite."
He also brought up his son Louis-Philippe in a democratic spirit - even under damned absolutism. He not only learned several foreign languages and gained extensive knowledge in various fields, but also read Rousseau and was filled with love for the simple joys of life. But he was a "prince of the blood" - not only as a member of the House of Orleans, but also as a direct descendant of Louis XIII.
In 1791, an eighteen-year-old youth became an officer, a year later he was promoted to brigadier general. It was the third year of the revolution, but the green street to the ranks was still open to the princes. In addition, Louis-Philippe really distinguished himself in several battles, including at Valmy.
But in the spring of 1793, after the betrayal of General Dumouriez, an order came to the army for his arrest. Louis-Philippe found out about this and managed to run across to the enemy camp - otherwise he would not have escaped the guillotine. As his father, "Duke Egalite", did not pass her by.
However, the prince of the blood did not join the emigrant formations. For several years he wandered around the Swiss cantons - the native places of the idol of his teenage years, Rousseau. I taught there for a while. His further route passed through Germany, Denmark, Norway (he was not afraid of the cold Lapland), Sweden.
When he ended up in Hamburg, he received an offer from the Directory: he leaves Europe, and French justice (still revolutionary) releases his mother and two brothers from prison. The prince could not but agree and moved to the USA, where he also showed restlessness - he changed several cities.
In 1800, Louis-Philippe arrived in England and took his father's title - he became the Duke of Orleans. A few years later, he found refuge in Sicily - the English fleet saved her from Napoleon. There, in 1809, Louis-Philippe married the daughter of the Sicilian king Ferdinand I, Maria Amalia. He also did this not very royally - out of great love, and not out of calculation. The Sicilian bore him ten children.
After the return of the Bourbons, he settled with his family in the Parisian Palais-Royal - the original ancestral heritage of the princes of the House of Orleans. But he began to lead the life not of a courtier of the highest rank, as he could, but of a business man - he soon became one of the largest landowners in the country. He shied away from hunting, which was beloved by aristocrats, rarely went to church, almost never to the opera (according to Victor Hugo, he “did not have a weakness for priests, hounds and dancers”). It is not surprising that the Duke of Orleans gained great popularity among the bourgeoisie - and he himself was essentially a respectable bourgeois. He knew the value of money, had business acumen and was known as an exemplary family man. His sons studied at the city school, where he himself often took them. When he left the house, he always had an umbrella sticking out from under his arm.
Embracing Lafayette, adopting the tricolor banner, and becoming king "by the will of the people" (as his title now meant), Louis-Philippe began with popular measures. “Forever” abolished censorship, lowered the electoral qualification (now 200,000 people could vote in elections to the Chamber of Deputies), appointed new prefects everywhere, made municipalities elective, and revived the National Guard.
And also - he did away with court brilliance and tinsel, easily walked around the Parisian streets with his umbrella and was not averse to chatting with workers over a glass of wine. One word: Citizen King, the dream of the moderate bourgeoisie. He gives life to others, and does not forget himself: having ascended the throne, Louis-Philippe, just in case, transferred all his fortune to his sons, and then constantly took care of its increase, seeking benefits and loans from deputies.
He also reoriented foreign policy - he moved away from the Holy Alliance and went for rapprochement with democratic England (the first touch to the future Entente). True, when it rebelled against the Russian Empire, seeking independence, Poland - neither France nor England supported it, guided by the new "principle of non-intervention." But even in this they were more progressive than Austria, Prussia or Russia - they considered it their sacred duty to put the peoples in their place at any of their freedom-loving impulses.
The French, however, were also not very inclined to respect the freedom of others. Having lost almost all of its overseas possessions over the previous decades, the country embarked on new colonial conquests. Algeria became the first object of expansion. The local pirates have been outrageous in the Mediterranean for a long time, seizing ships and flooding the slave markets with captured Christians. The Spaniards, the British, the Dutch tried to counteract this with limited military actions: for example, in 1816, the capital of the Muslim state, Algiers, was captured, and they managed to achieve the release of Christian slaves.
France usually stayed away from such expeditions - it was beneficial for her to have good trade relations with Algeria. But even Charles X, wishing to partly raise the military prestige of the country, which had fallen after the collapse of the Napoleonic army, sent an expeditionary force overseas. The immediate reason for the invasion was that the Algerian dey (ruler) hit the French consul with a fan, and then ordered to open fire on a warship that arrived to sort things out. Just before the July Revolution, the city of Algiers was taken.
Under Louis Philippe, the conquest continued, and by 1834 Algiers had become a French possession. But many tribes rebelled under the banner of Islam, and the French troops had to wage a long-term war with them. In a country of endless deserts and winding gorges, this was not an easy task - the soldiers had to show great courage and the ability to overcome hardships.
In France itself, great changes took place in the economy, living conditions changed. Following England, the country embarked on the path of industrialization. Steam engines began to be widely used in factories, factories, and mines. More and more new canals were being laid: in 1833, the Rhine-Rhone Canal linked the north and south of France. Steamboats sailed across the water. Steam began to transport goods and people by land: in 1837, the first railway line Paris - Saint-Germain was completed, and in 1848, 1900 km of cast-iron tracks already diverged from the capital in different directions.
Agriculture improved. The owners of large estates (there are quite a few of them) realized that if you do not deal closely with the land, you will burn out. Innovations concerned both tools of labor and the whole culture of agriculture.
For public education, the law adopted in 1833 by the government of the famous historian Guizot, under which all communities were obliged to open primary schools, meant a lot. The Larousse publishing house, which soon became famous, began issuing cheap textbooks and dictionaries. This and other publishing houses produced many exciting and informative books for young people. There were magazines for mass reading, books that were convenient to take with you on the road - in the "pocketbook" format. Public libraries and reading rooms were opened. There was something to read: the names of Stendhal, Merimet, Balzac, Hugo, Dumas became known to the whole world.
The face of prosperous districts of Paris was changing. There was a sewer. A great event was the opening in 1836 of the Arc de Triomphe, laid by Napoleon in memory of Austerlitz. The bas-relief "La Marseillaise" by Francois Rude, which adorned it, is a masterpiece that has few equals. In 1831, the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali presented France with an ancient monument - the Luxor Obelisk. The fact that it was delivered and installed was an engineering marvel of the time.
But there was no peace in the country - the time was tense and conflict. There were conspiracies, there were uprisings. Both the Bonapartists and the supporters of the overthrown "main" Bourbons, the Legitimists, reminded of themselves. So, Maria Carolina of Bourbon-Sicilian, the widow of the son of Charles X killed in 1820, in 1832 tried to raise the Vendean peasants to the armed struggle. But they decided that enough of the torment that their fathers endured for the sake of the Bourbons.
Laws were passed prohibiting dangerous gatherings on the streets, association in public unions of more than 20 people. Officials were generally forbidden to participate in political organizations.
In the economy, Louis-Philippe completely trusted moderate liberals - he himself believed that business people could solve all the country's main problems without excessive government intervention. The head of the ministry, Casimir Perrier, defined his course as a policy of the "golden mean", according to which the administrative apparatus should, first of all, ensure a calm commercial and industrial activity. However, the Laffitte bank went bankrupt and closed. Due to the difficulties in international relations, foreign trade relations were disrupted. As a result, enterprises went bankrupt, many were left without work.
Conflicts in industry began to pose a great social danger. The introduction of new, machine methods of production led to dire consequences. Workers of those professions in which the secrets of craftsmanship were passed down from generation to generation lost their jobs: weavers of silk fabrics, shoemakers, carvers, masters of porcelain, faience and other craftsmen. The rural poor, ready to do any work for a penny, flocked to the factories, primarily textile ones, in search of work. The working outskirts, growing, turned into slums with all their attributes: unemployment, alcoholism, crime, prostitution, homelessness, unsanitary conditions (in 1832, a cholera epidemic claimed many lives). By the mid 40s. There were already about a million inhabitants in Paris. The same processes took place in other industrial cities.
The workers were already imbued with the consciousness of their high social significance. After all, it was they who ensured the success of the July Revolution in the first place. The following view of the state of affairs became available to them: “Three days of the July Revolution were enough to change our functions in society, and now we are the main part of this society, the stomach that spreads life in the upper classes, while the latter are returned to their true service. roles ... The people are nothing but the working class: it is he who gives the productive force to capital, working for him; the trade and industry of the state rests on the people.
So it was written in the workers' newspaper. At that time, the same political forces that were popular among students, the left-wing Republicans, began to actively operate in the proletarian environment. There were such organizations as the "Society of Friends of the People", "Society of Human Rights", "Society of the Four Seasons". The officially established limit on the number of members was bypassed by the creation of structures in which grassroots cells were connected only at the level of their leaders. The police fought against these associations, closed them - but they were revived under other names.
The most close-knit organization turned out to be the Lyon Society of "Mutuellists" ("Mutual Aid"), uniting weavers. It carried the features of the former unions of apprentices, and those, in turn, were rooted in the "freemasons" - the builders of Gothic cathedrals, the progenitors of the Masons. Like the latter, the Mutuellists called each other brothers, celebrated the day of the founding of their union as a "holiday of rebirth", paid great attention to the moral character of their members.
Lyon weavers, who produced silk fabrics, worked mostly at home. Buyers, citing difficulties in sales, reduced prices. The workers persuaded the prefect to arrange a meeting at which both sides could agree. It took place, new conditions were agreed upon - but the buyers immediately backpedaled.
And then the artisans took up arms. For ten days Lyon was in their hands. According to eyewitnesses, the city has never had such an ideal order. It was then that the famous slogan sounded: "Live working or die fighting!". But soon a whole army corps, sent by the government, came up. This time, the Lyon weavers failed to achieve what they wanted - their armed resistance was quickly broken.
In 1832-1834. the republicans staged several more armed uprisings in Paris and Lyon. Particularly memorable was the Paris uprising, the occasion for which was the funeral of the popular General Lamarck - these events are described in Hugo's Les Misérables. Students, workers, political emigrants from different countries fought shoulder to shoulder. Having set up barricades in the narrow streets of the workers' quarters, the rebels intended to launch an attack on the town hall and the royal palace from there. But the police managed to arrest the leaders, and parts of the national guard and regular troops broke the resistance of the defenders of the barricades and staged a massacre. Many were shot on the spot, the detainees were awaited by a harsh trial, prison and exile. Only the lucky ones, like Jean Valjean, were able to get out of the cordon. A lot of gavrosh died under the bullets.
French civil conflicts were generally violent. In 1834, during the suppression of an uprising in Paris, General Bujold ordered to kill all the residents of one house in the Marais quarter, from which several shots were fired. People - both old and small, and women were killed in their own beds. This terrible crime is captured in the painting by Honore Daumier.
In order to prevent further aggravation of the situation, in 1835 the government adopted the so-called "September Laws", curtailing political freedoms. Judges could now pass sentences in political cases in the absence of the accused. Newspaper editors were strictly responsible for attacking the person of the king, for sowing class hatred, for condemning the existing form of government, for praising the republican system, for encroaching on the inviolability of property rights. The most active Republicans were arrested. The measures turned out to be quite effective - there were no armed uprisings for a long time.
But in the meantime, the king and his government began to lose support not only among the workers and students, but also among the broad bourgeois strata. Louis-Philippe became closer and closer to the big industrialists and bankers, and one of them broadcast in the chamber: “No society can do without the aristocracy. The state order of the July Monarchy rests on its aristocracy, consisting of industrialists and manufacturers: they founded a new dynasty.
This new-found nobility quickly became accustomed to their privileged position: to preferential taxation, to virtually prohibitive duties on competitive foreign goods. She behaved like a lord: she boasted of her influence, unrestrainedly tasted all the joys of life. But these gentlemen were far from the enterprise, all-consuming passion, competence that their English brethren showed in business.
Political life has ossified. Outwardly, it seemed that if not completely democratic, then still constitutional orders existed in the country. Elections are held for the Chamber of Deputies, at its meetings speakers replace each other, speaking loud speeches. One ministry leaves, another comes - because the parliamentary majority is changing. But no alternative to the previous course was put forward. “France is bored,” one of the few truly independent deputies, Lamartine, once said from the podium.
Particularly stagnant were those eight years (1840-1848) when the policy of the state was determined by Guizot, who headed the conservative "resistance party" in the chamber. During these years, a third of the chamber was made up of officials elected under pressure from the prefects, who always voted as the government required.
To the demand to extend the suffrage, Guizot arrogantly replied: "Try to get rich by work, and you will become voters!" He spoke of universal suffrage as "an absurd system that has no place in the world at all." Louis Philippe was also quite satisfied with such splendor - he was not going to reduce the qualification, 250 thousand voters (by 1848) seemed to him even more than necessary.
However, the people were not silent - not only the poor, but also relatively wealthy. At the reviews of the national guard, the king heard exclamations: "Long live the reform!" He understood that again the suffrage was meant, and the reviews were no longer held. In literary works, the Great Revolution was increasingly recalled, and there were calls to continue the work not of the National Assembly of 1789, but of the Jacobin Convention. In the educated layers there was a protest against the spirit of money-grubbing and its carriers who seized power - they also included "shopkeepers and notaries."
The views of bohemia (bohemia - from the French "gypsies"), her way of life, became more and more popular. Young writers, artists, actors, students of the Latin Quarter "in their noisy life, in their meetings, gatherings and balls, in the" theatrical battles "when staging new plays, they hurled a perky challenge to stupid narrow-mindedness and pedantic complacency" (R.Yu. Vipper). In their clothes, in their manner of speech, the "Jacobin" type was clearly visible.
There was a demand for "freedom of feeling", the most striking champion of which was the writer George Sand. Creative youth believed that society could not be free as long as a woman, not having the right to divorce, was forcibly kept in marriage with an unloved man.
The ideologies of movements that can be called revolutionary-democratic were taking shape. This was facilitated, in particular, by the fact that political emigrants from countries such as Poland, Italy, Germany (later Russia) found temporary shelter in Paris - people who think and thirst for change both in their homeland and on the scale of all mankind.
Questions of political economy aroused more and more interest: theories were constructed based on the need for a radical reorganization of society, and above all, a revision of property rights, the conditions of production and exchange. The “utopian socialism” of Saint-Simon and Fourier, who emphasized the denial of the contemporary family with its inequality of women and adult children, enjoyed wide popularity; on the necessity of arranging collective forms of life. Fourier saw "phalanstery", where people work together, spend their leisure time together and have a common warehouse of the products of their labor. The existing system of commodity-money relations, with its dominance of middlemen producing nothing, must be replaced by free exchange between phalansters.
Proudhon and thinkers close to him wanted to avoid such communist extremes. They saw various forms of cooperation as the optimal way out of the impasse of private ownership.
Louis Blanc was drawn as an ideal something similar to the Soviet reality experienced and lost by us. His views were close to Marxism. Blanc considered it necessary to use the opportunities generated by large-scale capitalist property: having nationalized it, it would be possible to move on to state management of all industry. Such a transition would be guaranteed by the fact that the bourgeois industries, whose enterprises will be left privately owned for the time being, will not be able to withstand competition with the powerful public sector (I wonder what songs Louis Blanc would sing when he saw our dispossession and “cleansing” of the achievements of the NEP. However, it is possible , he would have liked it - the man was revolutionary-minded).
But the majority of the French did not encounter socialist ideas, but the revival of Catholicism - it clearly happened before their eyes and was connected with their daily life.
The Catholic Church, as well as three hundred years ago, during the years of the Reformation, was able to successfully rebuild in relation to radically changed conditions. She drew conclusions and wised up.
The ideologists of the church took into account an important component of the social psychology of that time - one that was singled out by the thinkers of "nostalgic" romanticism. Woe to the lonely! Many people were disappointed in the omnipotence of the mind, and even horrified at the sight of its accomplishments: anarchy, terror, and finally, from the disunity of people in the bourgeois world. A person wants to stick to something established, proven for centuries, understandable, hierarchical. Let at the same time mysterious, inexplicable - it's even better. To see, to feel in your earthly life a reflection of the heavenly light that sanctifies it, helps you endure its hardships, introduces you to Eternity - isn’t this an opportunity that the Church has given people for two millennia, and isn’t this what people need today? (Approximately in the same vein, albeit in a peculiar way, even the Saint-Simonists and the philosopher Auguste Comte, the theorist of positivism, thought. For all the rationality and scientific character of their constructions, they did not think of being without the Supreme Being).
But not to notice how much the world has changed (and changed, most likely, irreversibly) would be obscurantism. Therefore, the former prelates, important and self-satisfied representatives of the aristocratic milieu, disappeared. The bishops who came to replace them, like ordinary priests, came from poor strata, graduates of seminaries - well prepared and at the same time familiar with the need, with the life of the people.
The church made extensive use of the possibilities of the press, and talented publicists emerged from its ranks. The main practical task of the Catholic Party (it was also called clerical) was to achieve influence on the youth, on the younger generation, on the school.
The Church no longer tried to subjugate the state, did not even seek a close alliance with it - in front of one generation, the thrones cracked like empty nuts, and those who recently sat on them, for the most part, either flew into hell, or did not hold on in the most worthy way. . The church, in spite of everything, looked much more attractive. Therefore, all Catholics became papists, the pope became their spiritual leader, who in matters of faith does not require the mediation of earthly power. In France, the idea of Gallicanism, the independence of the national French church, was completely and completely discarded.
To a certain extent, having opposed itself to the state, the church could now more confidently and convincingly defend the interests of all the needy, all the oppressed. She became more democratic. The ideas of Christian socialism were born: the popular priest Lamenne came forward with demands for universal suffrage and freedom of social associations. True, for his time, his views turned out to be too bold - the pope condemned their extremes.
This text is an introductory piece.
From the book Queen Margo the author Dumas AlexanderChapter 15 THE KING IS DEAD - LONG LIVE THE KING! A few minutes later, Catherine and the Duke of Alençon entered, trembling with fear and pale with rage. Heinrich guessed right: Catherine knew everything and told Francois in a few words. They took a few steps and stopped at
From the book Defeat 1941 (On peacefully sleeping airfields ...) author Solonin Mark SemyonovichChapter 13 THE RAT KING AND THE "KING OF FIGHTERS" Yes, indeed, in the winter of 1938-1939, tests of the I-180 fighter began, in all performance characteristics, including the maximum speed over the entire altitude range, which was superior to the Messerschmitt of the E series. And already in the fall 1939 on drawing boards in KB
From the book Love for History (network version) part 5 author Akunin BorisIs the king naked? And maybe no king? March 6, 11:49 The League of Voters reports that the official data of the Central Election Commission differ greatly from the data of the Consolidated Protocol. For those who are too lazy to follow the link, I will briefly explain: the “Consolidated Protocol” is a combination of
From the book Red Terror in Russia. 1918-1923 author Melgunov Sergey Petrovich“Infringement of the bourgeoisie” “Terror is murder, shedding of blood, the death penalty. But terror is not only the death penalty, which most vividly shocks the thought and imagination of a contemporary ... The forms of terror are countless and varied, as countless and varied in their
From the book Scaliger's Matrix author Lopatin Vyacheslav AlekseevichPhilip IV - Juana and Philip I 1605 Birth of Philip 1479 Birth of Juana 126 Philip was born on 8 April and Juana on 6 November. From Juana's birthday to Philip's birthday - 153 days. 1609 Expulsion of baptized Arabs from Spain 1492 Expulsion of Jews from Spain 117 1492. Date for Spain
From the book Long-Lived Monarchs author Rudycheva Irina AnatolievnaThe king is dead! Long live the king! The first king of Portugal died on December 6, 1185 in Coimbra at the age of 76 and was buried in the monastery of Santa Cruz. His reign lasted 57 years - he ruled first as an earl, and then as a king. Moreover, these years passed in the military
From the book Palace Revolutions author Zgurskaya Maria PavlovnaThe king is dead - long live the king! The reign of the cruel King Pedro I caused such a storm of indignation in the state that it led to the overthrow of the legitimate dynasty and the accession of Enrique de Trastamara under the name Henry II (Enrique) (1333-1379) - the king of Castile, also called
From the book History of France. Volume I Origins of the Franks by Stefan LebeckDagobert. "King of the Austrasians" (623), then "King of the Franks" (629) The son of Clothar and Queen Bertrude by that time was not even 15 years old. He was brought to Metz and placed under the care of Bishop Arnoul, who retained his functions of "friend of the house", and Pepin I, the new mayor. Clothar,
author Skazkin Sergey DanilovichThe dominance of the big bourgeoisie However, the illusions of brotherhood, of the universal unity of the nation, which prevailed in the first days of the revolution, did not last long. All the third estate acted together against the absolutist regime and defeated it. But the fruits of this victory went to
From the book History of France in three volumes. T. 2 author Skazkin Sergey DanilovichLouis-Philippe - the king of stockbrokers The July Revolution of 1830 secured the victory of the bourgeoisie over the nobility. But it was not the entire bourgeoisie that dominated from 1830 to 1848, but only its richest part - the so-called financial aristocracy, which included bankers,
From the book Ghostly Pages of History author Chernyak Efim BorisovichPhilip II, King of Spain A contemporary of Catherine de Medici, the Spanish King Philip II, who occupied the throne for more than fifty years, is also a rather attractive historical character. In 1546, at the age of sixteen, on behalf of his father, the Spanish king and
From the book In the Land of Myths author Arsky Felix NaumovichTHE KING IS DEAD. LONG LIVE THE KING! The pirate Dikearchus, who was in the service of the Macedonian king Philip V (who ruled at the end of the 3rd-beginning of the 2nd century BC), was famous for his audacity. Not only did he make robbery raids and turn captives into slaves, he had enough
From the book History of the Ukrainian SSR in ten volumes. Volume four author Team of authors3. GROWTH OF THE BOURGEOSIS Industrial and commercial bourgeoisie. One of the manifestations of the changes that took place in the social structure of society in the post-reform period was the formation of the bourgeoisie - the main exploiting class of the era of capitalism. This process was the same for
From the book Putin against the liberal swamp. How to save Russia author Kirpichev Vadim VladimirovichMyth as a weapon of the bourgeoisie The system of liberal myths is an apparatus of artificial thinking connected to the Russian intelligentsia. The liberal dream of reason gives birth to Chubaisov. Without a powerful system of governing myths, it would be impossible to divide Russia into Golden
From the book Complete Works. Volume 10. March-June 1905 author Lenin Vladimir IlyichSoviets of the Conservative Bourgeoisie A few weeks ago the second Congress of Zemstvo took place in Moscow. Russian newspapers are not allowed to print a word about this congress. The English newspapers report a number of details from the words of eyewitnesses who were present at the congress and transmit
From the book Complete Works. Volume 21. December 1911 - July 1912 author Lenin Vladimir IlyichThe Agents of the Liberal Bourgeoisie This issue was almost completely finished when we received No. 9 of The Future. We called this newspaper the liberal drawing room. It turns out that agents of the Russian liberal bourgeoisie sometimes appear in this drawing room to try to lead on
Entry of Louis XVIII into Paris on May 3, 1814. Engraving by Louis le Coeur Getty Images
Charles X tramples on the Constitutional Charter and the trappings of justice. Caricature, 1830"What a jump!" But the France of that time no longer had anything in common with the France of the Old Order: during the revolutions, the French became completely different people, even demographically: the old generation died at the fronts and on the guillotine, and the population of France by the 1830s was completely renewed, was very young and educated on the ideas of revolution. So the ordinances of Charles X, which violated the constitution and introduced censorship and other restrictions, were perceived not as a return to tradition, but as a violation of them - just as the ban on reformist banquets was perceived in 1848.
In 1830, as a result of the July Revolution, Charles X abdicated in favor of his grandson, the infant Duke of Bordeaux. Louis Philippe (then Duke of Orleans) was supposed to become regent under him, but as a result of negotiations with Parliament, he became king. It turned out that he received the crown from parliamentarians, and not by God's grace. In the new Charter of 1830, he was called "King of the French", and this charter itself was no longer a gift from the king of the nation, but the result of an agreement between the king and the people.
At first, Louis Philippe I formed a completely different image than his predecessor: he walked the streets of Paris with an umbrella under his arm, went into simple cafes and shook hands with ordinary Parisians. In fact, this was not such a simple publicity stunt, as some historians write: there were so many assassination attempts on Louis Philippe, especially in the first ten years of the July Monarchy, so that only a very brave person could afford such democracy.
However, after a few years, the king's revolutionary fervor passed: they wrote that he no longer sang the Marseillaise, but simply opened his mouth, and he really wanted to be perceived in the world as a legitimate king, equal to other sovereigns of Europe - he was very worried about -for the fact that Nicholas I never called him “my sovereign brother”, because, having stolen the crown from the Duke of Bordeaux, Louis Philippe became, from the point of view of Nicholas, the usurper of the throne.
Parliament
During the Restoration, the king and only the king had the right to legislative initiative. Parliament could discuss the bills proposed by it, but the final word still remained with the monarch. The Charter of 1830 stipulated that now the legislative power is divided between the King and the Parliament, and the Parliament has become a real political force. If earlier the king appointed the chairman of the chamber (selecting from five candidates proposed by the chamber of deputies), now the chamber chose its chairman on its own. Ministers were now accountable to Parliament, and Parliament had the right to pass, as it is called in modern laws, a vote of no confidence in the government - thus, during the years of the July Monarchy, three out of fifteen ministries were replaced.
Parliamentary session of 1819 Bibliothèque nationale de France The king, in turn, had the right to dissolve parliament and often used this right - during the years of the July Monarchy, elections were held six times and not a single chamber sat for the five years allotted to it: they were all dissolved at the will of the king.
There were many different groups represented in the parliament, which cannot be called parties in the modern sense of the word: there were no strict membership or charters yet, and many politicians quietly moved along the party spectrum, depending on how close they were to the position of one or another group on specific question. There was no discipline in parliament, especially under the July Monarchy: a deputy could not be kicked out or deprived of his speech, and there were real battles, and some deputies spoke for three hours without a break. Everyone had a different manner of speaking: for example, Francois Guizot, a very influential politician who officially became Prime Minister of France on the eve of the 1848 revolution, never smiled, and it was said that if he smiles, he still looks ominous, and his opponent Adolphe Thiers, who became prime minister twice during the July Monarchy, shouted during speeches, waved his arms and jumped funny - they said about him that he was “mobile like mercury”, and they called him “the devil with glasses”. Another thing is that often, especially by the end of the 1840s, after all these stormy battles, the parliament still made the decisions the government needed - but nevertheless, the deputies undoubtedly enjoyed real freedom of debate.
In the 1820s, politics became fashionable, and even secular ladies went to Parliament. The wife of the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vice-Chancellor Nesselrode, who during the years of the Restoration and the July Monarchy very often visited Paris, constantly visited Parliament. Her husband wrote to her to go to the theater, and she answered him: “What didn’t I see in the theater? I won’t be as interested there as at parliamentary sessions.”
Once even the famous theater actress Rachel came to parliament - there are memories of what a sensation she made there. And if they went to the theater to see leading artists or musicians, then the audience came to the Chamber of Deputies to see famous speakers - one of the most famous was Alphonse de Lamartine, a romantic poet, writer and politician, a favorite of women who simply took parliament during the days of his speeches by storm.
Politicians in the Tuileries Garden. Painting by Louis Leopold Boilly (detail). 1832 State Hermitage Voters
Both the Charter of 1814 and the Charter of 1830 spelled out an electoral qualification: the right to vote and be elected depended (besides gender) on age and on how much direct taxes a person paid per year. These taxes were paid, first of all, from landed property, and therefore, as a rule, people who owned land became voters and, moreover, deputies. According to the qualification established in 1814, any college professor could not be elected to parliament. As a result, until 1830 the number of voters was about 100 thousand people, while the population of France was about 30-35 million. The ordinances issued by Charles X in 1830 further worsened the situation: they explicitly stated that only landowners could be voters.
The Charter of 1830 introduced quite serious concessions: the age and property qualifications were lowered for both voters and candidates. If in some department there were too few potential voters or candidates, the qualifications there were lowered even more. In addition, a category of “capacité” (“capable” or “talents”) arose, which included officials, teachers of educational institutions and other people whose service to France was considered quite large - for them at first they wanted to abolish the property qualification completely, and then still left, but very small.
This immediately seriously increased the number of voters, but it is interesting that by 1848, that is, by the end of the July Monarchy, there were 246 thousand people - 45% more than in 1831, despite the fact that the laws did not change during this time, and the population of France increased by only 9%. That is, many more French people began to meet the electoral qualification: people got rich.
There is the famous call of François Guizot, who is always quoted like this: “Get rich!” - and is often interpreted as a call to money-grubbing and bribery and as proof of his self-interest. In fact, this phrase was fully sounded as follows: "Get rich through labor and thrift, and you will become voters." That is, Guizot called not for corruption and not for bribery, but for honest work, the purpose of which is the right to vote. He himself traveled just such a path: he came from a bourgeois family, earned money as a historian, and then, having reached the appropriate age and wealth, became a politician and minister. And this was not a unique case: during the existence of the July Monarchy, many scientists, writers, journalists and other intellectuals gained access to power.
At the same time, the liberals themselves - including the same Guizot - believed that suffrage is not a natural right given to a person by birth, but a function associated with a very high degree of responsibility, and it should be given to people who have a certain educational and cultural background. level and political preparation: otherwise, inexperienced and politically unprepared sections of the population will be involved in politics, and this will lead the country to chaos and anarchy. Therefore, when a movement began in the 1840s, first for a further lowering of the electoral qualification, and then for universal suffrage, the liberals actively opposed this.
It is interesting that at the very beginning of the Restoration, it was not the liberals who advocated the expansion of the suffrage, but the ultra-royalists: they understood that if the peasants, who were mostly conservative, were given the right to choose, they would vote for the Legitimists. Legitimists- monarchists, supporters of the overthrown dynasty.. Indeed, the introduction of universal suffrage brought to power Louis Napoleon Bonaparte - who was first elected as president, and then proclaimed the Second Empire in France.
The idea of democracy (that is, universal suffrage) was combined with the idea of freedom (that is, liberal values) later, this happened only during the years of the Third Republic. Therefore, modern French historians say that the then adopted constitution of 1875 is the Charters of 1814 and 1830, supplemented by universal suffrage.
Bourgeois
Caricature of Louis Philippe. 19th century Bibliothèque nationale de France It is believed that there were no longer any rigid boundaries between the bourgeoisie and other, lower strata - anyone could enter this category. Some historians say that this is why the July Monarchy did not know any serious social conflicts in the 1840s. But it is interesting that, despite the lowering of the electoral qualification, even in the 1840s, 80% of the voters were still landowners. Everyone who somehow earned money tried to buy land as soon as possible: people from the middle class wanted to become the same as the aristocrats.
Guizot bought a former 12th-century abbey in Normandy and renovated it at his own expense. Balzac personally attributed a part of “de” to his surname: he really wanted to not be perceived as a parvenu, that is, an upstart. Adolphe Thiers was the son of a merchant from Marseilles, made money on journalism, became a very influential person - and all his life he unsuccessfully tried to acquire the status of a real aristocrat. It is known that his wife, the daughter of a stockbroker, was constantly teased by Dorothea Dino, a very famous lady, Talleyrand's companion in the last twenty years of his life. Dino seemed to have a good relationship with Thiers himself - but before the meeting of the French Academy, at which Thiers was elected an academician, he was forced to specifically ask that his wife be put away from Dino, because he wanted to protect her from barbs.
Ladies from the middle strata, like the ladies of high society, wanted to have their own salons, arrange balls - this, in particular, caused skepticism among Russian travelers who wrote about how a “salon” was arranged in a small apartment, where there was neither tea nor lemonade. will not be served, and there is nowhere to dance.
That is, on the one hand, French society was a society of the bourgeoisie, where anyone, having become rich, could become a voter, but, on the other hand, the people themselves from the middle class sought to catch up with the aristocrats, who still looked at them as upstarts.
bored nation
Alphonse de Lamartine said in the late 1840s, "France is bored." This topic was developed in more detail by Cuvier-Fleury, the educator of the children of Louis Philippe, who described the king as follows:
“He was a good politician, a serious and positive person, very active and foresight, striving to rule according to the laws and telling people: “Live in peace, be industrious, trade, get rich, be free, respecting freedom and not shaking the state.” A king who speaks like this, who only asks the people to be happy, who offers them no extraordinary performances, no emotions - and this is the legitimate king of a free nation! And this regime lasted eighteen years? Isn't it too much?!"
In the early 1830s, a number of reforms were carried out: the reform of the suffrage, some social and economic reforms. In addition, the construction of railways began. In the 1840s, the pace of reforms slowed down somewhat, and it began to seem to contemporaries that development had stopped. In the late 1840s, France was shaken by a series of scandals related to bribery and embezzlement in the upper echelons of power. In the end, when one of the peers of France, the Duke de Choiseul-Pralin, killed his wife and committed suicide in prison, this seemingly private affair began to be perceived as evidence of the decay of the state: rumors spread that the government allegedly planted poison on him to avoid scandal. Even a verb appeared, formed from the name Pralen. Hugo writes about it:
“The unfortunate duchess is all chopped up, cut with a dagger, beaten with a pistol grip ... The atrocity of Pralin has already become synonymous with cruelty, and the people have introduced a new verb to praline into their language. Instead of "he tyrannizes" they say: "He pralines his wife."
Victor Hugo. Posthumous notes. 1838-1875.
The situation that developed in France towards the end of the 1840s came to be called "moral Waterloo". Indeed, this state of affairs eventually led to the revolution of 1848. However, the Republicans who came to power as a result of this revolution were themselves unable to propose any serious changes: France simply did not have the financial resources for this. But they introduced universal suffrage - and the peasants, who made up the bulk of the population, immediately voted for Napoleon's nephew, whose name meant for them, firstly, the land (because Napoleon confirmed the agrarian legislation of the Jacobins In the summer of 1793, the National Convention decided to sell in installments the lands confiscated from the emigrated aristocrats in small plots and allowed the communal lands to be divided.), and secondly, the glory of France. Exactly what the liberals feared happened.
Napoleonic legend
Napoleonic packet boat. Honore Daumier's election caricature of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. 1848 Los Angeles County Museum of Art During the July Monarchy, the French lived in captivity of the Napoleonic legend about the greatness of France and the idea of exporting the revolution: accustomed to the fact that France is at the forefront of all of Europe and dictates its terms to the latter, they believed that their role was to carry the ideas of freedom to all mankind on bayonets, equality and brotherhood.
In reality, France no longer had the opportunity for such large-scale projects, and the policy of Louis Philippe and his government was an attempt to reconcile the French with reality. François Guizot, who took over as foreign minister in 1840, believed that France could strengthen its position in the world and restore its potential if it acted in line with the Vienna treaties concluded in 1815. In September 1814, after the abdication of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty to the French throne, a pan-European conference began in Vienna, which was supposed to regulate the political situation in Europe after the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars - in particular, to establish the borders of states. The conference was attended by representatives of all European countries, except for the Ottoman Empire; Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich chaired. France, whose delegation was headed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince Ch. M. Talleyrand, participated in the congress on an equal footing with the victorious powers (Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia). During the course of the congress, many separate treaties were negotiated; it ended on June 9, 1815, when the final, or general, act was signed. because only then will Europeans recognize France as a force for stability, not destruction.
Indeed, the wisdom of the politicians who created the Vienna system in 1815 was manifested, in particular, in the fact that they understood that France should be treated with loyalty. As a result, the country that lost the war participated on an equal footing in the Congress of Vienna and was, as a result, returned to the borders that it had before the start of the wars of conquest - that is, nothing was taken away from it. France quickly paid indemnity In 1815, after the second victory over Napoleon and the second restoration of the Bourbons on the French throne, the countries of the coalition and France signed an agreement in Paris, according to which France, among other things, had to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs in five years; before paying an indemnity, she agreed to the occupation of part of her territory by the Allied army, the maintenance of which was entrusted to her., and already in 1818 at the Aachen Congress To guarantee European borders, in September 1815, the so-called Holy Alliance was created, which included Russia, Prussia and Austria. His first congress was held in Aachen in 1818. There it was decided to withdraw the occupying troops from France no later than November 30, 1818 and to allow France to participate in the Holy Alliance. It was decided to return the country to the concert of European powers and withdraw the occupying troops from its territory.
Nevertheless, the French for the most part perceived the Vienna system as humiliating, and the moderate, compromise course of their government as a betrayal of national interests and servility towards England. Guizot began to be called "Lord Guizot" - this emphasizing his supposedly pro-English policy.
At the same time, Louis Philippe himself began to revive the cult of Napoleon, and he did it consciously. It was under him that the statue of Napoleon reappeared on the Vendôme Column, and Napoleon himself was reburied in the cathedral of Les Invalides in Paris. In addition, Louis Philippe returned to their posts the Napoleonic generals, who had previously been in exile. Even Charles X began a military expedition to conquer Algeria - he needed a small victorious war to rally people and strengthen his regime. However, this war did not help Charles in any way: less than a month after Hussein III lost the Algerian throne, Charles X lost his crown. Louis Philippe at first hesitated whether to continue the conquest of Algeria or abandon this enterprise, but in 1834 he nevertheless proclaimed Algeria a French colony - and sent those same generals there to realize their craving for glory and war and get rich. Some of them, notably Bertrand Clausel and Thomas Robert Bujold, became governors-general of Algeria and marshals of France.
After the revolution of 1848, the foreign policy aspirations of the French also did not come true - Alphonse de Lamartine, who headed the provisional government, first of all declared that France would comply with all the Vienna treaties. And this was another reason that Louis Napoleon Bonaparte came to power - only because of his name, without any election campaign.
In fact, the French could come to terms with the defeat at Waterloo and part with the Napoleonic legend only after the catastrophe that would happen to Napoleon III at Sedan Battle of Sedan- the battle that took place on September 1, 1870 near the French city of Sedan, in which the troops of Napoleon III suffered a crushing defeat, and the emperor himself surrendered. On September 4, a republic was proclaimed in France..
IGDA/G. Dagli Orti
LOUIS PHILIPPE
Louis Philippe (6.X.1773 - 26.VIII.1850) - French king (1830-1848). Head of the junior line of the Bourbon dynasty. During the French bourgeois revolution of the 18th century, Louis Philippe, following his father, Duke Philippe of Orleans, renounced his title of Duke of Chartres and adopted the surname Egalite (Egalité - equality), hoping to pave his way to power in the future. In 1792, as part of the revolutionary troops of France, he participated in battles of Valmy(September 20) and Zhemape (November 6), but in 1793, together with a traitor C. F. Dumouriez, under whose command Louis Philippe was, fled abroad. In 1814 he returned to France, where throughout the entire period of the Restoration (1814, 1815-1830) he maintained contact with opposition-minded circles of the big bourgeoisie. As a result of the victory of the July Revolution of 1830, Louis Philippe was proclaimed on August 7, 1830 "King of the French". A protege of the top of the bourgeoisie (financial aristocracy), he ruled in its interests. Overthrown by the February Revolution of 1848, he fled to Great Britain, where he died.
Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 8, KOSHALA - MALTA. 1965.
“Jean is crying, Jean is laughing.
Sketch from nature, begun in July 1830 and completed in February 1848.
Caricature of Louis Philippe.
Louis Philippe
King of the French
Louis-Philippe
Years of life: October 6, 1773 - August 26, 1850
Reigned: August 7, 1830 - February 24, 1848
Father: Louis Philippe d'Orleans
Mother: Adelaide de Bourbon-Pentevre
Wife: Maria Amelia of Sicily
Sons: Ferdinand-Philip, Louis, Francis, Karl-Ferdinand, Heinrich, Antoine
Daughters: Louise, Maria, Francoise, Clementine
Louis Philippe belonged to the Orléans branch of the Bourbon dynasty. His father, Duke of Orleans, great-great-grandson Louis XIII, was in opposition Louis XV and was excommunicated from the court. The duke was one of the prominent figures of the French Revolution and even changed his name to Philippe Egalite in order to emphasize his revolutionary sentiments. He was also one of the few noble deputies of the States General who advocated cooperation with the third estate, and even voted for the execution Louis XVI in the Convention.
His son Louis-Philippe received an education based on the ideas of the Enlightenment. At the same time, much attention was paid to languages and natural sciences. Unlike his father, he preferred a military career to a political career and rose to the rank of divisional general. However, in 1793, suspicions fell on the Duke of Orleans and Louis-Philippe in connection with the traitor General Dumouriez. Louis Philippe fled abroad, and his father was captured in Paris and executed.
For several years, Louis-Philippe traveled around Europe, and then, at the request of the Directory, he was forced to leave for the United States. In 1800, the duke moved to England, but the Bourbons who lived there did not immediately accept him. In 1808 he moved to Palermo, where he married Maria Amalia, daughter of the King of Sicily, whom he loved dearly.
In 1814 after abdication Napoleon the duke returned to Paris, and Louis XVIII gave him the former possessions of the family. During the "Hundred Days" he again left for England and finally returned to France only in 1817. In his manners, Louis Philippe looked more like a bourgeois than an aristocrat. He was alien to idleness, frivolity and ambition. He moved along the street on foot, without a carriage, and his children studied at a regular school. Thanks to his energy, he managed to improve the faltering financial affairs of the family, and by the end of the 20s he became one of the largest landowners in France. Largely due to his reputation, he became the king of France after the July Revolution.
On July 30, 1830, Parliament proposed that Louis Philippe take the throne. He agreed, and the very next day he was proclaimed king. Not all those who fought for the republic were happy about the preservation of the monarchy, and the new king had to make a lot of efforts to calm the people.
Louis Philippe easily entered the role of a citizen king. All court brilliance and splendor were destroyed, there was no court ceremonial and royal guards, the sons of the king continued to study in public educational institutions. The king himself, as before, freely walked around the city with an umbrella under his arm. However, very soon the general enthusiasm was replaced by disappointment. Louis Philippe was too petty, prudent and too concerned about his own benefit. Civil peace in the country did not come. One after another, rebellions and uprisings broke out, which were suppressed by the old methods with the help of force. Louis-Philippe was forced to make liberal reforms, although he did not like a real constitutional monarchy. In addition, most of the reforms were carried out in the interests of senior officials, bankers, large merchants and industrialists, which led to an even greater stratification of society.
In 1847, an acute economic crisis occurred in France. The massive bankruptcies of enterprises and the subsequent layoffs led to an increase in discontent among the people. To circumvent the ban on organizing meetings, the dissatisfied began to arrange so-called banquets - mass dinners at which they talked about reforms and criticized the government. February 21, 1848 head of government François Guizot banned one of these banquets, which was the impetus for the revolution.
On February 22, crowds of people began to gather in Paris and barricades were built. On February 23, the unrest intensified. The government called in the National Guard for help, but the soldiers did not hide their sympathy for the rebels. The unpopular Guizot was forced to resign. It seemed that the situation began to normalize, but unexpectedly, fire was opened on the crowd that had gathered near the building of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on someone's order. Calls were also heard among the people: "To arms!" On February 24, Louis-Philippe dissolved Parliament and agreed to an electoral reform, but this did not impress the rebels. During the day, the rebels stormed the Palais Royal. Louis-Philippe, who was at that time in the Tuileries, did not find support in anyone from his entourage and signed an act of renunciation. The Second Republic was proclaimed in France.
After the abdication, Louis-Philippe moved to England, where the Belgian king Leopold I gave him full control of his castle Claremont. Louis Philippe lived there until his death.
Used material from the site http://monarchy.nm.ru/
Louis Philip.
Reproduction from the website http://monarchy.nm.ru/
Louis Philippe - King of France 1830-1848 Son of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans and Adelaide of Bourbon-Penthièvre.
Wife: since 1809 Maria Amelia, daughter of King Ferdinand I of Sicily (b. 1782 + 1866).
Louis Philippe's father, the Duke of Orleans, who was the great-great-grandson of Louis XIII in a direct line, was a very controversial person. A highly educated, courageous officer and a playboy, he fell into opposition to Louis XV and was excommunicated from the court. He gave his children an education, unusual for a high-born nobleman, based on the ideas of enlightenment. The famous writer Madame de Genlis became the mentor of the young Louis-Philippe (since 1785 he bore the title of Duke of Chartres), his brothers and sisters. Being an enthusiastic follower of the ideas of Rousseau, she instilled in her pupils a love for a simple and healthy life. Under her guidance, Louis-Philippe thoroughly studied both ancient and modern languages (later he was very fluent in Greek, Latin, English, Italian, Spanish and German). Much attention was also paid to mathematics, natural sciences, music and dance.
In 1789, at the meeting of the States General, the Duke of Orleans was one of the few representatives of the nobility who entered into cooperation with the third estate. Subsequently, he entered the Jacobin club and, after the overthrow of the king in 1792, took the name of Philip Egalite, in order to emphasize his revolutionary sentiments. As a deputy of the Mountain party in the National Convention, he went so far as to vote in January 1793 for the execution of Louis XVI. The example of his father in many ways determined the fate of the young Louis-Philippe during these years. He was also a member of the Jacobin club, but preferred a military career to a political career. In 1791, he went to his 14th dragoon regiment, stationed in Vendôme, of which, as a prince of the blood, he was listed from pre-revolutionary times. In May 1792, Louis-Philippe was promoted to brigadier general, and in September to division general. At the battle of Valmy he commanded the second line of the army and with great courage repulsed all the attacks of the Prussians. In November, he distinguished himself at the battle of Jemmann, where he led the center of the army. The last battle in which he took part was the defense of Tirlemont. After the betrayal of General Dumouriez, an order was sent to arrest the Duke of Chartres. But Louis-Philippe managed to avoid reprisals. In April 1793 he fled across the front line to Mons to the headquarters of the Prince of Coburg. His father was soon captured in Paris, accused of plotting a coup, and executed in November of that year.
Having parted ways with the revolution, Louis-Philippe, however, did not immediately join the royalist emigration. Having gone to Switzerland, he wandered through the mountains for several months, moving from one canton to another. Finally, in October, he was able to get a job at the Grison School in Reichenau and, under the name Chabot-Latour, took the place of a teacher of foreign languages, mathematics and natural sciences. In June 1794, he moved to Hamburg, traveled all over northwestern Germany, then went to Denmark, Norway, Lapland, and through Sweden returned again to Hamburg. The government of the Directory demanded that he leave Europe, and promised in this case to release both his brothers and his mother from imprisonment. In the autumn of 1796, Louis-Philippe went to the USA, first living in Philadelphia, then in New York and Boston. During the trip he, among other things, made acquaintance with George Washington. In February 1800, Louis-Philippe went to England, where the Bourbons who fled from France lived at that time. The family did not immediately accept the returned “prodigal son” into their bosom. When Louis-Philippe, who took the title of Duke of Orleans, went to the Count d'Artois, the younger brother of the executed Louis XVI, he at first met him very coldly. Louis Philippe moved to Palermo in 1808. He married Princess Maria Amalia, daughter of the King of Sicily, in November 1809. Ten children were born between 1810 and 1824 from this marriage, founded on deep mutual feeling.
In May 1814, after the abdication of Napoleon, the duke returned to Paris. Louis XVIII immediately handed over to him the former possessions of the family, so that at the end of September, Louis-Philippe with his wife and children was able to move to the Palais Royal. But the stay in Paris was short. During the Hundred Days, the Orleans family hastily left for England and lived there for three years. It returned to France only in 1817, when the position of the Bourbons was finally strengthened. Settling in the Palais Royal, Louis-Philippe lived in solitude and kept aloof from court life. He gave all his strength to the restoration of his condition. He quickly managed to put his shaken affairs in order, and then, by skillful management, significantly increase his fortune. By the end of the 20s. Duke of Orleans was considered one of the largest landowners in France. Idleness, frivolous amusements and luxury were completely alien to him. He rarely attended mass, did not go hunting, and never appeared at the Opera. He did not have, according to Hugo, a weakness for priests, hounds and dancers, which was one of the reasons for his popularity among the bourgeoisie. And in fact, both in his way of life and in his habits, Louis-Philippe was very much like a bourgeois. He did not have the devouring ambition that is so often found in people who stand close to the throne. He sent his children to a public school, and he himself, going out into the street, always kept an umbrella under his arm. He knew the value of money and time, was known as an exemplary husband and caring father. For all these bourgeois virtues, he was rewarded in 1830, when the July Revolution finally overthrew the Bourbons from the French throne.
On July 30, the House invited Louis Philippe to take the vacant throne. On July 31, he arrived in Paris from his summer residence in Nekiy was immediately proclaimed king. Not everyone, however, was happy with this turn of events. The people and students, who stood at the barricades for three days, were sure that they were fighting for the republic. They crowded around the Hôtel de Ville, waiting for the right moment to proclaim it. General Lafayette was to become its president. Knowing this, Louis-Philippe decided to personally go to the hotel at the head of the deputies. Lafayette respectfully greeted him and handed over the tricolor banner to the duke. Louis-Philippe unfolded it, went with Lafayette to the open window, embraced and kissed the general. By this he won the case: to the exclamations of "Long live Lafayette!" joined "long live the duke!" On August 7, after the adoption of amendments to the Constitution, a law was passed on the transfer of royal power to the Duke of Orleans. On August 9, he took the oath.
The July Monarchy owed its origin to the revolution. This left an indelible imprint on its essence and on its appearance. Unlike the Bourbons, who based their power on divine right, Louis Philippe received the royal regalia from the Chamber of Deputies. The constitution was seen as a treaty between the French people and their freely chosen king, who was now obliged to respect the rights and freedoms of citizens. The most difficult task of the government in the early days was to curb and calm the people's spirit. At first, everyone was pleased with the fall of the senior Bourbon line, and the new king was very popular. From the first days, Louis-Philippe completely entered the role of a citizen-king and performed it perfectly: as before, he easily walked around the streets of Paris with an umbrella under his arm and when he met one or another blouse - a warrior of the days of the July Revolution, he stopped, affectionately held out hand and spoke to him ingenuously like a real French bourgeois. All court splendor and splendor were destroyed, there was no court ceremonial and royal guards, the sons of the king continued to study in public educational institutions.
But soon the general enthusiasm was replaced by disappointment. In the character and lifestyle of Louis Philippe, they began to see more negative traits than positive ones. His philistine prosaic nature, his prudence and worldly complacency, petty concern for his own benefit came out so openly that they became the object of caustic attacks and poisonous caricatures. The most famous was the caricature of Charles Philippe in 1831, in which the head and physiognomy of the king, due to the transformation of some features, gradually turned into a pear. Contrary to expectations) The July Revolution did not lead to civil peace, but only opened a new period of civil strife, which now and then took the form of republican, Bonapartist and royalist uprisings and conspiracies. The king had to fight them with the old methods: with the help of cannons and repressive laws. Having achieved in the early 30s. some appeasement of the country, Louis-Philippe decided to carry out liberal reforms: laws were adopted on the election of municipalities, on the national guard and on a new system of elections to the Chamber of Deputies. The last law halved the electoral qualification and increased the circle of citizens who had the right to vote from 90,000 to 166,000. The king was reluctant to further expand voting rights (by 1848, the number of voters reached 250,000). He did not like a real constitutional monarchy with real popular representation. All the attention of the government was turned to the monetary aristocracy, with which Louis Philippe was closely associated even before the revolution: to high officials, bankers, large merchants and industrialists, for whom the most favorable conditions were created in politics and business. The interests of numerous lower classes were constantly sacrificed to these money aces. But as the gap between poverty and wealth widened, so did social tensions. Even the economic upsurge that France experienced in the early 1940s did not strengthen the regime, but, on the contrary, exacerbated social contradictions. There was a widespread belief that the electoral system needed to be changed. In the House, there was an increasing demand to extend the right to vote to all taxpayers. But the king stubbornly rejected any idea of political change. These sentiments in Louis Philippe were supported by the most influential minister of the last seven years of his reign, Francois Guizot, who became head of the cabinet in 1847. To all the demands of the chamber to reduce the electoral qualification to at least one hundred francs, Guizot answered with cynical refusals. Too confident in the strength of his position, he overlooked the moment when it was necessary to make concessions. This made the fall of the regime inevitable.
The political crisis of the July Monarchy was preceded by an acute economic crisis that erupted in early 1847. Massive bankruptcies, layoffs, and rising unemployment began. The discontent of the people grew. The only way out of the crisis seemed to be the expansion of voting rights. In the summer of 1847, the movement of the so-called banquets was born: in order to promote reforms, primarily suffrage, and at the same time circumvent the strict prohibitions on unions and meetings, dinners were organized first in Paris, and then in large provincial cities. The speeches that were made spoke loudly about the reforms and sharply criticized the government. In total, about 50 such banquets took place. Annoyed, Guizot on February 21, 1848, banned the next banquet scheduled in the capital. This minor event was the impetus for the revolution.
The day of February 22, scheduled for the holiday, passed without any incident, but in the evening crowds of people began to gather in the inner quarters of the city and several barricades were built. On February 23, contrary to expectations, it turned out that the unrest was intensifying. Exclamations: "Down with the Ministry!" became louder, and armed men appeared among the people. The alarmed government called in the National Guard to help. However, the liberal bourgeoisie was clearly dissatisfied with the ministry. She was going reluctantly. In different places, demonstrations became noticeable, in which the national guardsmen took part together with the people. The mood of the guards opened the eyes of the king. On the same day he accepted Guizot's resignation. The news of this was greeted with complete delight. Crowds of people continued to remain on the streets, but the mood of the Parisians changed - instead of menacing exclamations, cheerful conversation and laughter were heard. But then the unexpected happened - late in the evening a crowd of people crowded in front of the building of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The line infantry guard stationed here opened fire on the assembled. Who ordered the shooting remained unknown, but this incident sealed the fate of Louis Philippe. The corpses of the dead were placed on wagons and taken through the streets, a crowd of angry people followed them with shouts and curses. Shouts were heard: "To arms!" From the bell tower of Saint-Germain-aux-Pres, the sounds of the tocsin rushed. In an instant, the streets were blocked by barricades. In the morning
On February 24, Louis-Philippe agreed to dissolve the House and carry out electoral reform. But these measures no longer made any impression. The rebels stormed the Palais Royal. The king mounted his horse and, accompanied by his sons, rode through the ranks of the troops defending the Tuileries. Everywhere he met with dull hostility: the soldiers answered his greetings with silence, and the national guard shouted: "Reforms!" The embarrassed king could not utter a single word that could arouse in them a sense of devotion and loyalty to their duty. He returned to the palace sad, agitated and discouraged. The journalist Émile Girardin was the first to advise the king to abdicate. For a while, Louis-Philippe hesitated, but soon others salted him with the same request. The king took a pen and immediately wrote an act of renunciation in favor of his grandson. Then he changed into civilian clothes, got into a hired carriage and, under the guard of a squadron, the cuirassier galloped off to Saint-Cloud.
The hope of keeping the throne for the House of Orleans with the help of the renunciation did not materialize. In Paris, the Republic was proclaimed, and with the approval of the Chamber of Deputies, the Provisional Government was created. Louis Philippe first went to Dreux, and on March 3, with the consent of the British government, sailed from Le Havre for England. Here the exile and his family were helped to settle down by their relative, the Belgian king Leopold 1. He gave Louis Philippe his castle of Clermont, in which the deposed king lived until his death, at the complete disposal of Louis Philippe.
All the monarchs of the world. Western Europe. Konstantin Ryzhov. Moscow, 1999.
One of Daumier's most famous caricatures of Louis Philippe.
LOUIS PHILIPPE (Louis Philippe) (1773–1850), King of France, was born October 6, 1773 in Paris, the eldest son of Louise of Bourbon and the Duke of Orleans. He subsequently renounced the title of Duke of Chartres and became known as Philippe-Egalite (Equality). During the revolution, Louis Philippe expressed sympathy for the reform movement, and in 1790 he joined the Jacobins. In 1793 he broke with the revolutionary movement, from that moment began a long period of his exile - he lived in England, Switzerland, and then in the USA. Following the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, Louis Philippe returned to France, and Louis XVIII returned his titles and property. The propensity for simplicity and manners of a republican earned Louis Philippe popularity. By 1830 he had gained a reputation as a liberal, which made him an acceptable figure for the newly emerging industrial capital in France. The July Revolution gave Louis Philippe a chance, and when the Chamber of Deputies offered him the crown, he immediately agreed. He sought to acquire a reputation as a citizen king, but the liberal beginning was more in the interests of a narrow circle of industrialists and bankers. In foreign policy, Louis Philippe was guided by peace and close relations with Great Britain. By 1846 he had lost his popularity among almost all segments of the population. On February 22, 1848, a revolution broke out in Paris, and two days later, Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris. The rest of the Chamber of Deputies elected a provisional government. Louis Philippe took refuge in England, where he died on August 26, 1850.
Materials of the encyclopedia "The world around us" are used.
Read further:
Historical Persons of France (biographical guide).
France in the 19th century (chronological table).
Literature:
History of France, vol. 2. M., 1973
Revyakin A.V. French dynasties. Bourbons, Orleans, Bonapartes. - New and recent history, 1992, No. 4
Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 4, p. 27-29, 357-64; vol. 7 (see Index of names);
Chernyshevsky N. G., July Monarchy, Full. coll. soch., vol. 7, M., 1950, p. 64-185;
Fournière E., Le regne de Louis-Philippe (1830-1848), P., 1938;
Recouly R., Louis-Philippe roi des Français, P., 1930.