When did the most important features of Russian literary pronunciation take shape? Russian literary pronunciation in its historical development. Pronunciation of loanwords
Questions of correct literary pronunciation are studied by a special linguistic discipline - orthoepy(from Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepic rules and recommendations have always been in the focus of attention of Russian philologists, as well as representatives of those professions whose activities are directly related to public speaking in front of an audience: statesmen and public figures, lecturers, announcers, commentators, journalists, artists, translators, teachers of Russian and foreign languages tongues, preachers, lawyers. But in recent years, interest in the problems of the culture of oral speech has noticeably increased among the most diverse strata of society. This is facilitated by socio-economic changes in our country, the democratization of all aspects of life. The practice of broadcasting parliamentary debates and hearings, live speeches has become widespread: statesmen, leaders of parties and movements, political observers, specialists in various fields of science and culture.
Possession of the norms of literary pronunciation, the ability to expressively and correctly formulate a sounding speech is gradually recognized by many as an urgent social necessity.
Historically, the development and formation of the rules of Russian orthoepy has developed in such a way that the literary pronunciation is based on the Moscow pronunciation, on which some variants of the St. Petersburg pronunciation were subsequently “layered”.
Departure from the norms and recommendations of Russian literary pronunciation is regarded as a sign of insufficient speech and general culture, which reduces the authority of the speaker and scatters the attention of listeners. Regional features of pronunciation, incorrectly placed stress, “reduced” colloquial and everyday intonation, and ill-conceived pausing distract from the correct, adequate perception of public speaking.
Erroneous pronunciation through radio and television is “replicated” to a huge audience, voluntarily or involuntarily assimilated and consolidated, thereby blurring the idea of correctness and purity of speech that is necessary for every cultured person. In addition, there are certain negative socio-psychological consequences of non-normative pronunciation, which tends to spread (especially in conditions of round-the-clock broadcasting). Since in the bulk the listener first of all pays attention to the content side of the information, the sound side of speech is not controlled by him, but is fixed at the subconscious level. In these cases, everything that contradicts the established tradition of shaping Russian sounding speech: violation of the intonation pattern of the phrase and the text as a whole, unjustified logical stress, pauses that do not correspond to the natural “flow” of speech, cause the listener to have an intuitive feeling of protest, create a feeling of anxiety, psychological discomfort.
Work on one's own pronunciation, on improving the pronunciation culture requires a person to have certain knowledge in the field of orthoepy. Since pronunciation is largely an automated side of speech, a person “hears” himself worse than others, controls his pronunciation insufficiently or does not control it at all, is uncritical in assessing his own pronunciation, and painfully perceives comments in this area. The rules and recommendations on orthoepy, reflected in manuals, dictionaries and reference books, seem to him to be overly categorical, different from the usual speech practice, and common spelling errors, on the contrary, are very harmless.
Therefore, in order to successfully master the orthoepic norm or deepen knowledge in Russian literary pronunciation, it is necessary from the point of view of methodological recommendations:
¦ learn the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation;
learn to listen to your speech and the speech of others;
¦ listen and study exemplary literary pronunciation, which is owned by radio and television announcers, masters of the artistic word;
¦ consciously compare your pronunciation with exemplary, analyze your mistakes and shortcomings;
¦ correct them by constant speech training in preparation for public speaking.
The study of the rules and recommendations of literary pronunciation should begin with the distinction and awareness of the two main styles of pronunciation: complete recommended for public speaking, and incomplete(colloquial colloquial), which is common in everyday communication. The full style is characterized primarily by the observance of the basic requirements of the orthoepic norm, clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, the correct placement of verbal and logical stress, moderate tempo, correct pausing, neutral intonation pattern of the phrase and speech as a whole. With an incomplete pronunciation style, there is an excessive reduction in vowels, falling out of consonants, indistinct pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, excessive emphasis on words (including official ones), inconsistent speech tempo, and unwanted pauses. If in everyday speech these features of pronunciation are acceptable, then in public speaking they must be avoided.
§ 235. Pronunciation of vowels
The main feature of Russian literary pronunciation in the field of vowels is their different sound in stressed and unstressed syllables with the same spelling. In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo reduction. There are two types of reduction - quantitative(when the longitude and intensity of the sound decrease) and quality(when the sound itself changes in an unstressed position). The vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable are subjected to less reduction, the greater - in all other syllables. Vowels [a], [o], [e] undergo both quantitative and qualitative reduction in unstressed syllables; vowels [and], [s], [y] do not change their quality in unstressed syllables, but partially lose their duration.
1. Vowels in the 1st pre-stressed syllable:
a) after solid consonants in place about And but [but]: v[a] yes?, n[a] ha?, M[a]squa?, s[a]dy?, s[a]bo?r ; after hard sizzling well And w on the spot but And about also pronounced weakened sound [but]: w[a]ra?, w[a]nglör, sh[a]gi?, w[a]fer .
Note 1. After hard sizzling well, w and after c soft consonants are preceded by a sound like [s] with an overtone [e] , denoted conditionally [s uh ] : w[s uh ] lie, unfortunately [s uh ] le? niyu, f [s uh ]ke?t , in plural forms of the word horse: losh[s uh ]de?th, losh[s uh ]dya?m etc. ... in the forms of indirect cases of numerals on - twenty: twenty[s] uh ]ty?, thirty[s] uh ]ty? etc.; in rare cases sound [s uh ] pronounced on the spot but in position before hard consonants: hw[s uh ]Noah. w[s uh ]sm?n .
Note 2. Unstressed [about] pronounced in conjunctions but And what , and is also allowed in some foreign words, for example: b[o]a?, b[o]mo?nd. rococo?. J[o]re?c .
Note 3. Preservation about in unstressed syllables is a feature of regional pronunciation, so the pronunciation M[o]squa?, p[o]ku?pka, p[o]e?dem, v[o]zi?t. railway station does not correspond to the norm;
b) after hard hissing w, w And c on the spot e a reduced sound like [s] with an overtone [e] , denoted conditionally [s uh ]: w[s uh ]on?, w[s uh ]pt?t, q[s uh ]lu?y ;
c) after soft consonants in place of letters I And e , as well as after soft hissing h And SCH on the spot but a weakened sound is pronounced [And] with an overtone [e] , denoted conditionally [And uh ] : m[i uh ]sno?th, R[and uh ]for?n, m[and uh ]sti?, h[i uh ]sy?, sch[and uh ]di?t , as well as in the plural forms of the word area: area uh ]de?th, square[and uh ]dya?m etc.;
d) on the spot I And e a sound is pronounced at the beginning of a word [And] with an overtone [e] , denoted [And uh ] combined with the previous [yi]: [yi uh ]Zda?, [yi uh ]nta?r, [yi uh ]egg?.
Note. Preservation [but] in an unstressed syllable after soft consonants is a feature of the regional pronunciation, so the pronunciation [w’a] for? be, bi? on, h[a] sy?, [ya] egg?, [ya] vi? does not correspond to the norm.
2. Vowels in other unstressed syllables:
a) at the absolute beginning of a word in place of letters but And about always pronounced attenuated sound [a]: [a] rbu? z: [a] kno ?, [a] car? l, [a] declination;
b) after solid consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st pre-stressed, in place but And about a reduced sound is pronounced, average in sound between [but] And [s] [b]: g[b] lova?, k[b] rand? sh, i? bl [b] k [b] ;
c) after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st pre-stressed, in place and I And e pronounced reduced, middle in sound between [And] And [e] , short in duration, denoted conditionally [b]: [p’b] tacho? k, [l’b] rubbish? b, you? [n’b] su, h[b] catch? k .
3. Vowel and at the beginning of the root after a prefix or preposition, ending in solid consonants is pronounced like [s] : from the institute - and[zy]institute , with Igor - [sy] grief ; save in this position [And] and the softening of the consonant before it is a regional feature of pronunciation and does not correspond to the norm.
4. Stressed vowels in place e And yo . In the pronunciation of a number of words, difficulties arise due to the indistinguishability of letters in the printed text. e And yo , since only the letter is used to designate them e (except for educational literature for junior schoolchildren and foreign students). This situation leads to a distortion of not only the graphic, but also the phonetic appearance of the word, and is the cause of frequent pronunciation errors. Therefore, it is recommended to remember two rows of words:
a) with a letter e , in the place of which sounds [e]: scam, spineless, bluff, being, sleet, firebrand, grenadier, plump, life, alien, religious procession (but Godfather ), fishing line, non-existence, perplexed, invaluable, guardianship, sedentary (settlement), successor, successor, shadowing, modern, yoke, barley and etc.;
b) with a letter yo , in the place of which, sounds [about]: hopeless, buckets, engraver, bile (admissible bile ), bilious (admissible bilious ), mockery, traveling salesman, priest (but priest ), maneuvers, mercenary, convicted, brought in, translated, brought, sturgeon, fable, laid down, brought, brought, scabrous, scrupulous, belted, sweep, tyosha, wool (coarse-haired), lye and etc.
In some pairs of words, a different meaning is accompanied by a different sound of the stressed vowel. [about] or [e]: expired (term) - expired (blooded), announced (shouts like an announced) - announced (decree), perfect (singing) - perfect (opening).
§ 236. Pronunciation of certain consonants
1. Consonant [G] in the literary pronunciation of an explosive, instant sound, when stunned, it is pronounced as [to]: sleep [to], take [to] . Pronouncing in his place "Ukrainian" G , conventionally denoted [h] , does not correspond to the norm: [h] uh? be, sapo [h] and? . The exception is the word the God , at the end of which sounds [X] .
2. Instead of h in words of course, boring, scrambled eggs, fiddling, birdhouse, bachelorette party, laundry, rag, rag-picker , in female patronymics ending in - ichna (Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, Ilyinichna etc.), as well as in the words what to, nothing pronounced [w] .
3. In words man, defector in place of combination zhch , in the form of the comparative degree of adverbs tougher, tougher (And biting ) in place stch , as well as in place of combinations zch And mid pronounced [n]: loader, customer, carver, subscriber, sandstone, happy, happiness, account, electronic account, counter, cost accounting, count and etc.
4. With the accumulation of several consonants in some combinations, one of them is not pronounced:
a) combined stn not pronounced [t]: teaching? [s'n'] ik, ve? [s'] nick, what? i?ro[sn]th ;
b) combined zdn not pronounced [d]: by? [zn] o, right? [zn] ik, nae? [zn] ik , but in the word abyss it is recommended to leave a weak sound [e] ;
c) combined stl not pronounced [t]: happy [s’l ’] and? ; in words bony And send [t] is preserved;
d) combined stl not pronounced [T] ; this produces a double consonant [ss]: maximum? [ss] cue, turi? [ss] cue, race? [ss] cue .
5. In some words, with the accumulation of consonants stk, zdk, ntk, ndk fall out is not allowed [t]: daughter-in-law, trip, summons, typist, cumbersome, laboratory assistant, student, patient, Irish, Scottish but: cloth shotla[nk]a .
6. Hard consonants before soft consonants can be softened:
but) necessarily softens I n before soft h And from: ne? [n’s ’] ia, prete? [n’z ’] ia, rece? [n’z ’] ia, face? [n’z ’] ia ;
b) in combinations tv, dv may soften T And d: Thursday, Tver, hard [t’v’] and [tv’]; door, two, move [d’v] and [dv’] ;
c) in combinations sv And St. may soften h And from: beast, ring [z'v '] And [sv']; light, candle, witness, saint [s'v] And [sv'] , as well as in the word snake [z'm'] And [zm’] ;
G) n in front of soft T And d softens: ba[n't']ik, wi[n't']ik, zo[n't']ik, ve[n't']il, a[n't']ichny, ko[n't '] text, remo[n't'] ban, b[n'd']it, I[n'd']ia, style[n'd']ia, zo[n'd']irovat, and [n'd']ivid, ka[n'd']idat, blo[n'd']in.
§ 237. Pronunciation of certain grammatical forms
Some grammatical forms of verbs, nouns, adjectives are characterized by special rules for pronouncing sounds in suffixes and endings.
1. In verbs with a particle- Xia in the indefinite form and in the third person singular and plural at the junction of the ending and the particle is pronounced [ts]: meet, meet - meet [tts], mark, mark - note [tch], mark - note? [tch], say goodbye - goodbye? [tch].
In the form of the imperative at the place of combination - be two soft sounds [t's']: mark - mark? [t's'], meet - the wind? [t's'] .
2. In the endings of the genitive case of the masculine and neuter forms of adjectives, numerals, pronouns - Wow /-his on the spot G pronounced [c]: big house (lake) - big? [b], blue flag (sea) - si? not [b] . The same rule applies to words today - se [in] o? days, total - total [in] o? .
Note. Surnames ending in - ago (Shembinago, Zhivago ), the sound is pronounced [G] .
3. Graphic abbreviations, occurring in the text, for example, surname initials , as well as abbreviations like l (liter), m (meter), kg (kilogram), ha (hectare), p / box (“letter box”), etc. (etc.), s (page) and etc. in reading "decipher", i.e., "unfold" into full words. Graphic abbreviations exist only in written speech only for visual perception, and their literal reading is perceived either as a speech error or as irony, appropriate only in special situations.
§ 238. Features of the pronunciation of Russian names and patronymics
The combination of name and patronymic is used in various situations, both in written and oral speech: in official decrees on awards, appointments, in orders, lists, for example, on personnel records, composition of production and training groups, in business and private correspondence, in circulation to the interlocutor, in the representation and naming of third parties.
In an atmosphere of official, business communication between people, especially in the work of a teacher, translator, editor, lawyer, businessman, employee of government or commercial structures, it becomes necessary to address by name and patronymic. Many Russian names and patronymics have pronunciation options that it is desirable to take into account in a particular communication situation. So, when meeting, at the first introduction of a person, a distinct, clear, close to spelling pronunciation is recommended.
In all other cases, incomplete, contracted forms of pronunciation of names and patronymics are acceptable, which have historically developed in the practice of literary oral speech.
1. - uy (Vasily, Anatoly, Arkady, Grigory, Yuri, Eugene, Valery, Gennady ) ending in combinations - evich, - evna preceded by a separator b: Vasil evich, Vasil evna; Grigory evich, Grigory evna . When pronouncing female patronymics, these combinations are clearly preserved: Vasil evna, Anatole evna, Grigory evna etc. In male patronymics, full and contracted options are allowed: Vasya?[l'jb']ich and Vasya[l'ich], Anato?[l'jv']ich and Anato?[l'ich], Grigo?[r'jb']ich and Grigo?[p' ich] etc.
2. Patronymics formed from male names on - to her And - ah (Alexey, Andrey, Korney, Matvey, Sergey, Nikolay ) end in combinations - eevich, - eevna, - aevich, - aevna: Alekseevich, Alekseevna, Nikolaevich, Nikolaevna . In their pronunciation, the literary norm allows both full and contracted options: Alexeyevich And Alex?[i]h, Alekseyevna And Alek[s’e?]vna; Sergeyevich And Serge?[i]h, Sergeevna And Ser[g’e?] vna; Korne?evich And Cornet?[and]h, Korne?evna And Kor[n’e?]vna; Nikolaevich And Nikola?[i]h, Nikolaevna And Nikola?[ext]a etc.
3. Male patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - ovic , can be pronounced both in full and in contracted form: Anto?novich And Anto?n[s]h, Aleksandrovich And Alexa?ndr[s]h , Iva?novich and Willow?n[s]h etc. In female patronymics ending in an unstressed combination - ram , the full pronunciation is recommended: Alexander ram, Boris ram, Kirill ram, Victor ram, Oleg ram etc.
4. If the middle name starts with And (Ivanovich, Ignatievich, Isaevich ), then in pronunciation with a name ending in a solid consonant, but goes into [s]: Pavel Ivanovich - Pavel[s]vanovich, Alexander Isaevich - Alexander[s]saevich .
5. Usually not pronounced ov n And m: Willow? [n:]na, Anto?[n:]a, Efi?[mn]a, Maxi?[mn]a .
6. Not pronounced unstressed - ov in female patronymics from names ending in in: Vyachesla?[ext]a, Stanisla?[ext]a .
§ 239. Pronunciation of borrowed words
Part of the borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language has some orthoepic features, which are fixed by the literary norm.
1. In some words of foreign origin in place of unstressed about pronounced sound [o]: ada? gio, boa?, bomo? nd, bonto? n, cocoa? o, radio, three? o . In addition, there may be stylistic hesitation in high-style text; preservation of unstressed [about] in words that are foreign in origin - one of the means of attracting attention to them, the means of highlighting them. Word pronunciation nocturne, sonnet, poetic, poet, poetry, dossier, veto, creed, foyer and others with unstressed [about] optional. foreign names Maurice Thorez, Chopin, Voltaire, Rodin, Daudet, Baudelaire, Flaubert, Zola, Honoré de Balzac, Sacramento and others also retain unstressed [about] as a variant of literary pronunciation.
In some borrowed words in literary pronunciation, after vowels and at the beginning of a word, the unstressed [e]: duelist, muezzin, poetic, aegis, evolution, exaltation, exoticism, equivalent, eclecticism, economy, screen, expansion, expert, experiment, exhibit, ecstasy, excess, element, elite, embargo, emigrant, emission, emir, energy, enthusiasm , encyclopedia, epigraph, episode, epilogue, epoch, effect, effective and etc.
2. In oral public speech, certain difficulties are caused by the pronunciation of a hard or soft consonant in borrowed words before the letter e , for example, in words pace, swimming pool, museum etc. In most of these cases, a soft consonant is pronounced: academy, pool, beret, beige, brunette, bill, monogram, debut, motto, recitation, declaration, dispatch, incident, compliment, competent, correct, museum, patent, pate, Odessa, tenor, term, plywood, overcoat; word pace pronounced with a firm T .
In other words before e a hard consonant is pronounced: adept, auto-da-fe, business, western, child prodigy, riding breeches, dumbbell, grotesque, neckline, delta, dandy, derby, de facto, de jure, dispensary, identical, boarding school, international, intern, karate, square, cafe, scarf, codeine, code, computer, tuple, cottage, bracket, marten, billionaire, model, modern, morse, hotel, parterre, pathos, polonaise, purse, poetess, summary, rating, reputation, superman and others. Some of these words have been known to us for at least a hundred and fifty years, but do not show a tendency to soften the consonant.
In loanwords beginning with a prefix de- , before vowels dez- , as well as in the first part of compound words starting with neo- , with a general tendency to soften, there are fluctuations in the pronunciation of soft and hard d And n , for example: devaluation, de-ideologization, demilitarization, depoliticization, destabilization, deformation, disinformation, deodorant, disorganization, neo-globalism, neo-colonialism, neo-realism, neo-fascism.
Solid pronunciation of consonants before e recommended in foreign proper names: Bella, Bizet, Voltaire: Descartes, Daudet, Jaures, Carmen, Mary, Pasteur, Rodin, Flaubert, Chopin, Apollinaire, Fernandel [de?], Carter, Ionesco, Minelli, Vanessa Redgrave, Stallone and etc.
In loanwords with two (or more) e often one of the consonants is pronounced softly, while the other remains firm before e: strap [rete], genesis [gene], relay [relay], genetics [gene], cafeteria [fete], pince-nez [ne; ne], reputation [re; me], secretary [se; re; te], ethnogenesis [gene] and etc.
In relatively few words of foreign origin, there are fluctuations in the pronunciation of the consonant before e , for example: with the normative pronunciation of a solid consonant before e in words businessman [ne; me], annexation [ne] pronunciation with a soft consonant is acceptable; in words dean, complaint soft pronunciation is the norm, but hard pronunciation is also allowed [de] And [te] ; in the word session variants of hard and soft pronunciation are equal. It is not normative to soften consonants before e in the professional speech of representatives of the technical intelligentsia in words laser, computer , as well as in colloquial pronunciation of words business, sandwich, intensive, interval .
Stylistic fluctuations in the pronunciation of hard and soft consonants before e are also observed in some foreign-language proper names: Berta, The Decameron, Reagan. Major, Kramer, Gregory Peck and etc.
3. Solid [w] pronounced in words parachute, brochure . In the word jury pronounced soft hissing [w'] . Names are pronounced the same way Julien, Jules .
III. FEATURES OF THE RUSSIAN STRESS
§ 240. Russian word stress
Word stress in Russian is characterized by heterogeneity(can be on any syllable and any part of a word: but? lead, science, education, bourgeoisie? etc.) and mobility (in different grammatical forms, the word can move from one syllable to another: head?, head; head; accepted, accepted?; bold, bold? etc.).
Prepositions, conjunctions and particles usually do not have independent stress on themselves and are adjacent to independent parts of speech: beyond the city, haven’t been?, father? . In some cases, the emphasis shifts to the preposition: up the mountain, on? gender, for night . Thus, independent and functional words have one verbal stress, making up a single phonetic word in sound.
Note. A small number of service parts of speech are weakly stressed and do not change the quality of the “stressed” vowel. These are unions but, as if, for sure, then ... then , some prepositions that do not violate the semantic connection with adverbs ( along, opposite, besides, next to, between etc.), particle well .
Compound words and words with prefixes anti-, inter-, near-, counter-, over-, super-, ex- and others may have, in addition to the main, side(or secondary) stress, conventionally denoted by the grave sign ( ‘ ). But among the complex words there are many single-stressed ones: pre-war, independent, car, dormitory etc. Collateral stress usually in order is the first (closer to the beginning of the word), and basic- second (closer to the end of the word): oath th, inter-republic? nsky, su and etc.
The correct choice of the place of stress in the word is of great importance in the work on the culture of oral speech. The following are examples of the most common mis-emphasis. These can be both individual words and some grammatical forms of words:
1) Common nouns:
agent, agronomy, alphabet? t, apo? krif, apostrophe, are? st, asymmetry? , bravura? rny, rattling, gross? e, gross? m wali? t, faith? giving, supremacy? nstvo, supper, genesis, citizenship, grotesque, ground? e, gave? y-la?ma, hyphen?s, dia?spore, diopter?I, dispensary?r, do?gmat, old?vko, confessor?k, blinds? sk and flint, kitchen, marketing, masterful, messi, mimicry, many hours, garbage chute, intention, real estate, unsleeping(eye), not? netsky, untrodden, unspeakable? (relations), oil pipeline, newborn, provision, depreciate, facilitate, encourage, educate, one-component, wholesale, inform, recall(for manuscript) review (deputy), rebuff, somewhat, remembering, fir, plateau, repeated, teenage, anticipating, coercing, acquiring, reasoning, sanitary? I, modest, convoking ?in, concentration, means, carpenter, status, statute? t, history, taboo?, customs, customs, bidding? simple, deepen, Ukrainian, reduce, simplify, facsimile, extravaganza, phenomenon(phenomenon), needles? I, cotton? (norm), linguistic (sausage).
In many words, there are fluctuations in the setting of stress: equal options - denim And denim, zai?ndevely And frosty, combiner And combine operator, metallurgy And metallurgy, propolis And propolis, a loop? And a loop, erysipelas And childbirth, rust And rust, sa?zhen And soot?, cottage cheese And cottage cheese, fanza And fanza? ; with normative stress and? vgustovsky admissible augustian , at birch bark admissible birch bark , at shell admissible shell , at wary admissible wary ; with normative stress industry - obsolete industry , at swept away - obsolete quick-witted , at ra?course - obsolete cancer?rs ;
2) Proper names:
Aigi?, E?vno, Aze?f, A?be, Ko?be, Eli?n Peli?n, Zakhode?r, P?res de Cue?lier, Steinbeck, Se?linger, Rua?l A Mundsen, Balmont, Vorontso? va-Da? Alexi?y, Ignaty Loyo?la, Archpriest Avvak?m, Yuli?n Tu?vim, Sokolo?v-Mikito?v, Sa?yudis, Ana?dyr, Balashi?ha, Veliky U? Stug, Ki?zhi, Ra?donezh, Mount Narodnaya, Stavropol Territory, Hanno?ver, Che?t'i-Mine?i, Apoka?lipsis, Kali?gula, Molo?x, Karnegi Hall, Comedy? France?z. Metropolitan-Opera, Myanmar?, Nicara?gua, Peru?, Quebec?c, S?days, Massachusetts, Missouri, Foro?s, Sri Lanka?.
In some proper names, a variable accent is allowed: New? tone (but traditionally: Newton?n ), Re?mbrandt (but traditionally: Rembra?ndt ), Li?ncoln (but traditionally: Linko?flax ), De?vid Ko?pperfield (but traditionally: Davi?d Copperfly?ice ).
Note. In cases where one proper name refers to two (or more) persons, objects, concepts, it is necessary to clarify the specific meaning of this word and, using encyclopedic dictionaries, find out the correct stress. For example, Washington George, first President of the United States but traditionally Washington- the capital of USA, Macbe?t - a character in Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name, but in the title of Leskov's story "Lady Ma?kbet Mtsensk district".
§ 241. Stress in certain grammatical forms
The mobility of Russian stress, i.e., its transfer from one syllable to another in various grammatical forms of a single phonetic word, causes a number of difficulties in pronouncing these forms.
1. Shifting emphasis to prepositions on, for, under, by, from, without possible if there are no words explaining it in the sentence after the noun:
1) in combination with a preposition behind
"on the other side, behind" , for example: atgo for? river, for mountain; pawn for? cheek, for ear; lay your hands on? back, for head;
"during" do for? year for? day, for night, for winter to pay for? year for? day etc.;
2) in combination with a preposition on the (with accusative case) meaning:
"in the direction, on top of smth" , for example: fall (sit down, lie down) on? floor, climb on? mountain, something got on? hand, on nose, load on? back, put something on? head, on legs, on arms;
"indication of the point of contact with the support" , for example: lie down on back, fall on? back, on hands on? head, stand on? legs, on hands on? head;
"within the specified period" (with units of time), for example: stock up (stretch, enough) for? year, on day, on night, on winter, take a loan for? year etc.;
"indication of the measure of difference" , for example: on the? a year older, on? the day before, on head up etc.;
3) in combination with a preposition on (with dative case) - with the meaning of this preposition "on the surface, within" (about movement), for example: walk on? semi, by field, by yard, walk around? forest, fly through? the sky, swim across? sea, crumble over? semi, by forest.
With other meanings of these prepositions, stress transfer may not occur, for example:
but) to take something for a mountain, for a river, for a leg, for winter, he is valued for his head, for his hands, a reward for his head, I fear for his hair, for head, for the legs;
b) pay attention to the hands, to the legs, to the nose, to the floor, to the day, despite the night, to the winter, the land tax;
in) longing for the sea, for the sky, judging by the yard?, for the forest, everyone got the field.
Stress transfer usually does not occur, if in a phrase a noun is followed by a word or words explaining it (subordinate to it or connected with it by a coordinative connection), for example:
but) across the Ural River, for a year and two months, for a year of hard work, for a day of his duty, holding on to the hand of a comrade, took hold of his father's shoulders;
b) on Mount Yaman-Tau, put a load on the back of a porter, put a hat on the head of a neighbor, older by a year and two months;
in) around the yard? hotels, on the snow and ice of the Gulf of Finland, on the Laptev Sea.
2. Stress in the forms of adjectives.
1) the stress goes to the ending in the short form of the feminine: loud, loud?, loud, loud, loud, louder; to? long, long?, to? long, to? lies, more; bad? th, bad?, bad? ho, bad? hi; heavy, heavy?, heavy, heavy; rights(no full form) right?, right? in, right? you;
2) the stress passes to the ending in the short form of the feminine gender and to the suffix of the comparative degree: glorious, glorious, glorious, glorious, glorious, glorious, glorious; whole, whole, whole, whole, whole, whole, whole; satisfying, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying, satisfying; fast, fast, fast?, fast, fast, fast; young, young, young, young, young, young, young;
3) the stress moves to the ending in the short form of the feminine and plural (as an equal option), as well as to the suffix of the comparative degree: poor, poor, poor?, poor, poor, poor? pale, pale, pale?, pale, pale, pale?, paler; important, important, important, important, important, important, important; true, true, true, true, true, true, true; free(free) , free, free?, free, free?, free? e, slim, slim, slim?, slim, slim?, slim? e;
4) movable stress accompanied by alternation yo And e: distant, far, far?, far? And far, far? And far, yes? more; cheap, cheap, cheap?, cheap, cheap, cheap? tough, tough, tough?, tough, tough, tougher; easy, easy, easy?, easy?, easy?, lighter; dark, dark, dark?, dark?, dark?, dark?e; clear, clear, clear? And clear, clear, clear, clear .
3. Difficulties in placing stress in verb forms(indefinite form, personal forms, participles, participles):
1) verbs ending in - ing with indefinite stress on the last syllable: bombarded, bombarded, bombarded; engraving, engraving, engraved; make-up, make-up, make-up; reward, reward, reward; to form, form, form, formed; costumed, costumed, armored(armor), armored, armored; bathroom; corrugated, corrugated, corrugated; grouping, grouping, grouped; sealing;
2) root verbs call for: called?, called? lo, called?, called? but, called; called? l, called?, called? lo, called? called, called, called, called, called, called, called, called, called, called;
3) verbs with a root to rub: rubbed, rubbed, rubbed, rubbed? and admissible rubbed, rubbed ; the same stress pattern in verb forms wipe, wipe ;
4) verbs lock up, unlock: for? per, locked?, for? perlo, for? locked, for? first, locked? in and admissible for?pershi, locked?locked, locked?locked, locked?, locked?locked, locked?locked; o?tper, unlocked?, o?tperlo, o?tperli, o?tpershiy, unlocked? and admissible open?, open, open, open, open, open, open . The same stress pattern for the verb die , except for the form dead , where the stress falls on the root vowel;
5) verbs remove, borrow, understand, accept, undertake, take away, take over and verb begin : from took off, took off?, took off? lo, took off, took off? busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy, busy; similar stress pattern in verb forms accept And undertake; understand, understood, understood?, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood, understood?, understood, understood; take away, o? took away and admissible took away? l, took away?, about? took away and admissible taken away? lo, oh? taken away and admissible taken away, taken away, taken away? in, taken away, taken away, taken away ?, taken away, taken away; take over, take over and admissible adopted? l, adopted?, adopted and admissible adopted? lo, adopted and admissible adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted? in, adopted, adopted, adopted, adopted ?, adopted, adopted; start;
6) verbs depart, arrive: ubu? du, ubu? desh, ubu? ; the same stress pattern in verb forms arrive ;
7) verbs with a root give (you?give, publish, transmit, sell, surrender ); in verb you?give in all forms, the stress falls on the prefix; published, published? m, published? , and? issued, and? issued, published? and admissible And?building, and? building, and? building ; similar stress pattern in verb forms sell ; Phand over, hand over, hand over, hand over, hand over, hand over, hand over and admissible handed over? l, handed over?, handed over and admissible handed over, handed over and admissible handed over, handed over, handed over? to, handed over, handed over, handed over? and admissible handed over, handed over, handed over; give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up, give up and admissible gave up .
PREPARATION OF THE TEXT FOR AUDIO
§ 242. Pausing
The study of the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation, the analysis of “difficult cases” of placing stress in words and grammatical forms, an attentive, thoughtful attitude to the sounding side of speech are necessary prerequisites for independent work on improving the culture of oral speech. But the acquired orthoepic information only partially ensures the successful preparation of a public speech, the ability to pronounce (or read) a complete voluminous text of a message, report, speech, report, etc. The methodological recommendations proposed below can be taken into account in the process of the speaker's preliminary work on the speech text.
1. Pausing- the division of a sounding phrase into smaller speech segments (speech measures, or syntagmas) is one of the most important features of sounding speech. Another feature is the presence of pauses that naturally occur at the boundaries of speech measures and individual phrases.
speech beat, or syntagma, is the minimum content unit. The sentence in sounding speech is perceived by the listener and translated from one language to another in separate speech measures. Different division of the phrase into speech measures can interpret the meaning of the sentence in different ways, for example: "Execution cannot be pardoned" , in which two pause options are possible: 1) Execute / cannot be pardoned ; 2) You can not execute / pardon . Or: 1) Need to study / work / and rest ; 2) We must learn to work / and rest .
2. Correct pausing, i.e., the correct division of the text into phonetic phrases, and phrases into speech measures, is the first stage in preparing the text for voicing. Although the sound segment between pauses (syntagma) can be of various lengths, its average length is usually seven syllables. But the speech tact (syntagma) has a relatively complete meaning and a certain syntactic design. For example: On the banks of the Moskva River, / opposite the Southern Port of the capital, / a modern residential area has grown. / Pauses divide this simple sentence into separate phrases. Another example: In order to divide speech into measures, / stops are needed, / or, in other words, / logical pauses. This complex sentence is divided into simple ones (pause after the word so you ), simple - for phrases. Thus, thoughtful pausing helps the logical analysis of individual sentences, complex syntactic wholes (see Ch. XLIX), the entire completed text.
3. In Russian, orientation to punctuation marks can serve as the basis of the correct pausing of the text. So, in a simple sentence with separate participial, adverbial, comparative phrases, introductory and interstitial sentences, appeals, punctuation marks that highlight these syntactic constructions are signals for a pause. For example: On the southwestern outskirts of the US capital / - Washington, / where Highway No. 95, / leading south from the city, / crosses the muddy Potomac River on two bridges, / opposite Arlington Cemetery, / there is a building of grayish reinforced concrete. / /
Note. A pause may be absent with isolated single introductory words and single gerunds: The adoption of a new law is, of course, necessary; When you leave, turn off the light.
4. Pausing in cases where there are no punctuation marks:
1) between the subject group and the predicate group: A road trip across America/is like a trip across the ocean// (I. Ilf, E. Petrov);
2) after circumstantial words, usually with the meaning of place, time, reason, and also after additions at the beginning of the sentence: On one of the autumn evenings of 1969 / in the editorial office of the newspaper Pravda / about “One-story America” a conversation turned at a meeting of young satirists / /(Shatunovsky, Strelnikov);
3) before the union And , if with three or more homogeneous members it combines the last two: Occasionally / we met farms scattered throughout the steppe-prairie, / with the obligatory red barn, / silo tower /And a mighty hundred-year-old tree in front of the porch of the house (Shatunovsky, Strelnikov).
5. Psychological pause arises in addition to the logical and is possible when the speaker wants to highlight a word in particular, to draw the attention of listeners to it. In the second case, we can talk about the ability to "keep a pause", which is owned by actors and experienced speakers.
Below is the text prepared for the speech with preliminary markup of pauses. red oblique lines(/) (in texts a continuous oblique line) indicate obligatory pauses, blue oblique lines (¦ ) (dashed line in texts) - possible, optional.
For Vysotsky¦ there are no forbidden topics, / he fearlessly, / with defiant courage / wrote and sang about everything / that worried him. / But it was that freedom / which is provided morally, / with an accurate attitude to the subject¦ or phenomenon. / Vysotsky ¦ not just fixes, / transmits, / reflects the drama of life. / He is dramatic himself, / by the nature of his subjectivity, / individuality, / talent. / / Everything / that he did, / and everything that he succeeded, /- this is from restlessness, / from a feeling of anxiety that did not leave him.//
Dramatic, / in the words of A. S. Pushkin, / is associated with “passions¦ and outpourings of the human soul”. / In full accordance¦ with this precise observation! / Vysotsky¦ at the very time / when half-whisper dominated, / on the one hand , / and pop noise / - on the other hand, / began to speak and sing in an “open voice”, / passionately, / angrily, / sometimes turning into a scream. / / So, / as people sing at home, / in a free, / relaxed , / environment not constrained by strict rules. / /(V. Tolstykh, In the mirror of creativity).
§ 243. Intonation of the text
The expressive sound of the text is facilitated not only by the correct pausing, but also by the correct, natural intonation that meets the requirements of the traditionally established literary norm.
There are two main types of intonation in Russian: ascending(with rising tone) and descending(with decreasing tone). Rising intonation can also be called the intonation of incompleteness, and descending- intonation of completeness.
A special rise in tone, accompanied by an increase in word stress, a greater intensity of the stressed syllable, is called logical stress. It is used to make sense of a word or phrase in a sentence. There is a certain pattern between the ways of intonation and punctuation marks, on the one hand, and the semantic relationships in the sentence, on the other.
1. Falling intonation(decrease in tone), conditionally indicated in the texts by an icon (in the examples it is highlighted bold italic
1) point: Moscow. 7 October. Today the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts opened an exhibition dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of Marina Tsvetaeva;
2) ellipsis(if it denotes the completion of a thought): "Petersburg is taken Finns... Kolchak took Syzran. Tsaritsyn…” (Bunin);
3) comma in non-union and compound sentences with enumerative relations between parts: “In July evenings and nights, the quail no longer screams and corostels, nightingales do not sing in forest ravines, does not smell flowers. day longing forgotten, everything is forgiven, and the steppe easily inhales the wide breastfeeding…» (Chekhov);
4) semicolon(the pause between parts is longer than with a comma);
5) colon in a simple sentence: The company needs workers: locksmiths, turners, millers; in a complex sentence: And my request is next: take care of our language, our beautiful Russian language… (Turgenev).
2. Rising intonation(raising the tone), conventionally indicated in the texts by the icon (in the examples it is highlighted bold), is required when the following punctuation marks are used:
1) exclamation mark: ask attention! Please stop debate!;
2) question mark: What is the peculiarity of the modern stage of development societies?;
3) comma:
a) in a series of homogeneous members of a simple sentence, connected by connecting unions and yes (in meaning "And" ), or without conjunctions, is accompanied by the intonation of the same type of enumeration: The team crept up business, peppy, vigorous. Everyone works with full bestowal and enthusiasm;
b) in a simple or complex sentence in the presence of adversatives ( but, but, however ), separating ( either ... or, then ... that, not that ... not that etc.), double comparative ( like…and; although ... but; if not...then etc.) of unions is accompanied by a heterogeneous, non-uniform intonation: the ascending intonation is replaced by a descending one: Mal spool, Yes roads. Is not the outside, but Avenue. In economics, there is no other choice: either strength, or ruble ;
c) in a simple sentence with isolated members of the sentence: Editorial thanks readerswho sent their wishes. IN decisionadopted on meetingsummed up the results of the work. Despite the difficult weather conditions, the transcontinental flight took place;
d) in a simple sentence in the presence of introductory words and appeals, if they are allocated in a speech tact, i.e. accompanied by a pause: Reportedly printing, the visit of the head of government may not take place;
e) in a complex sentence on the border of its simple sentences: to me seemsthat the style of translation will not be violated if we transmit foreign proverbs with moderation and tact Russiansthat correspond to them in content and style, especially in cases where the literal translation is clumsy and wordy(K. Chukovsky);
4) a dash in a simple sentence: A life live- not field go. On right- sea, left- the mountains; in a complex sentence: Century live- century learn .
3. Rising intonation(raising the tone) is required in all cases when a pause at the boundaries of speech measures (syntagmas) occurs in the absence of a punctuation mark:
Oftenwe can still hear statement:/market in its purest form/no longer exists nowhere, / especially in industrial countries.// cruel delusion.// If not say/illiteracy¦and blindness.// Yes, / the state today / tries to correct everywhere market.// Yes,/monopolies/plan their production,/ are fighting for control of market.// But over market,/ but not over anything others!// …Nothing useful from Togo, / what's the story economyaccumulated for century, / the modern economy has not lost. // AND, add,/- can not lose.// For the market and social division labor/not detachable.// And the deeper this division labor, /themes wider, /more branched¦ market.// BUT means,/ and its tools:/money,/price,/taxes,/credit/currency well.// (N. Shmelev, Either strength or the ruble).
4. Logical stress(a special rise in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of the stressed syllable, in texts) conventionally indicated by the icon (") (in the examples, the accented letter is highlighted bold), is allowed only when the semantic selection of the word and phrase in the phrase:
1) within one simple sentence, it is recommended to use logical stress no more than once, thus emphasizing new, important information for this statement, since the meaning of the message as a whole changes from a change in the place of logical stress. For example, a proposal Pushkin was born in Moscow can have three options for setting a logical stress, depending on what you need to pay attention to: a) PatShkin was born in Moscow; b) Pushkin familyAndwas in Moscow; in) Pushkin was born in Moscowe.
The presence of more than one logical stress in a simple sentence is allowed in a series of homogeneous members, if you need to emphasize each of them: Pushkin's draft is a precious documentent, in which all stbutdii of the creative process, all of its lasteconsistency, all gradualenia;
2) in a connected text, logical stress helps the speaker to clearly distinguish the beginning of a new thought, emphasizes the auxiliary words that form the compositional beginnings: firstly, secondly, thus, so, of course, naturally, after all etc.;
3) stands out accented word class, the logical underlining of which is typical for public speaking, since with the help of them the speaker expresses his attitude to the subject of speech: very, completely, absolutely, not at all, again, again, earlier, always, annually, usually; is, no, it is impossible, it is possible, it should not be; important, little, much etc.;
4) stand out "reference points" text - words that name the object of speech; first of all, these are terms, as well as words that clarify the meaning of terms, explaining them.
Below is an excerpt from the article by N. Shmelev, divided into speech measures, containing intonational markings and logical stress with a focus on the pronunciation norms of public speech.
Legend:
(/) a continuous oblique line indicates mandatory pauses, (¦ ) a broken oblique line - for possible, optional pauses;
- falling intonation(decrease in tone);
- rising intonation(raising tone);
(") - logical stress (a special rise in tone, accompanied by the intensity of the sound of the stressed syllable, in texts).
Do we speak Russian? (Literary pronunciation) Oratory speech from the podium, a lecture by a teacher from the pulpit, a speech by a reader from the stage, an actor's speech from the stage, sound films, radio broadcasting, television - all this requires impeccable language design, including pronunciation design.
R. I. Avanesov
The culture of pronunciation is an element of euphony and expressiveness of speech. It is studied by orthoepy (from the Greek words orthos - correct and ehos - speech). Knowing the rules of orthoepy and following them save a person from dialects, accents, wrong stresses. Indeed, sometimes one inaccurately spoken word is enough to spoil the whole impression of the speaker. “I want to start our story...” - the speaker said, and the audience immediately became alert.
Orthoepic rules are closely related to pronunciation styles, which are divided into: 1) colloquial, 2) neutral, 3) full.
The colloquial style of pronunciation is a relaxed, most often rather fast pronunciation, characteristic of everyday dialogic speech.
The neutral pronunciation style is the most natural, clear, slightly slow pronunciation of the text. Usually this style is read "Latest News".
The full style is a distinct, careful pronunciation. Important official messages, solemn promises, oaths, verses are pronounced in full style. Yu. Levitan transmitted reports of the Sovinformburo in full style during the war years. The full style (internally justified) is characterized by increased emotionality. Journalists use neutral and full styles in their practice, carrying out their own special type of communication.
The Russian phonetic system is based on the following laws: 1) quantitative and qualitative reduction (abbreviation) of unstressed vowels, 2) laws of assimilation (similarity) of consonants and simplification of their pronunciation.
^ Vowel reduction
In Russian speech, the stressed syllable is lengthened, highlighted in the word. Unstressed syllables are pronounced differently (shorter) depending on the position: the further they stand from the stressed one, the more they are reduced. The stressed syllable in a word undergoes the greatest reduction. Vowels I, S, U, Yu, E - change quantitatively (pronounced more briefly). The vowels A, O, E, I also change qualitatively. So, for example, in Russian literary pronunciation there is no unstressed sound of the vowel I. If it is not under stress, then it sounds like a short I - petitelet, Linguistics, glanced, probing, and Itno, heavy ... It sounds the same (like a short sound between E and I) pre-shocked A after the sounds of Ch and W: clock-chisy, sorrel-sorrel ...
“Yakanie” (peek, announcement, appearance, manifest, explain, untie, dedication, enraged, Language ...) is perceived as dialectism (it was characteristic of Vladimir-Volga dialects) or accented speech of a non-Russian person.
In pre-stressed and stressed syllables, E sounds closer to I: spring-visna, trembling-trembling.
Words with a clear pronunciation of the vowel E at the end of plural adjectives sound not in Russian: blue, red, kind, fast, industrial, economic, courageous ...
According to the laws of orthoepy, the vowel E in this case sounds like a short AND: “Kind, brave people”, “Industrial enterprises”, “Red, white, yellow, black roses” (the sign b denotes a short sound AND).
However, the reduction of unstressed syllables should be natural, not deliberate. So, for example, the host of St. Petersburg television, Innokenty Ivanov, speaks with an excessive stretching of the pre-stressed vowel and greatly reduces the unstressed ones. Scientists write about such an old Moscow speech: “A Muscovite spoke approximately like he was swinging on a swing, he lifted the pre-stressed syllable higher than the sub-stressed one, pulled out as he sang, with a stretch, and swallowed the rest of the unstressed vowels: ". F. M. Dostoevsky sneered at the “petty-bourgeois” speech: “the characteristic sugary stretching of vowels - sa-a-ma pa-a-shla!”1
Such old-Moscow speech is especially negatively perceived by Petersburgers, whose speech is distinguished by uniformity, evenness of pronunciation, without stretching the pre-stressed syllable, without rises and falls of tone, without “jumping Moscow gait”, as Petersburg ill-wishers used to say.
1 V.V. Kolete. Russian speech, St. Petersburg, 1998. S. 41.
The union AND, the preposition FROM when pronouncing words together (if the previous word ends in a consonant sound) sound like Y, YZ: “Syronia”, “from Yndii”, “kakyoi”, “kakymy”, “talantYwork”, “minds fill the heart”, “There is no return to our thoughts”, “to us of the city”, “like all Petrograders” ...
As an acceptance of a non-Russian person, the combinations sound: “soInam”, “like And all”, “like they asked”, “like he says” ...
^ Pronunciation of the vowel "e"
For a long time Russified foreign words sound with us with a soft E: declaration, deduction, degradation, koshress, conference, dean, dean’s office, demobilization ... macia... it alarms listeners. His speech is perceived as mannered, alien to the Russian sounding word. "A journalist's BESED should sound like a song!" - stated one of the speakers at the republican seminar. Have you noticed that radio and television announcers and journalists have long been saying: pace, energy, inert?
The firm pronunciation of E comes from the old noble speech, from imitation of the West. And only at the beginning of the 20th century, the pronunciation of the type was canceled: demon, gigiEna, vodEvil, muzEy, shinEl ...
E - sounds in foreign surnames like: Breht, FlobEr,
The vowel O in an unstressed position is pronounced only in foreign words: b0a, dossier, poet.
^ The sound of return particles sya, sya
There are disputes about how to pronounce correctly: proud or proud, forgiving SA or saying goodbye, confer or confer-you. This dispute arose naturally - the people do not perceive the exaggerated "acting" pronunciation of the endings СЬ, СЯ with a solid C and SA. The law of "anticipation" causes the reduction of these unstressed sounds in the flow of speech and SA sounds like SA. (Bought out early in the morning, ran through the dew.) These hard endings should sound natural, and not emphasized exaggerated.
1 V. V. Kolesov. Russian speech, St. Petersburg, 1998. S. 41.
Pronunciation of the endings hy, ky, hy
There is controversy over these endings. In a single word, the sound is closer to the spelling. In the flow of speech, the soft pronunciation of AI approaches YY or AI. Try to verify this by saying, for example, the following phrase:
Tchaikovsky - Pushkin in music. He is a genius. Tchaikovsky is the pride of our generations.
The restructuring of the language to pronounce the word "Pushkin" reduces the ending KIY, and it sounds with a short A or Y. The same thing happens in the second phrase: the word "pride" reduces the end of the previous unstressed syllable KII.
^ Pronunciation of Old Russian words
In modern speech, Old Russian words and conjunctions are very rarely found - they say, they say, therefore, if only, if, at least. But they take place in poetry, in the speeches of characters in dramatic works. These words do not carry a separate semantic load, but are attached to other words and are pronounced together with them. The sounds A and O in these Old Russian words and conjunctions are reduced and pronounced as a short A - b (ml, say, steel, kbby, kli).
If only I knew, if only I knew. Qli pir, so feast with a mountain. Whose tea has drunk.
^ The law of deafening and voicing
Voiced consonants are deafened in front of the deaf: girlfriend - girlfriend, denouement - denouement, fairy tale - tale, neighbor - neighbor, arbor - besetka ...
Before voiced consonants, the deaf are voiced: surrender - Delivery, collection - Collection, request - request, mowing - koZba, do - Create ... This rule does not obey the consonants facing the consonants P, L, M, N, V: from frost, with you, Happy New Year, with a lemon, with a rose, glory, phrase, red...
Voiced consonants at the end of the word are stunned: love - love, shelter - kroF, forehead - loP, circle - kruk, woz - w... that in his speech Ukrainianism.
^ Pronunciation of consonants
It distracts from the content the incorrect, but now very common, sounding of the fricative Ukrainian GH instead of the plosive G: GHosplan, diverse GH experience, GH work task, brigHada, proGHress, I have data, in vanGHhard, GHlubzhe, GHidroaGHreGHat ... We must not allow such a sound in Russian speech .
The sounds SSH, ZSh are pronounced like double SSH: made a noise - raSHNoisy, from the tent - iSHShatra ...
The sounds Zh, Sh, Ts always sound firmly: life - life, expanse - shYr, circus - tsYrk ... (an exception is the word "jury").
Combinations at the root of the word ZZh, ZhZh are pronounced like a long soft sound ZHZHZHZHZHZHZHI, tremble, uZhZhYAT, pozhzhe ...
Combinations of DC, TC sound like a long CC: twoTsTsat, oTsTsa ...
The combinations of GC, GC sound like HK, HCH: LEKhKo, LEKhChe, MAHChe ... DS, TS is pronounced like Ts: sveTsky, goroTskoy ...
Simplifies the pronunciation of consonants such a rule as: in words with combinations STN, ZDN, STL, VAT, RDC, LNC, one of the consonants is not pronounced: sun, pozno, heart ...
The pronunciation of words is simplified: hello - hello, feeling - feeling (but the sound B still seeps into the pronunciation).
How long soft SHSH-SH sound combinations of MF, 3H: score - brush, happiness - happiness. The sounds Ch, Sch always sound soft: tea - chYay, cup - chYashka ...
The sound G is pronounced like the sound B in pronouns and adjectives: whom - kavo, him - Ivo, today - sivodnya. In the words aha, lord, the Ukrainian fricative GH sounds: GHospodi. In the word God at the end is pronounced X: boH.
The sound H in pronouns and conjunctions is pronounced as W: what - What, to - Shtoby, nothing - nothing. The word SOMETHING sounds CH.
The combination CHN has a double pronunciation: CHN and SHN.
ChN sounds: in words that have the sound Ch at the root of the word (personal, country, durable), in production terminology (machine, streaming, filming). 56
SHN remains for the time being in some words of the spoken language: SkuSHno, naroShNo, yishnitsa. But more often already here it sounds: buloChpaya, milky, hearty.
SHN is pronounced in female and male patronymics:
NikitiChNa - NikitiShNa, iniCHNa - FominishnaNa, LukiniChNa - LukiniShNa.
In the pronunciation of some names, in combination with patronymics, syllables are issued: Vasily Vasilyevich - Vasil Vasilyich, Maria Ivanovna - Mary Ivanna, Natalia Fedorovna - Natalya Fedna.
^ PRONUNCIATION OF DOUBLE CONSONANTS
Speech is perceived as accented when a person does not clearly pronounce double consonants: water lecture, mass nature of sports, steady growth, valuable contribution, equestrian sports, hold an offer, awarded, in a settlement, telephone station, issue an order, mass of research, at the cash desk of mass of people ...
^ Softening consonants
Not everyone adheres to such a rule as softening consonants before soft consonants. We will dwell on this rule a little more.
It seems to some that the soft pronunciation of the consonant T in the word STRONGLY does not correspond to its content: “hard metal”, “firmly stood its ground”, “he was firm and adamant”. And suddenly it is necessary to say: firmly. This rule seems to some far-fetched, unnatural for Russian speech.
We have already said that all sounds affect each other. While we are pronouncing one sound, the speech apparatus has already prepared for the pronunciation of the next sound. There is, as scientists point out, the so-called preemption. It is very easy to verify this by trying to pronounce at least a simple syllable BU: even before pronouncing the explosive B, the lips were already stretched forward, about to pronounce the vowel U. Now let's try to follow the muscle tension of the tongue when pronouncing the consonant C in two different words, for example, in the word LUCK and the word SNED. We will notice that, intending to pronounce the word EQUIPMENT, the tongue lies more calmly, freely (rising slightly to pronounce H), preparing to pronounce the vowel A. If you are going to pronounce the word SNED, replace; tea, that the tongue becomes more tense, pressing its edges against the upper lateral teeth. What moved him there? Readiness to pronounce a soft iotized sound E. Yotized sounds are formed from the continuous pronunciation of Y+E, Y+O, Y+A, Y+U. They soften the consonants standing before them.
Going to pronounce the word TVERDO, the tongue tuned in to pronouncing a soft Y. And therefore, a soft sign TVERDO is heard between the consonants T and B. This means that the rule for softening consonant sounds lies in the physiology of speech formation. It is only noticed that not all consonants are equally softened before various soft consonants. Most prone])! mitigation of the anterior lingual fricative 3, C before the soft Th, Db (shtep, here, glass, carnation ...). But they never soften before K, G, X, P (pieces, brains, masks, splashes, mediocre ...).
Optionally they soften before the consonants L, H, B (if, after, fable, light ..., but you can: pour and pour, bring and bring).
The consonant Н necessarily softens before the front-lingual Ch, Щ, which in Russian are always soft (tip, donut, bath attendant, woman).
The consonants T, D soften before soft H, L, B (door, branches). At the junction of the prefix and the root, the pronunciation most often remains solid (knock out, sign, foresee).
The labial consonants P, B, M, C, F in combination with each other can be pronounced both softly and firmly (in rhyme and in rhyme, in a lamp and in a lamp). With soft posterior lingual K, G, X, they must be pronounced firmly (benches, frames, locks, scoops).
The anterior lingual consonant P in combination with the soft Th, Db is now pronounced firmly (party, twirl). Be sure to firmly pronounce it with labial and back-lingual consonants (army, stamps, parks, arches).
Double consonants, when they stand inside the root, are necessarily softened (in bath, in kasce, in mass, in villa), they soften when the root and suffix meet (raspberries, captive), when they meet the prefix and korya (pry, otte-thread) .
Thus, cases of assimilation softening are divided into three groups: mandatory softening, optional, no softening.
When the law of softening consonant sounds is violated, speech loses the aesthetics of sound. Try to pronounce the consonants softly first in the text that we offer you, and then firmly. You will see that in the first version (with a softened pronunciation) speech is more harmonious:
If yes if
yes together sat down if yes if
Yes, they sang the song. If yes if
yes, dance to the song ...
There would be no song
more wonderful!
In this "dancing" softened consonants are repeated twelve times in the words: if, together, sang, more wonderful, songs.
From our point of view, there is a direct dependence of the correct (softened) pronunciation of consonants before soft consonants on the degree of development of the speech apparatus. If he (the apparatus) is extremely mobile, then he manages to take the position of a soft vowel, transferring this softness of sound to the previous consonants. After all, it is no coincidence that with fast, everyday speech (unlike the full style), consonants in the speech stream soften more often.
^ word stress
You involuntarily begin to think about a person’s culture if he makes mistakes in word stress, saying: “Gave a reason”, “In this quarter”, “Did not give a result”, “Think about people’s leisure”, “If attention turns off”, “Took to business" and so on.
Word stress shapes the word. It cements it, pulls sounds and syllables into a single whole - a word, preventing it from “crumble”, “fall apart”. There is a certain complexity of word stress in Russian speech. If in English, Czech, Hungarian, the stress is always on the first syllable, in French - on the last, in Polish - on the penultimate one, then in Russian it is different places and is a phonetic difference between the words: soar - soar, abyss - abyss, flour - flour, cotton - cotton ...
The poet Yakov Kozlovsky in the section he called "They write us the same, but ... they hear us differently" offers a whole cycle of short poems showing how the stress in a word changes its meaning.
Here are a few of them:
ACCENT
I have the word "wonderful"
Change is easy;
Put the emphasis on "O" -
Gone is the "wonderful"
"Wonderful" was born.
^ WHO DOES WHAT
Mowing a scythe,
and the bunny mows
cowardly coward,
and the donkey is cowardly.
FLOUR AND FLOUR
dry clay,
Nina got angry
Not flour, but flour -
Chefs science.
Hoodie
black crow
Scolded in the morning
crouched on a branch.
The news of that was smashed in all directions
gossips gossips -
Forty forty.
^ IN THE FOREST CASTLE
On the castle door
There is no lock.
Goldfinch lives here -
first dandy.
And in the morning squirrel
From protein
He is knocked down by an eggnog.
Kosoy bought a gun.
And after an hour or so
The gray wolf was filled with anxiety.
Kosoy told him:
Listen dear
You beware of walking my path.
And in words that carry a single content, there is a historical shift in stress. Three tendencies of movement are fixed: regressive, progressive and centripetal. The regressive direction of stresses is more often observed in two-syllable words: turner - turner, passport - passport, smokes - smokes, loads - loads ...
But in more words there is a progressive accentuation. The stress moves from the initial (or second from the beginning) to the end of the word: Udit - fish, correct - correct, close - close, teachers - teachers, professors - professors, tractors - tractors ...
Numerous words tend to move the stresses to the center of the word. This allows you to maintain the rhythmic orderliness of sounding speech, which does not tolerate the accumulation of more than three unstressed syllables: review - review, subscribe - subscribe, ballot - ballot ...
In modern Russian, central stress prevails with a tendency to shift to the second half of the word. Least of all words with initial stress. That is why the initial stress in the words cuts the ear: start, Agent, cement, quarter ...
The speaker needs to have a dictionary at hand in order to check with him the correctness of the stresses in modern speech.
The difficulty of Russian verbal stress also lies in its mobility. In the same word, it moves from one syllable to another. This happens when its form changes in cases, genders, numbers, tenses ...
Boykiy - striker - striker - striker - strikers; toky - thin - thin - thin - thin; took - took - took - took; dal - dalA - dalo - dali; started - started - started - started; Gave - gave - Gave - Gave away; handed out - handed out - handed out - handed out ...
However, not all words of our speech are subject to such a change. For example, nouns: leisure - leisure - leisure-gom - about leisure; quarter - quarterAlu - quarterAlam - about the quarter; Essay - Essay - Essay - Essays - about Essay ...
Not all verbs have a shifted stress in the feminine; beat - beat - beat; knew - knew - knew - knew ...
It is necessary to memorize the correct stress of words in Russian speech, using special reference books, manuals, to develop in oneself a “sense of the word”, a sense of the rhythmic organization of Russian speech. It is the rhythmic orderliness of a sounding word that does not tolerate the accumulation of more than three unstressed syllables that we can explain why it is necessary to say "Moscow Gates", but "sea gates"; "Kuban Cossacks", but "Don Cossacks"; “beautiful girl”, but “a girl went for water”; “The wind walks across the sea”, but “like on the sea, the blue sea”, etc. Depending on the context of the whole phrase, we can say: over the bridge - over the bridge - over the bridge; on the table - on the table; across the sky - across the sky; far - far; high - high...
In everyday modern speech, unfortunately, there has been a tendency to remove the mobility of stress, and this is the unique richness of our language. Listen: city - cityOk - suburb; stand - stand - stand; dAL - dalA - handed over; far - far ...
One word can convey the subtlest nuances of feelings, actions, moods:
And my heart is far away
Tatyana, looking at the moon...
Suddenly a thought popped into her mind...
Come on, leave me alone. -
says Tatyana to the nanny.
And writes a love letter to Onegin. And here she is in Moscow, in the "Collection".
She's stuffy here... she's a dream
Strives for the life of the field ...
And in the dusk of linden alleys,
Where He appeared to her.
So her thought wanders far and wide:
Forgotten and light and noisy ball ...
This common people's word far accurately characterizes the way of thinking of Pushkin's heroine.
And here are some more lines from another work by A. S. Pushkin:
All the sad melancholy brings to my soul.
Far away, there the moon rises in radiance ...
Try to say: “There, far away, the moon rises in radiance” and not only the beauty of the metro-rhythmic word order in the phrase is immediately lost, but also the depth of meaning: the doom of the exile to eternal separation from his beloved woman, for whom the words “far”, “there” acquire special significance, they are voluminous, they stand out when the verses sound, they are dear to Pushkin.
"Far, far, far, far." What a variety of meanings in the mobility of stress in Russian speech! The mobility of stress highlights the gender of the character: He gave his hand, she gave it.
Is it not seen behind the first phrase a strong-willed, masculine principle, and behind the second - femininity, softness of movement? But you have to hear how they say: "He filed, she filed." As if some asexual creatures are acting.
Listen again to how the different character of the action of a man and a woman is conveyed by the passing stress:
Suddenly I realized that I was not right,
And quietly gave a hand to a friend.
He understood - heavy separation.
And gave a hand.
And how definitely the words sound when the stress in the word is transferred to the negative particle in the masculine:
Gave an answer? Did not give. No.
When they say “didn’t give”, and even pronounce it indistinctly, you don’t understand what all the same: gave or didn’t give? And you have to ask again.
A particle of denial forms new words, taking on the stresses: “You are not my friend, but an enemy”, “Fact or fiction”, “pevid-dal”, “ignoramus”, “non-Christ”, “in bad weather” ...
The poet Yakov Kozlovsky has verses that are called like this:
^ FAST ACCENT
bowed to the graveyard,
From the village a mile away
I walked across the bridge
over the bridge
Over the creaky bridge...
How much does a person need?
Breathe for ever
Looking at the river
On a calm river.
The smoke of the furnace reached for the smoke,
And leaned because
Sun for winter
For a frosty winter.
In the multi-rhythm, mobility of stresses, phonetic diversity, the flexibility of our language, its subtlest expressiveness are manifested. How attentively, “reverently” one should treat word stress in order not to make mistakes in pronunciation, to feel the musical organization of speech.
Orthoepy, like spelling, is an integral part of the literary language. The task of orthoepy is that each person, having learned the individual features of his speech, as well as the features of dialects and accents, could make his own speech perfect.
Pronunciation of loanwords 2
Stage pronunciation and its features 3
Pronunciation of vowels and consonants 6
Bibliography 8
Variants of Russian literary pronunciation.
Pronunciation of borrowed words.
In the Russian literary language, as in any literary language with a long history, there is a considerable number of words of foreign origin, often inaccurately called "foreign words". The borrowed word was rarely assimilated by the Russian language in the form in which it existed in the source language. Differences in pronunciation between Russian and foreign languages led to the fact that someone else's word changed, adapted to Russian phonetic norms, sounds unusual for the Russian language disappeared in it. Now a significant part of such words in their pronunciation is no different from the words of native Russians. But some of them - words from different fields of technology, science, culture, politics, and especially foreign proper names - stand out among other words of the Russian literary language with their pronunciation, breaking the rules. The following describes some features of the pronunciation of words of foreign origin.
Combinations [j], [dz] .
In words of foreign origin, the combination [j] is often presented, corresponding to the phoneme [ž] of other languages, which is an affricate [z], but pronounced with a voice. In Russian, the combination j pronounced in the same way as the same combination in native Russian words, namely as [žzh]: [žzh] eat, [žzh] emmper, [žzh] igit, [žzh] entelmen.
In isolated cases, there is a combination [dz], corresponding to the sound [z]. This sound is a voiced [c]. Like j, combination dz in Russian it is pronounced in the same way as the corresponding combination in native Russian words, namely as: muein.
Sound [ h ] .
In some words of foreign origin in place of the letter G an aspirated sound [h] is pronounced, for example, [h] abitus or bra, in which the pronunciation [h] along with [g] is possible. Some of the foreign proper names can be pronounced with this sound, for example, Heine:.
Sound [o] in unstressed syllables .
Only in a few borrowed words in the 1st pre-stressed syllable is [o], and then somewhat weakened: b[o]a, d[o]sie, b[o]rdo. [o] is also preserved in some compound words, for example, in the word communist party.
In the 2nd prestressed syllable, in the absence of vowel reduction, it is possible to pronounce [o] in such words as k[o]ns[o]me, m[o]derat[o], b[o]lero.
A small number of words in which letters are in place about the vowel [o] is pronounced in stressed syllables after consonants and vowels: vet [o], avid [o], cred [o], sake [o], kaka [o], ha [o] s.
The unstressed vowel is often preserved in foreign proper names: B[o]dler, Z[o]la, V[o]lter, D[o]lores, R[o]den.
The pronunciation of the unstressed [o] has a stylistic meaning. When announcing the performance of a composer's work, it is more appropriate to pronounce Sh[o]pen, and in everyday speech you can also Shpen.
Consonants before e .
In foreign non-Russified words, consonants before e do not soften, as in native Russians. This applies primarily to dental consonants (except l) – t, d, s, s, n, r.
Solid [t] is pronounced in words like atheism, atelier, stand, aesthetics. Solid [t] is also preserved in a foreign language prefix inter-: in[te]ryu; as well as in a number of geographical names and other proper names: Ams[te]rdam, Dan[te].
The sound [d] does not soften in words codex, model, modern etc., as well as in such geographical names as Delhi, Rhodesia and last names Descartes, Mendelssohn.
The sounds [h] and [s] are pronounced firmly only in a few words: [sentence, mor[ze]. Also, solid [h] and [s] are found in given names and surnames, such as Joseph, Seneca.
The sound [n] also remains solid in given names and surnames (Re[ne], [ne] lson). Most words are pronounced with a hard [n], but there are cases when [n] before e softens: neolithic, neologism.
But in most words of foreign origin, consonants pre e are softened in accordance with the norms of Russian literary pronunciation, therefore such pronunciation as pro [fe] quarrels, ag [re] quarrels, [bere] t, etc. is completely unacceptable.
Stage pronunciation and its features.
The theater has always been extremely interested in the existence of uniform pronunciation norms of the literary language and has played an outstanding role in developing them. It was the theater that became the school of generally accepted orthoepic pronunciation and the keeper of orthoepic traditions. The generally accepted guardian of the purity of the literary pronunciation of the pre-October period was the Moscow Maly Theater.
The great actors of this theater are M.S. Shchepkin, P.M. Sadovsky, G.N. Fedotova, M.N. Ermakova, O.O. Sadovskaya, N.I. Musil and others - developed Russian stage pronunciation norms. Their tradition was continued already in the Soviet era by A.A. Yablokina, E.A. Gogoleva, E.M. Shatrov and many others. The great playwright A.N. Ostrovsky. For example, he worked directly with P.M. Sadovsky. M.F. Gorbunov wrote: “The colossal talent of P.M. Sadovsky, after he performed the merchant Rusakov in Ostrovsky’s “Don’t Get in Your Sleigh,” Ostrovsky grew to the full extent. Premieres of plays by A.N. Ostrovsky finally polished the Russian stage pronunciation, which was adopted by the Russian theater in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other centers.
Stage speech is in a special relationship with all the language styles of our social everyday practice. The basis of stage pronunciation is the neutral pronunciation style of society. But although the latter has worked out its own norms quite clearly, it has many variant elements. In addition, the norms of literary pronunciation are not fully codified, meanwhile, the stage requires more stringent norms, in other words, their codification so that the stage speech is easily and freely perceived by the audience, is beautiful and could serve as a model for them. Therefore, in the presence of pronunciation options, stage speech tends to free itself from them by accepting only one of them, most often the one that is accepted in a strict version of the neutral style and which corresponds to the old Moscow norm.
Pronunciation in stage speech is not only its external form, but also an important expressive means of acting along with intonation, gesture, costume, make-up. Therefore, depending on the style of the play, the time and place of the action, the nature of the characters in stage speech, one has to turn to all the language styles that actually exist in social practice, including those that are outside the literary language. But one cannot overestimate the role of pronunciation as an expressive means, the stylistic use of different types of pronunciation on the stage, their expressiveness significantly benefit in the presence of a high orthoepic culture in society.
The most important features of stage pronunciation.
1. Yekanye, pronunciation in the pre-stressed syllable in place e And I, and then h And SCH on the spot but sound like [e]: [v "e] sleep, [r "e] ka, [pr "e] du instead spinning, [h "e] sy. This is a feature of the older norm of both Moscow and Leningrad pronunciation. Subsequently, when literary pronunciation was adopted by Ikinye, the scene did not accept it.
2. With an explosive [r], a fricative sound [γ] is allowed as a speech paint for a limited circle of words of church origin: blah [γ] go, blah [γ] give, more [γ] a-ty, more [γ] mother.
3. To imitate the old Moscow pronunciation, as speech paint on the spot to before the deaf [k], [p], [t] and voiced [g], [b], [e], respectively, [x] or [γ] can be pronounced: [x]-to, [x]-field, [ x]then, [x]-you, [γ]-city, [γ]-combat, [γ]de, ko[γ]yes, [γ]-home.
4. On site SCH, as well as mid in the absence of a clearly articulated morphological junction, it is pronounced [w":]: [w":] ka, [w":] from ( check). Same place mid,zch, zhch at the junction of the root and the suffix: different [w":] ik, out [w":] ik, break [w":] ik.
5. The scene strives to keep the old Moscow pronunciation [zh":] in place LJ, as well as in place zzh not at the junction of morphemes: in [zh ":] and, zhu [zh":] at, e [zh":] y, vi [zh":] at.
6. According to the letter b at the end of the word, after the labial letters, the scene firmly adheres to the Moscow pronunciation with soft labials: ste [p "], sy [p"], golu [p"] ( pigeon), se [m "], really [m "], cro [f"] ( blood), bro[f"] ( eyebrow).
7. Stage pronunciation tends to adhere to the old Moscow norms of assimilative softening of consonants more widely than it now exists in public practice: [z"m"]her, [t"v"]er, [s"m"]es, [s"v" ]no, go[s"t"]and.
The sound [r] is pronounced softly in such cases as Pe[r"m"], ve[r"f"], ve[r"s"]ia, se[r"d"]it. But the old Moscow pronunciation of words army, party with soft [p"] is now used as speech paint.
8. Combination of consonants in place stv with softness [in "] it is pronounced entirely softly: solemnly [s" t "in"] enny, general [s "t" in "] enny, birth [s" t "in"] female.
The combination of consonants [t] or [d] with a suffix -stv- pronounced entirely softly, if the last consonant [v] is soft, while in place ds or ts pronounced [ts"]: next [ts" t "in"], be [ts" t "in"] s, prep [ts" t "in"] s. In stage speech, preferably soft [n] before -stv- if the consonant [in] is soft, as in the word feminine.
9. Stage speech accepts only [what] (what), as well as w in place of the letter h in a series of words ch: horse [shn] o, sku [shn] o, yai [shn "]itsa and others, as well as in female patronymics on –ichna: Fomini [shn] a.
10. Stage speech retains the old Moscow pronunciation of patronymics in combination with names: Nikolai Alek [s "eich"], Sofya And [r "e] vna.
11. In the pronunciation of a number of grammatical forms, stage speech also tends to preserve the old Moscow norms. This includes:
a) adjectives -kiy, -hyy, -hyy(Island [k'i], ti [x'i], dol [g'i]);
b) verbs in - nod, nod, nod(pull out [kvb] t, unravel [xb] t, pull [gb] t);
c) return particle -sya, -sya(combat[s], take[s], mine[s]).
From what has been said above, it can be seen that stage speech adheres to old Moscow norms. But in two essential points it deviates from them, accepting the norm existing in social practice. One of them is the pronunciation of the vowel [a] in place but in the 1st pre-stressed syllable after solid hissing: [step] walk, [hot] ra, etc. The old Moscow pronunciation [zhy] ra, [shy] mpanskoe, [shy] lyapin on stage is used only as a speech paint. Another feature is the unstressed ending of 3rd person plural verbs. part II of the conjugation. In accordance with the modern generally accepted norm, stage speech takes dy [shut], go [n "ut], lyu [b" ut], etc. Only as a speech color the scene refers to the old Moscow pronunciation vi[d"ut], but[s"ut].
The Russian stage strives to adhere to these norms, but the ideal requirements and their practical implementation do not completely coincide, as they did not coincide before.
The theater most of all has to deal with ordinary speech, i.e. with stylistically neutral speech. But the theater is more strict about the pronunciation norm, clings more firmly to the established and historically established norms and rejects many of those pronunciation innovations that are gradually accumulating in direct social practice. Theatrical pronunciation is more conservative than literary pronunciation, the first one, as it were, is one step behind the second, it is an ideal, a standard to which one should strive.
Pronunciation of vowels and consonants.
Our spoken language is a stream of sounds. They are studied by a branch of the science of language called phonetics. The phonetic system of the Russian language consists of sounds. A sound is the smallest unit that is spoken or heard. The sound does not have an independent meaning, but with the help of sounds you can distinguish words: lamp -
R ampa,d ohm -from om,in ol -in "ate. All sounds of the Russian language are divided into vowels and consonants. If the air stream, passing through the mouth, does not encounter obstacles in its path, then vowel sounds are pronounced. They consist only of tone, no noise. In other cases, there is no free passage for the air jet in the oral cavity. The tongue may touch the teeth or palate, the lips may close. The air stream has to overcome these obstacles, and then consonants are formed.
There are 6 vowel sounds occurring under stress in Russian:
[a] -arka [s] - was
[o] - water [y] - morning
[and] - andva [e] - ethat
There are many more consonant sounds in Russian. They are hard and soft, voiced and deaf.
Hard and soft consonants form pairs:
[p], [b], [f], [c], [m], [t], [d], [s],
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
[p "], [b"], [f"], [c"], [m"], [t"], [d"], [s"],
[h "], [n], [l], [r], [k], [g], [x],
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
, [n"], [l"], [r"], [k"], [g"], [x"].
There are 15 such pairs. In each pair, the consonants differ only in that one of them is hard and the other is soft.
Some soft consonants do not have a solid pair: [h], [w "], [and].
Some hard consonants do not have a paired soft sound: [c], [g], [w].
[b], [b "], [c], [c"], [h], [h "], [d], [d "],
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
[n], [n "], [f], [f "], [s], [s"], [t], [t"],
[g], [g], [g "],
[w], [k], [k "].
In each pair, the consonants differ only in that one of them is deaf and the other is voiced. Some consonants can only be voiced: [m] - [m "], [r] - [r"], [l] - [l "], [n] - [n"], [and]. They are called sonorous (sonorous).
The sounds [ts], [h], [x], [x "] are only deaf, they do not have paired voiced consonants. Paired voiced consonants in Russian are stunned at the end of a word and before deaf consonants: oak, enemy, coat, mitten.
[n] [k] [n] [w]
Paired deaf before voiced can be voiced: please, handed over.
These laws must be remembered when writing. Sounds in the language are needed in order to distinguish words. This is the most important duty of sounds. If two sounds can independently distinguish words, then we have phoneme, i.e., a distinctive unit of language. For example: d ohm- T ohm, d and t - phonemes dabout m - dbut m, o and a- are also phonemes, since they are the ones that distinguish a given pair of words. A. A. Reformatsky came up with the phrase: She caught a catfish, in which two words are pronounced exactly the same, and therefore it is not clear for the listener (but not the reader!) Where is the fish and where is the fisherwoman. This means that the first vowels in these words cannot be called independent phonemes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Avanesov R.I. Russian Literary and Dialect Phonetics.
M., Enlightenment. 1974.
Avanesov R. I. Russian literary pronunciation.
M., Enlightenment. 1984.
Kovalevskaya E. G. History of the Russian literary language.
M., Enlightenment. 1992.
Rosenthal D. E. Modern Russian language.
M., Higher School. 1976.
Ushakov D.N. Russian language. M., Enlightenment. 1995.
Russian literary pronunciation evolved over a long period of time. Until the 17th century there were practically no pronunciation norms uniform for the Russian language. Dialect varieties of the Russian language were widespread in different territories. In these dialects: Rostov-Suzdal, Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, Ryazan, etc. - spoke the entire population of the respective feudal lands, regardless of social affiliation.
After the unification of the Russian principalities and the consolidation of Moscow as the capital of a centralized state, the prestige of the Moscow dialect grew. Its norms, including pronunciation norms, gradually began to spread and be used as a single national norm. This process was due to the geographical position of Moscow, which is located in the zone of Central Russian dialects, in which the differences between the northern and southern dialects are smoothed out.
In the XVI - XVII centuries. the language of Moscow was also not homogeneous; its population was made up of people from many places of the Russian state, representing different Russian dialects. Thus, a kind of fusion of these heterogeneous dialectal features arose.
Until the 16th century, okane dominated the language of Moscow. In the XVI century. okane was gradually replaced by akanye (coincidence, indistinguishability of unstressed vowels about And but in one sound close to [a]). This was due to the replenishment of the population of Moscow from the South Russian regions. In the XVII - XVIII centuries. South Russian influence on the language of Moscow increased.
The pronunciation norms of the modern Russian literary language in their most important features had already developed by the middle of the 18th century, but at that time these norms characterized only the Moscow dialect. By the end of the XIX century. the Moscow pronunciation norm has already developed as a national one.
At the beginning of the 18th century, the capital was transferred from Moscow to St. Petersburg, and this led to the fact that a special pronunciation system gradually formed in the new capital, somewhat different from Moscow. Some of its features are preserved in the speech of Petersburgers and at the present time. : [sh’h’] on the spot SCH in words pike ([sh’h’]ka), looking for (and [sh’h’]y); [w] on the spot SCH front n - hee[w]ny, in essence [w]ness, graceful [w]ny; [t], [d] between dental consonants - vlas [t] but, holiday [d] nickname(in Moscow - vla [sn] o, pra [sign] ik) etc.
At present, the differences between the Moscow and St. Petersburg norms are being smoothed out. This is largely due to the fact that in both cities they listen to the same radio, watch the same television, study using the same textbooks.
Variants of orthoepic norm
Orthoepy establishes and defends the norms of literary pronunciation. Sources of deviation from the norm can be:
dialect speech ( [b'a] cut; bo[n]ba; [road; kakava; spy), vernacular ( kilometer;begin; briefcase);
Letter (influenced by letter h they say: [what instead of [w] then; certainly instead of horse [w] but; own[r]o instead of one's [in] about);
Indistinguishability of letters e And yo on a letter ( worthless instead of worthless;acquired instead of acquired etc.);
Language development (old literary norms: unhappy; church; Thursday- modern orthoepic norms: unhappy; church; Thursday).
However, the whole variety of linguistic factors is not limited to a simple opposition of the norm / not the norm. There is a standardization scale:
Orthoepic norms that do not allow other options: aka [d'e] mik, a [f'e "] ra, dispan [se"] r, underfilled", etc.
Orthoepic norms that allow equal options: bulo [shn] naya - bulo [ch] naya, up [sh '] - up to [pcs '], ar [te] ria - ar [t '] eriya, ba [se] yn - ba[s']ein; your "horn - tvoro" g, sparkling "stay - and" crunchy, crumbling - crumbling, etc.
Variants of the norm, of which one is recognized as the main one:
Orthoepic variants may belong to different styles. Words that fall into different stylistic contexts are pronounced differently. There are socially significant pronunciation options, i.e. those that are typical of different groups of people who speak the literary language, as well as stylistic options consciously chosen in various social situations.
There are usually three styles of pronunciation: high (ceremonial, bookish), neutral and lowered (colloquial). Against the background of a stylistically uncolored, neutral pronunciation, on the one hand, the features of the “reduced”, colloquial style stand out, and on the other hand, the features of a “higher”, bookish style. Each pronunciation style, as a rule, does not cover all words, but only a certain range of them, mainly associated with different areas of science, technology, art, and politics. For different people, this coverage is different depending on a number of conditions, including the degree of familiarity with foreign languages, the traditions of the old book pronunciation, etc. In the same way, the colloquial style of pronunciation extends to a certain circle of popular words and forms, relating mainly to the sphere of everyday life, everyday life, etc.
| book (high) - a distinct pronunciation of unstressed syllables, close to the source; relaxed reduction: p[o]ethical, wire[olo]ka, in general;- the pronunciation of foreign words is close to the international pronunciation norm or source: nocturne;- distinct pronunciation of most consonant sounds: one thousand, fifty;- screaming: [b'e] ru, in [z'e] la;- a hard consonant before the unstressed ending of adjectives in it. p., units hours: thunder [k] th, ti[x] th, strict [g] th;- slow pace of speech, even rhythm, dominance of brittle-grammatical intonation articulation. | colloquial (reduced) - a strong qualitative reduction of unstressed syllables - n[a]ethical, reduction to zero sound - pro[vlk]a, vowel contraction - in [a] generally;- pronunciation of foreign words in accordance with the pronunciation norms of colloquial speech of the Russian language: n[a]kturn;- reduction of consonants in combinations with other consonants and vowels: you [sh'a], n[ii] syat;- hiccup: [ b'i] ru, in [z'i] la;- softening of consonants in the same forms: loud, quiet, strict;- a sharp increase and decrease in tone, an uneven pace of speech, pauses. |
The development of pronunciation norms is connected with the formation of the national language, with the development of public speech, with the fact that oral speech begins to play a more significant role in the life of society. In different languages and at different times, the degree of severity of orthoepic norms and their meaning are different. Orthoepic norms usually develop over a long period of time.
The orthoepic norms of the Russian language developed in the first half of the 17th century on the basis of Moscow dialects.
Before the formation of the national language, Russian literary pronunciation was not standardized. The era of feudal fragmentation influenced the development of dialects: Rostov-Suzdal, Novgorod, Tver, Ryazan, Smolensk and other dialects differed significantly from each other in phonetic features.
The accession of other principalities to Moscow, the centralization of the Russian state attracted the attention of speakers to Moscow dialects. This is how the norms of the emerging national language begin to take shape.
The positive moment was that the Moscow dialects are Middle Great Russian, the contradictions in the pronunciation of the northern and southern dialects are weakened in them.
But the dialects of Moscow were not homogeneous either. The population of the Moscow Principality was represented by residents of various places, speakers of various dialects.
Until the 16th century, in Moscow, a characteristic phonetic feature was okanye, the distinction of unstressed vowels of a non-high rise, which was a feature of the northern dialects. In the 16th century, under the influence of southern dialects, akanye, the indistinguishability of unstressed vowels of a non-upper rise, spread.
In the second half of the 19th century, the system of orthoepic norms of the Russian national language was finally formed, but in some cases there were fluctuations.
The main differences in pronunciation were associated with the opposition of high style to low, bookish-poetic - colloquial. So, for example, the high style was characterized by an okan, the absence of the transition [e '] to [o'] before a hard consonant, the presence of [γ], alternating in positions of stunning with [x], changing [ch'n] to [shn]: [ boja'ram] - [da'rom], [um'ersh'vl'e'nyi] - [n'ezabv'e'nyi], [us't'i'x] - [sa'm'i' x], [boring] - [simple]. The spelling sh is constantly found in the books of that time: fly, tobacco, kumashny, brick, brown and many others.
In the XVIII lawsuit, Petersburg becomes the capital, where the Moscow nobility moves, and therefore the Petersburg pronunciation has almost no effect on the literary pronunciation. But gradually, by the 20th century, on the basis of the interaction of Moscow, Middle Great Russian, and St. Petersburg, Northern Great Russian, pronunciation, a special orthoepic system was formed.
The modern Leningrad (Petersburg) system is characterized by ekan, the absence of assimilative softness of some consonants, the hardening of soft labials at the end of a word, the literal pronunciation of the combinations [stn], [zdn], [ch't], [ch'n], the absence of dissimilation of plosive back-lingual before explosive rear-lingual [kk], [k'k']: [h'e'stn], [holiday'ik], [h'to'], [kΛn'ech'n], [m'a'k ], [l'o'kii].
With the parallel existence of Moscow and Leningrad (Petersburg) pronunciation systems, there is a prevalence of Moscow as a system of the literary language and smoothing out the differences between Moscow and Leningrad (Petersburg) pronunciation.
The orthoepic norms that existed before 1917 have largely been preserved. The changes are associated primarily with a decrease in the number of positions of assimilative softening of consonants, for example, dental before labial, with pronunciation approaching writing.
In the development and preservation of orthoepic norms, a large role belongs to the theater, primarily the Maly Theater, which is the custodian of the traditions of the old Moscow pronunciation. Stage speech is still the basis of the orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language.
The value of orthoepy increases with the development of cinema, television, radio.
Andreichenko L.N. Russian language. Phonetics and phonology. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling. - M., 2003