When Poland withdrew from the Russian Empire. Poland is part of the Russian Empire. The time of the "Nikolaev reaction"

Poland was part of the Russian Empire from 1815 to 1917. It was a turbulent and difficult period for the Polish people - a time of new opportunities and great disappointments.

Relations between Russia and Poland have always been difficult. First of all, this is a consequence of the neighborhood of the two states, which for many centuries gave rise to territorial disputes. It is quite natural that during major wars, Russia has always been drawn into the revision of the Polish-Russian borders. This radically influenced the social, cultural and economic conditions in the surrounding areas, as well as the way of life of the Poles.

"Prison of Nations"

The "national question" of the Russian Empire caused different, sometimes polar opinions. Thus, Soviet historical science called the empire nothing more than a “prison of peoples,” while Western historians considered it a colonial power.

But in the Russian publicist Ivan Solonevich, we find the opposite statement: “Not a single people in Russia was subjected to such treatment as Ireland was subjected to in the times of Cromwell and the times of Gladstone. With very few exceptions, all the nationalities of the country were perfectly equal before the law.”

Russia has always been a multi-ethnic state: its expansion gradually led to the fact that the already heterogeneous composition of Russian society began to be diluted with representatives of different peoples. This also applied to the imperial elite, which was noticeably replenished with immigrants from European countries who came to Russia "to catch happiness and ranks."

For example, an analysis of the lists of the "Razryad" of the late 17th century shows that in the boyar corps there were 24.3% of persons of Polish and Lithuanian origin. However, "Russian foreigners" in the overwhelming majority lost their national identity, dissolving in Russian society.

"Kingdom of Poland"

Having joined Russia following the results of the Patriotic War of 1812, the “Kingdom of Poland” (since 1887 - “Privislinsky Territory”) had a twofold position. On the one hand, after the division of the Commonwealth, although it was a completely new geopolitical entity, it still retained ethno-cultural and religious links with its predecessor.

And on the other hand, national self-consciousness grew here and the sprouts of statehood made their way, which could not but affect the relationship between the Poles and the central government.
After joining the Russian Empire, the "Kingdom of Poland" undoubtedly expected changes. There were changes, but they were not always perceived unambiguously. During the entry of Poland into Russia, five emperors were replaced, and each had his own view of the westernmost Russian province.

If Alexander I was known as a "polonophile", then Nicholas I built a much more sober and tough policy towards Poland. However, you will not refuse him the desire, in the words of the emperor himself, "to be as good a Pole as a good Russian."

On the whole, Russian historiography positively evaluates the results of Poland's centenary entry into the empire. Perhaps it was Russia's balanced policy towards its western neighbor that helped create a unique situation in which Poland, not being an independent territory, for a hundred years retained its state and national identity.

Hopes and disappointments

One of the first measures introduced by the Russian government was the abolition of the "Napoleon Code" and its replacement by the Polish Code, which, among other measures, provided peasants with land and improved the financial situation of the poor. The Polish Sejm passed the new bill, but refused to ban civil marriage, which grants freedom.

This clearly marked the orientation of the Poles to Western values. There was someone to take an example from. So in the Grand Duchy of Finland, serfdom was already abolished by the time the Kingdom of Poland became part of Russia. Enlightened and liberal Europe was closer to Poland than "peasant" Russia.

After the “Alexandrov freedoms”, the time of the “Nikolaev reaction” came. In the Polish province, almost all office work is translated into Russian, or into French for those who did not speak Russian. The confiscated estates are complained to by persons of Russian origin, and all the highest positions are replaced by Russians.

Nicholas I, who visited Warsaw in 1835, feels a protest brewing in Polish society, and therefore forbids the deputation to express loyal feelings, "in order to protect them from lies."
The tone of the emperor's speech strikes with its uncompromisingness: “I need deeds, not words. If you persist in your dreams of national isolation, of the independence of Poland and similar fantasies, you will bring upon yourself the greatest misfortune ... I tell you that at the slightest disturbance I will order to shoot at the city, turn Warsaw into ruins and, of course, I'll fix it."

Polish riot

Sooner or later, empires are replaced by national-type states. This problem also affected the Polish province, in which, on the wave of the growth of national consciousness, political movements gain strength, which have no equal among other provinces of Russia.

The idea of national isolation, up to the restoration of the Commonwealth within its former boundaries, embraced ever wider sections of the masses. The dispersal force of the protest was the students, who were supported by workers, soldiers, as well as various strata of Polish society. Later, part of the landlords and nobles joined the liberation movement.

The main points of the demands made by the rebels are agrarian reforms, the democratization of society and, ultimately, the independence of Poland.
But for the Russian state it was a dangerous challenge. The Russian government responded sharply and harshly to the Polish uprisings of 1830-1831 and 1863-1864. The suppression of the riots turned out to be bloody, but there was no excessive harshness that Soviet historians wrote about. The rebels preferred to be sent to remote Russian provinces.

The uprisings forced the government to take a number of countermeasures. In 1832, the Polish Sejm was liquidated and the Polish army was disbanded. In 1864, restrictions were placed on the use of the Polish language and the movement of the male population. To a lesser extent, the results of the uprisings affected the local bureaucracy, although there were children of high-ranking officials among the revolutionaries. The period after 1864 was marked by an increase in "Russophobia" in Polish society.

From dissatisfaction to benefits

Poland, despite the restrictions and infringement of freedoms, received certain benefits from belonging to the empire. So, under the reign of Alexander II and Alexander III, Poles began to be more often appointed to leadership positions. In some counties their number reached 80%. The Poles had the opportunity to advance in the civil service by no means less than the Russians.

Even more privileges were given to Polish aristocrats, who automatically received high ranks. Many of them oversaw the banking sector. Profitable places in St. Petersburg and Moscow were available for the Polish nobility, and they also had the opportunity to open their own business.
It should be noted that, in general, the Polish province had more privileges than other regions of the empire. So, in 1907, at a meeting of the State Duma of the 3rd convocation, it was announced that in various Russian provinces taxation reaches 1.26%, and in the largest industrial centers of Poland - Warsaw and Lodz, it does not exceed 1.04%.

Interestingly, the Privislinsky Krai received 1 ruble 14 kopecks back in the form of subsidies for each ruble given to the state treasury. For comparison, the Middle Black Earth Territory received only 74 kopecks.
The government spent a lot in the Polish province on education - from 51 to 57 kopecks per person, and, for example, in Central Russia this amount did not exceed 10 kopecks. Thanks to this policy, from 1861 to 1897 the number of literate people in Poland increased 4 times, reaching 35%, although in the rest of Russia this figure fluctuated around 19%.

At the end of the 19th century, Russia embarked on the path of industrialization, backed by solid Western investment. Polish officials also received dividends from this, participating in railway transportation between Russia and Germany. As a result - the emergence of a huge number of banks in major Polish cities.

The year 1917, tragic for Russia, ended the history of “Russian Poland”, giving the Poles the opportunity to establish their own statehood. What Nicholas II promised has come true. Poland gained freedom, but the union with Russia so desired by the emperor did not work out.

In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place between Austria, Prussia and Russia. May 3, 1791, the so-called. The four-year Sejm (1788-1792) adopted the Constitution of the Commonwealth.

In 1793 - the second section, ratified by the Grodno Seim, the last Seim of the Commonwealth; Byelorussia and Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia, to Prussia - Gdansk and Torun. The election of Polish kings was abolished.

In 1795, after the third partition, the Polish state ceased to exist. Western Ukraine (without Lvov) and Western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland went to Russia, Warsaw - to Prussia, Krakow, Lublin - to Austria.

After the Congress of Vienna, Poland was again divided. Russia received the Kingdom of Poland with Warsaw, Prussia received the Grand Duchy of Poznan, and Krakow became a separate republic. The Republic of Krakow ("free, independent and strictly neutral city of Krakow with its district") was annexed by Austria in 1846.

In 1815, Poland received the Constitutional Charter. On February 26, 1832, the Organic Statute was approved. The Russian Emperor was crowned Tsar of Poland.

At the end of 1815, with the adoption of the Constitutional Charter of the Kingdom of Poland, Polish flags were also approved:

Naval standard of the Tsar of Poland (that is, the Russian emperor);

Yellow cloth depicting a black double-headed eagle under three crowns, holding four nautical charts in its paws and beaks. On the chest of the eagle is a crowned ermine mantle with a small coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.

Palace Standard of the Tsar of Poland;

White cloth depicting a black double-headed eagle under three crowns, holding a scepter and orb in its paws. On the chest of the eagle is a crowned ermine mantle with a small coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.

Flag of the military courts of the Kingdom of Poland.

A white flag with a blue St. Andrew's cross and a red canton, which depicts the coat of arms of Poland - a silver crowned eagle on a scarlet field.

In the Polish flag studies literature, the last flag is referred to as "the flag of the Polish Black Sea trading companies of the 18th century." However, this statement raises very big doubts. Most likely in this case we are dealing with falsification. The fact is that the Andreevsky flag with an eagle was used by Polish emigrants as a national one. Due to the very complicated relations between Russia and Poland, it was extremely unpleasant for Polish nationalists to realize that the national flag of the Poles was, in fact, the occupying Russian flag. As a result, the myth of "Polish trading companies" was born.

Other official flags of Poland from the time of her stay in the Russian Empire are not known.

Poland was part of the Russian Empire from 1815 to 1917. It was a turbulent and difficult period for the Polish people - a time of new opportunities and great disappointments.

"Prison of Nations"

"Kingdom of Poland"

Hopes and disappointments

Polish riot

From dissatisfaction to benefits

Krakow. Woolen warehouses (north side). 1876

1) The Polish constitution was promulgated on June 20, 1815 ( 17 days after joining the Russian Empire), and entered into force in 1816. At the same time, the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Poland were taken to the oath of allegiance to the Russian sovereign.

2) In 1817, the state peasants were freed from many medieval duties, and in 1820 the corvée ( forced labor of a dependent peasant) began to be replaced by dues ( Danto the landowner in the form of food or money).

Castle in Krakow. Second half of the 19th century

3) A few years after the establishment of the Kingdom of Poland, a secret revolutionary organization "National Patriotic Partnership" was formed on its territory, the members of which wanted to make a coup in Russia. However, in May 1822, the main leaders of the "Partnership" were arrested and subjected to severe punishments.

4) During the reign of Alexander I, the Kingdom of Poland noticeably developed economically and culturally. Progress was noted in all areas of economic life: in agriculture, industry and trade. The deficit disappeared, the treasury accumulated a reserve of several tens of millions of zlotys, officials and the army began to receive their salaries on time. The country's population has grown to 4.5 million.

Warsaw. Alexandria-Mariinsky girl's institute. Second half of the 19th century.

5) In 1829, Nicholas I was solemnly crowned king of Poland in Warsaw, and already in 1830-1831 there was an uprising that brought about profound changes. A significant number of politically active Poles were expelled from the Kingdom of Poland and settled in the provinces of the Russian Empire.

6) In 1833, the French, German and Italian Carbonari decided to produce revolutionary movements in their countries, and many Polish emigrants joined the Carbonari societies. It was decided to undertake a partisan raid into the Kingdom of Poland in order to raise an uprising here, but ordinary people reacted indifferently to them. As a result, the head of the raid was captured and imprisoned for 20 years in a fortress, while other partisans fell into the hands of Russian soldiers. Some were hanged, others were shot or sent to hard labor.

Warsaw. The building of the National Theatre. Second half of the 19th century.

7) The beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander II was greeted with great enthusiasm. Under him, the previous harsh regime was somewhat eased, many political prisoners were released, some emigrants returned, and in June 1857 it was allowed to open the Medico-Surgical Academy in Warsaw, and in November to establish the Agricultural Society, which became important centers of intellectual life. However, the uprising nevertheless broke out, it was January 1863, and it lasted until the late autumn of 1864, and ended with the execution of the most active participants and the mass expulsions of the rebels.

8) Since 1871, the publication of the “Diary of the Laws of Ts. Polsky” was suspended, the general imperial rules for promulgating legislative decrees began to apply to the country. Mandatory use of the Russian language has been introduced in administration, legal proceedings and teaching.

Warsaw. View from the lighthouse of the Lutheran Church of the Holy Trinity. Second half of the 19th century.

9) Until the 1860s, the name “Kingdom of Poland” was more often used in legislation, rarely “Poland”. In the 1860s, these names began to be replaced by the phrases “provinces of the Kingdom of Poland” and “provinces of the Privislensky”. On March 5, 1870, it was planned to call Russian Poland "provinces of the Kingdom of Poland", but in a number of articles of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire the name "Kingdom of Poland" was preserved. Since 1887, the phrases “provinces of the Privislinsky region”, “Privislinsky provinces” and “Privislinsky region” have become the most used, and in January 1897 Nicholas II ordered that the use of the names “Kingdom of Poland” and “province of the Kingdom of Poland” was limited to cases of extreme necessity, although these names were never removed from the Code of Laws.

10) World War I created a situation in which Poles, Russian subjects, fought against Poles who served in the Austro-Hungarian and German armies.

Yanovets. Lock. Second half of the 19th century.

11) In 1915 the Kingdom of Poland came under German-Austrian occupation. In its place, the invaders proclaimed on November 5, 1916 the short-lived puppet Kingdom of Poland. This formation was not recognized by anyone except the Central Powers that occupied it.

12) The October Revolution of 1917 in Russia and the defeat of the German Empire and Austria-Hungary in the First World War led to the final disappearance of the Kingdom of Poland and the creation of an independent Polish state.

The Kingdom of Poland (Polish: Królestwo Polskie) is a territory in Europe that was in union with the Russian Empire from 1815 to 1915.

The part of Poland included in the Russian Empire did not have a single name. Until the 1860s, the name "Kingdom of Poland" was more commonly used in legislation, rarely "Poland". In the 1860s, these names began to be replaced by the phrases “provinces of the Kingdom of Poland” and “provinces of the Privislensky”. On March 5, 1870, by order of Alexander II, it was destined to call Russian Poland “provinces of the Kingdom of Poland”, however, in a number of articles of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire, the name “Kingdom of Poland” was preserved. Since 1887, the phrases “provinces of the Privislinsky region”, “Privislinsky provinces” and “Privislinsky region” have become the most used, and in January 1897 Nicholas II gave an order by which the use of the names “Kingdom of Poland” and “province of the Kingdom of Poland” was limited cases of extreme necessity, although these names were never removed from the Code of Laws.
The Poles ironically called the Kingdom of Poland “Kongresówka” (Polish Kongresówka, from Królestwo Kongresowe).
The Kingdom of Poland occupied the central part of Poland: Warsaw, Lodz, Kalisz, Czestochowa, Lublin, Suwalki. The area is 127 thousand km².
Reign of Alexander I
Pursuing the retreating troops of Napoleon, the Russian army occupied almost the entire Grand Duchy of Warsaw at the end of February 1813. Krakow, Thorn, Czestochowa, Zamość and Modlin surrendered somewhat later. Thus, the state created by Napoleon actually found itself in the hands of Russia, but its fate still depended on the relationship of the powers. The state was going through hard times. Requisitions for the needs of the occupying army of 380,000 people exhausted him. Emperor Alexander I established a temporary supreme council to manage the affairs of the duchy, headed by Governor-General V. S. Lansky. The command of the army was entrusted to Field Marshal Barclay de Tolly. Polish affairs were concentrated in the hands of Count Arakcheev, which sufficiently determines the general nature of management.
Despite the promised amnesty and contrary to the wishes of the governor-general, citizens were arrested and deported only on the basis of a denunciation. At the beginning of 1814, Polish society was revived by the hope that its lot would improve. The emperor eased camping, reduced taxes, and allowed the formation of a corps from Polish soldiers under the command of General Dombrowski. The organization of the army was led by Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich. Later, the emperor formed a civil committee that proposed replacing the Napoleonic code with a new Polish code, endowing the peasants with land, and improving finances.
Meanwhile, at the Congress of Vienna, which was reshaping the map of Europe in a new way, the duchy gave rise to feuds that almost turned into a new war. Alexander I wanted to annex to his empire the entire Duchy of Warsaw and even other lands that were once part of the Commonwealth. Austria saw this as a danger to itself. On January 3, 1815, a secret alliance was concluded between Austria, England and France to counteract Russia and Prussia, who had become closer to each other. The Russian emperor made a compromise: he abandoned Krakow in favor of Austria, and from Thorn and Poznan in favor of Prussia. Most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was attached "for all eternity" to the Russian Empire under the name of the Kingdom of Poland (May 3, 1815), which received a constitutional device. The Polish constitution was promulgated on 20 June. At the same time, the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Poland were taken to the oath of allegiance to the Russian sovereign.
The constitution came into force in 1816. The emperor appointed General Zayonchek as viceroy, who was very helpful to the Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich. Count Novosiltsev became the Imperial Commissar.
In 1816, Warsaw University was established, higher schools were founded: military, polytechnical, forestry, mining, the Institute of Folk Teachers, the number of secondary and primary schools was increased. Two centers that were outside the Kingdom of Poland had a strong influence on intellectual life: the Vilna University and the Kremenets Lyceum. The greatest poet of Poland, Adam Mickiewicz, studied at Vilna University, and the historian Lelewel taught there. Enlightenment developed in spite of obstacles.
Minister of Education Stanisław Potocki, who ridiculed obscurantism in the allegorical novel Journey to Temnograd (Podróż do Ciemnogrodu in Polish), was forced to resign. Strict supervision was established over educational institutions, books and periodicals were subjected to severe censorship.
In 1817, the state peasants were freed from many medieval duties. In 1820, corvée began to be replaced by dues.
Between the emperor and the Kingdom of Poland created by him, there was at first complete harmony thanks to the liberal moods of the sovereign. With the intensification of reactionary currents, the aforementioned harmony was upset. In the country itself, some were ready to put up with what they had, while others dreamed of restoring the Polish state within its former boundaries. On March 5 (17), 1818, the emperor opened the Sejm in Warsaw with a significant speech:
“The former organization of the country enabled me to introduce the one I have granted you, setting in motion the liberal institutions. These latter have always been the subject of my concern, and I hope to spread, with God's help, their beneficent influence to all the countries that providence has given me to rule. »
The Sejm adopted all government bills except for the abolition of civil marriage, introduced in Poland by the Napoleonic Code. The emperor was satisfied, which he expressed in his concluding speech, arousing hope in the Poles for the realization of their patriotic dreams:
“Poles, I remain with my former intentions; they are familiar to you. »
The emperor hinted at his desire to extend the operation of the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland to the Russian-Lithuanian regions.
When, according to the constitution, the second Diet was convened in 1820, the emperor opened it again, but in his speech there were already warnings about the dangers of liberalism. Influenced by the opposition, the Sejm rejected the government bill on the grounds that it abolished the publicity of legal proceedings, abolished trial by jury, and violated the principle "no one will be arrested without a court decision."
The opposition angered Alexander, which he expressed in his closing speech, noting that the Poles themselves were hindering the restoration of their homeland. The emperor even wanted to cancel the constitution, but limited himself to threats. Contrary to the constitution, which established the convocation of diets every two years, the third diet was convened only in 1825. Previously, an additional article to the constitution was published, abolishing the publicity of the meetings of the Sejm, and the leader of the opposition, Vikenty Nemoyovsky, was arrested. To control the activities of the Sejm, special officials were appointed who were obliged to attend meetings. The projects proposed by the government were adopted by the Seimas. The emperor expressed his satisfaction.
Simultaneously with the legal opposition, there was also a secret, revolutionary one. A secret organization "National Patriotic Partnership" arose. In May 1822, the main leaders of the "Partnership" were arrested and subjected to severe punishments. Nevertheless, the "Partnership" continued its activities and even entered into relations with the Decembrists. The attempt of the latter to carry out a coup in Russia also revealed the activities of the Polish revolutionaries. According to the constitution, they were judged by the Sejm court, limited to mild punishments. Emperor Nicholas I expressed his displeasure at the verdict.
In economic and cultural terms, the Kingdom of Poland developed noticeably in 1815-1830. The exhaustion of forces disappeared thanks to a long peace and a number of remarkable figures - the finance ministers Matushevich and Prince Drutsky-Lubetsky and the well-known writer Staszic, who was in charge of industry. Progress was noted in all areas of economic life: in agriculture, industry and trade. The energetic Minister of Finance Lyubetsky put the finances in order with a series of measures, sometimes harsh, sometimes repressive. The deficit disappeared, the treasury accumulated a reserve of several tens of millions of zlotys, officials and the army began to receive their salaries on time. The country's population has grown to 4.5 million.
At the same time, members of secret societies spread democratic ideas. Voices were loudly heard in literature against serfdom, which harmed both the economy and public morality.
The reign of Nicholas I and the Polish uprising of 1830-31
In 1829, Nicholas I was solemnly crowned the Polish king in Warsaw and swore an oath of his obligation to fulfill the constitution, but left the petition filed to abolish the additional article to the constitution unanswered. The Sejm was convened only in 1830. The project to abolish civil marriage was again rejected almost unanimously, despite the clear will of the emperor. The opposition filed a number of petitions with the government: to loosen the restrictions of censorship, to abolish the supplementary article, to release the leader of the opposition from arrest. This course of action of the Sejm greatly angered the sovereign.
Kingdom of Poland in 1831
In 1830-1831 there was an uprising that brought about profound changes. A significant number of politically active Poles were expelled from the Kingdom of Poland and settled in the provinces of the Russian Empire. Extensive power, along with the title of Prince of Warsaw and the post of governor, was handed over to Count Paskevich. To help him, a provisional government was established, consisting of four departments: justice, finance, internal affairs and police, education and confessions. The powers of the provisional government ended with the promulgation of the Organic Statute (February 26, 1832), which abolished the coronation of emperors by Polish kings, a special Polish army and the Sejm, and declared the Kingdom of Poland an organic part of the Russian Empire. The retained administrative council presented the sovereign with candidates for spiritual and civil positions. The Council of State drew up the budget and dealt with disputes that arose between administrative and judicial instances, and held officials accountable for malfeasance. Three commissions were established - to manage: 1) internal affairs and educational affairs; 2) court; 3) finance. Instead of the Sejm, it was planned to establish an assembly of provincial officials with an advisory vote. Legislative power belonged undividedly to the Emperor.
The organic statute was not enforced. The assembly of provincial officials, as well as the gentry and commune assemblies, remained only in the project. The State Council was abolished (1841). Voivodeships were transformed into provinces (1837). The Russian language was introduced into the office work of the administrative council and the office of the governor, with permission to use French for those who did not speak Russian. The confiscated estates were granted to the Russians; the highest government positions in the region were filled by Russians. In 1832, the Polish currency złoty was replaced by the Russian ruble, and the Russian imperial system of measures was introduced to replace the metric one. Also this year, the Alexander Citadel in Warsaw was laid. The emperor came to inspect these fortresses, but visited Warsaw only in 1835. He did not allow the deputation from the townsfolk to express loyal feelings, noting that he wanted to protect them from lies:
“I need deeds, not words. If you persist in your dreams of national isolation, of Polish independence and similar fantasies, you will bring upon yourself the greatest misfortune. I have made a citadel here. I tell you that at the slightest disturbance I will order to shoot at the city, I will turn Warsaw into ruins and, of course, I will not rebuild it. »
The Warsaw Scientific Society was abolished, its library and museums were transferred to St. Petersburg. The Warsaw and Vilna universities and the Kremenets lyceum were closed. Instead of the university, it was allowed to open additional courses in pedagogy and jurisprudence at the gymnasium (1840), but they were soon closed. Teaching in secondary schools was conducted in Russian. The government also paid attention to the education of female youth as future mothers, on whom the upbringing of future generations depends. For this purpose, the Alexandria Institute was established in Warsaw. Tuition fees in gymnasiums were increased and it was forbidden to accept children of non-noble or non-bureaucratic origin.
In 1833, the Warsaw Orthodox Bishopric was established, which in 1840 was transformed into an archbishopric. The Catholic clergy were subject to strict supervision: they were forbidden to convene local synods, organize jubilee festivities and found sobriety societies. In 1839, the property of the Polish Catholic Church was secularized, the local Greek Catholic Church, after a congress in Polotsk, dissolved itself and officially became subordinate to the Moscow Orthodox Patriarchate. After the abolition of Warsaw University, a Roman Catholic Theological Academy was established in Warsaw, which was under the control of the commission of internal affairs, which generally monitored the activities of the Catholic clergy. The government wanted to subordinate the spiritual affairs of the Catholic population in the Kingdom of Poland to the St. Petersburg Roman Catholic Collegium, which was in charge of the spiritual affairs of Catholics in the rest of the empire, but due to the resistance of Rome, this was abandoned. The intellectual life of the country was in stagnation, sometimes broken only by revolutionary propaganda, the centers of which were concentrated among the Polish emigration, mainly in France.
In 1833, the French, German and Italian Carbonari decided to create revolutionary movements in their countries. Many Polish emigrants joined the Carbonari societies. It was decided to undertake a partisan raid into the Kingdom of Poland in order to raise an uprising here. The head of the raid was Józef Zalivski. The partisans penetrated with difficulty into the Kingdom of Poland in order to call the common people to an uprising, but the common people treated them indifferently. Pursued by the Cossacks, Zalivsky fled to Austria, where he was arrested and imprisoned for 20 years in a fortress. Other partisans fell into the hands of Russian soldiers. Some were hanged, others were shot or sent to hard labor. The failure of the Zalivski raid led Polish democrats to believe that revolutionary propaganda was needed.
The new "Society of the Polish People" tried to cover with its activities all the lands of the Commonwealth, sending envoys to Lithuania, Volhynia, Ukraine and the Kingdom of Poland. In May 1838, the chief emissary Konarsky was arrested near Vilna, which led to other arrests. Even several high school students were sent to hard labor. These harsh measures did not dampen the enthusiasm of the Polish revolutionaries. They were headed by the "Democratic Society", which professed not only democratic ideas, but also socialist ones. Under his influence, the priest Scehenny arranged a secret society among the peasants in the south of the Kingdom of Poland with the aim of founding a Polish peasant republic; betrayed by one of his own, he was arrested and sentenced to hang, but pardoned and exiled to hard labor. Many peasants - participants in the conspiracy had to follow him to Siberia (1844).
In 1846, the board decided that the country was already ready for an uprising. The movement that began in Galicia ended in the most deplorable way. Not only did the Ukrainian peasants not join the movement, but prompted by the Austrian officials, they carried out a terrible massacre among the Polish nobles. In the Kingdom of Poland, the nobleman Pantaleon Potocki with a small detachment captured the city of Sedlec (in February 1846), but was soon captured and hanged. The rebels were sent to Siberia.
Russia, Prussia and Austria took action against the Poles. With the consent of Russia and Prussia, Austria occupied the Free City of Krakow with its troops. In addition, the Russian and Austrian governments drew attention to the situation of the peasants who were under the rule of the Polish nobles. In June 1846, it was forbidden to arbitrarily remove peasants from the land, reduce their allotments, attach wastelands left after the peasant to estates. In November 1846, many of the duties that lay on the peasants were destroyed. At the same time, the government took measures aimed at closer integration of the Kingdom of Poland into the empire. In 1847, a new code of punishments was issued for him, which was an almost literal translation of the Russian Code of Punishments of 1845.
The revolution of 1848 greatly agitated the Poles: they raised uprisings in the Principality of Poznań and in Galicia. Mickiewicz formed the Polish Legion, which took part in the Italian revolutionary movement; Polish generals, officers and simple volunteers fought for the independence of Hungary. The secret society in the Kingdom of Poland abandoned its intentions after learning about the suppression of the revolution in Poznań. The conspiracy was uncovered (1850), the conspirators were subjected to corporal punishment and exile to hard labor. The government of Louis Napoleon expelled the leaders of the Polish Democratic Society from Paris. They were forced to retire to London, and their influence on Poland almost completely ceased.
The Crimean War revived the hopes of the patriots again. Calls for an uprising in Poland were unsuccessful. It was decided to form Polish legions in the theater of operations to fight against Russia. This plan was also promoted by the conservative Polish emigration, headed by Prince Adam Czartoryski. By the way, Mickiewicz went to Constantinople. The troubles of the Polish patriots ended in almost nothing. The Polish writer Mikhail Tchaikovsky, who converted to Mohammedanism (Sadyk Pasha), recruited, however, a detachment of the so-called Sultan's Cossacks, but it consisted of Armenians, Bulgarians, Gypsies and Turks, and besides, he did not take part in hostilities, because the war ended . A handful of Poles acted in the Caucasus against the Russian troops, helping the Circassians. Meanwhile, Emperor Nicholas I died, and about a year later, the governor of the Kingdom of Poland, Prince Paskevich.
The reign of Alexander II and subsequent reigns
In May 1856 Emperor Alexander II arrived in Warsaw and was greeted with great enthusiasm. In a speech delivered to the deputation of the inhabitants, the sovereign warned the Poles against dreams:
“Away with fantasies, gentlemen! (Point de reveries, messieurs!) Everything my father did is well done. My reign will be a further continuation of his reign. »
Soon, however, the former harsh regime was somewhat eased. The emperor allowed some of Mickiewicz's writings to be printed. Censorship stopped the persecution of the works of Slovak, Krasinski and Lelewel. Many political prisoners were released. Some emigrants have returned. In June 1857, it was allowed to open the Medico-Surgical Academy in Warsaw, and in November - to establish the Agricultural Society, which became important centers of intellectual life.
The political mood of the Poles was strongly influenced by the unification of Italy and the liberal reforms in Austria. Young people who read Herzen and Bakunin believed that Russia was on the eve of a revolution. Both moderates and radicals hoped for the help of Napoleon III, who wanted to see the idea of nationality as the guiding international principle. The radicals began to organize manifestations on every glorious occasion from Polish history.
A grand demonstration took place on November 29, 1860, on the anniversary of the November Uprising of 1830. On February 27, 1861, the troops fired into the crowd and killed 5 people. The governor, Prince Gorchakov, agreed to satisfy the complaints, promised to remove the chief of police Trepov, and allowed the establishment of a committee to govern Warsaw.
Kingdom of Poland in 1861
The government agreed to a series of reforms in the spirit of autonomy. By decree of March 26, 1861, the State Council was restored, provincial, district and city councils were formed, it was decided to open higher educational institutions and transform secondary schools. Marquis Alexander Velepolsky, appointed assistant to the governor, annoyed the gentry by closing the Agricultural Society, which caused a grandiose demonstration (April 8, 1861), which resulted in about 200 dead. The revolutionary mood grew, and Wielopolsky began to energetically implement reforms: he abolished serfdom, replaced corvee with quitrent, equalized Jews in rights, increased the number of schools, improved the teaching system, and established a university in Warsaw.
On May 30, 1861, the governor, Prince Gorchakov, died; his successors did not sympathize with the activities of the marquis. On the anniversary of the death of Tadeusz Kosciuszko (November 15), the churches were filled with prayers, singing patriotic hymns. Governor-General Gerstenzweig promulgated the state of siege and moved troops into the temples. Blood spilled. The clergy considered this sacrilege and closed the churches.
Velopolsky resigned. The sovereign accepted her, ordering him to remain a member of the State Council. The emperor appointed his brother, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, as viceroy, giving him Velepopolsky as an assistant in civil affairs, and Baron Ramsay in military affairs. The Kingdom of Poland was granted full autonomy.
The radicals, or "Reds", however, did not stop their activities, and moved from demonstrations to terror. Attempts were made on the life of the Grand Duke. The moderates, or "whites", did not sympathize with the "reds", but they also disagreed with Velopolsky. He wanted to restore the constitution of 1815, while the "moderates" were thinking about uniting all the lands of the Commonwealth into one whole with a constitutional device. White set out to write an address to the highest name, but Velopolsky opposed. The leader of the Whites, Zamoyski, was ordered to emigrate. This finally repulsed the "whites" from Velopolsky. A revolutionary explosion was approaching, which Velopolsky decided to warn with a recruiting set. The calculation was bad.
The uprising broke out in January 1863, which lasted until the late autumn of 1864 and ended with the execution of the most active participants and the mass expulsions of the rebels. In March 1863, Count Berg was appointed commander-in-chief, who, after the departure of Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich on September 8, 1863, and the resignation of Velepolsky, became governor. The management of the police was entrusted to the former chief of police, General Trepov. At the beginning of January 1864, a committee for the affairs of the Kingdom of Poland was established in St. Petersburg, chaired by the sovereign himself.
By decree of February 19 (March 2), 1864, Polish peasants received ownership of the arable land they cultivated. The landowners received compensation from the treasury with the so-called liquidation papers according to the assessment of the alienated lands. At the same time, an all-estate commune was established.
The management of the affairs of the Catholic clergy is provided by the commission of internal affairs, the director of which is Prince Cherkassky. All church property was confiscated and almost all monasteries were closed. According to the charter of 1865, the Catholic Church in the Kingdom of Poland was divided into seven dioceses - Plock, Lublin, Sandomierz, Kielce, Augustow, Kuyavsko-Kalisz and Podlasie; in 1867 the Podlasie diocese was merged with Lublin. The clergy began to receive salaries from the treasury. Since 1871 it has been subordinate to the Department of Foreign Confessions of the Ministry of the Interior. In 1875, the union in the Kingdom of Poland was abolished and a new (Kholmskaya) Orthodox diocese was founded.
Kingdom of Poland in 1896
At the same time, changes were made in the civil administration. In 1866, a charter was issued on provincial and district administration: ten provinces (instead of five) and 84 districts. In 1867 the Council of State was abolished, and in 1868 the administrative council and government commissions (confessions and education, finance and internal affairs) were abolished. The cases were transferred to the corresponding all-imperial institutions in St. Petersburg. In the spirit of the complete merger of the Kingdom of Poland with the Russian Empire, transformations were also made in the field of education. In 1872, the all-imperial statute on gymnasiums of 1871 was extended to the Kingdom of Poland. An all-imperial judicial organization was also introduced, with an important exception: the region did not receive a jury trial. Since 1871, the publication of the Diary of the Laws of Ts. Polsky was suspended, because the general imperial rules for promulgating legislative decrees began to apply to the country. Mandatory use of the Russian language has been introduced in administration, legal proceedings and teaching. Attempts are being made to translate the Polish language into Cyrillic. After the death of Count Berg in 1874, Count Kotzebue received the post of chief of the region and commander-in-chief of the Warsaw military district, with the title of governor-general; then the region was ruled by Generals Albedinsky (1880-83), Gurko (1883-94), Count Shuvalov (1894-96), Prince Imeretinsky (1896-1900) and M. I. Chertkov (1900-05).

End of the Kingdom of Poland
In 1912, the Kholmsk province was separated from the provinces of the Kingdom of Poland, where a significant number of Ukrainians lived.
On August 14, 1914, Nicholas II promised, after winning the war, to unite the Kingdom of Poland with the Polish lands, which would be taken from Germany and Austria-Hungary, into an autonomous state within the Russian Empire.
The war created a situation in which Poles, Russian subjects, fought against Poles who served in the Austro-Hungarian and German armies. The pro-Russian National Democratic Party of Poland, headed by Roman Dmowski, considered Germany the main enemy of Poland, its supporters considered it necessary to unite all Polish lands under Russian control with obtaining the status of autonomy within the Russian Empire. The anti-Russian supporters of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) believed that the path to Poland's independence lay through the defeat of Russia in the war. A few years before the outbreak of World War I, PPS leader Józef Piłsudski began military training for Polish youth in Austro-Hungarian Galicia. After the outbreak of the war, he formed the Polish legions as part of the Austro-Hungarian army.
During the offensive of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies in the spring and summer of 1915, the Kingdom of Poland was under German-Austrian occupation and, being divided between the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, ceased to exist.