family psychology 

Computers of the 70s. Generations of computers - the history of the development of computer technology. Zero generation. Mechanical calculators

Apple I - one of the first home computers

The late 70's - early 80's of the last century was the period of rapid development of home computers in the Western Hemisphere. The first "personal computer" is formally considered to be the IBM 5100, released in 1975, although in practice it was not such: it was intended for scientific tasks and cost an unbearable amount of money for individuals. By itself, the term Personal Computer” or PC (PC) was proposed by IBM and appeared along with the release of the IBM PC (model 5150). Further, IBM itself released updated models, and third-party manufacturers released a lot of IBM PC-compatible (IBM PC compatible) computers that are architecturally close to the IBM PC, allowing you to run their software. This is a topic for a separate material, but today we will stop and briefly recall the most popular home computers (incompatible with the IBM PC).

Commodore 64

Commodore 64 - one of the most legendary and best-selling computers of that time, was released in 1982 by the American company Commodore International and was sold until 1994. It was much cheaper than its competitors IBM PC and Apple ][, but did not come with a monitor. This disadvantage was solved due to the presence of a composite video output: the computer could simply be connected to a TV. In addition to price, factors such as 16 color graphics and separate sound processor, which the early IBM PCs could not boast of and distribution not only in specialized stores.

The computer was equipped with an 8-bit MOS 6510 processor with a frequency of 0.9 or 1.02 MHz, in later modifications there were MOS 8500 and MOS 8510. The amount of RAM was 64 KB, the volume of which could be increased using a special slot. A special VIC II processor, displaying 16 colors, was responsible for the graphics, and the SID processor was responsible for the sound capabilities. TO Commodore 64 connection was possible a cassette recorder or floppy drive as a drive (with time an external hard drive also appeared) and joysticks, which made it possible to use a computer as a game console. For Commodore 64 was released a huge amount of software and games.

ZX Spectrum

The main competitor of the previous hero of the article was the ZX Spectrum, also known as Speccy, created in 1982 by the British company Sinclair Research Ltd. He and his numerous clones were more popular in Europe, and in the early 1990s - in the territory of the former USSR. Like the Commodore 64, it came without a monitor, connected to televisions, and was relatively inexpensive. The computer worked on an 8-bit Zilog Z80 microprocessor with a frequency of 3.5 MHz, the amount of RAM was 16 or 48 KB. By purchasing the 16 KB variant, the user could upgrade the computer by adding another 32 KB.

The ZX Spectrum was equipped with a keyboard consisting of 40 rubber multi-function buttons. The computer could display 8 colors with two levels of brightness and one-bit sound through the built-in speaker. In the later model ZX Spectrum 128, a separate AY-3-8912 chip appeared for sound output. The computer used as storage audio cassettes and diskettes. A decent amount of peripherals were available, including a printer, storage devices, and gaming devices.

Atari 400 and 800

The American company Atari, specializing in games and game consoles, since 1979 has released computers Atari 400, Atari 800, XL series and XE, based on8-bit processor MOS Technology 6502 . Let's dwell on the classic models 400 and 800. The younger model was equipped with membrane keyboardand internal memory slots, while the 800 had a full keyboard, user-accessible RAM and ROM slots, and an 8K cartridge slot. The amount of RAM was 4 KB in the 400 and 8 KB in the 800, it was later increased to 8 and 48 KB respectively.

As with most computers of the time, it was intended to use the Microsoft BASIC programming language. The version for the 6502 processor was 12 KB and did not fit on an 8 KB cartridge, resulting in a slightly simplified version Atari BASIC. Peripherals were connected using their own Serial Input / Output (SIO) connector, to which devices were connected in series.

Amiga

It is worth remembering the Amiga series of computers, in particular the first Amiga 1000, which was released in 1985 and became the world's first home computer capable of displaying more than 16 colors and running an OS that supported multitasking. Development began in 1982 by Amiga Corporation (originally called Hi-Toro, founded by former Atari employees), which was bought by Commodore. The computer was equipped with a processor Motorola MC68000 with a frequency of 7.14 MHz, the amount of RAM was 128 KB, then variants with 256 and 512 KB appeared.

The AmigaOS operating system was originally loaded from a floppy disk, later transferred to a permanent drive. Conditionally shared on Kickstart (system software for OS boot) and Workbench (graphical shell). Initially, the Amiga was equipped with one expansion slot, later the developers decided to make the computer as expandable as possible, for this the Autoconfig protocol was developed. - automatic recognition by the system of plug-in boards (the progenitor of Plug and Play). The computer did not become particularly popular due to the small amount of software that was mainly ported from other systems and did not fully use the capabilities of AmigaOS.

MSX

In the 80s Japanese company branch Microsoft and ASCII Corporation decided to create a single hardware standard for consumer computers, which later became known as MSX (Machines with Software eXchangeability). All hardware and software developments of the MSX standard from different companies were mutually compatible. The standard assumed the use of a Zilog Z80 processor with a frequency of 3.58 MHz, a TMS9918 video controller from Texas Instruments with 16 KB of video memory, an AY-3-8910 sound generator from General Instrument (GI) and an MSX BASIC interpreter. The requirements for expansion cartridges and software were also clearly articulated.

MSX computers were produced by a large number of well-known brands, including Sony, Yamaha, Goldstar (LG) and so on. Until the release of the NES (Famicom) console manufactured by Nintendo, MSX was the main gaming platform for which many games were released, including by Konami. Since the mid-80s, MSX has been used in computer classes in the USSR, including export versions of Yamaha YIS-503 and YIS-805 computers with Yamaha Cyrillic characters (KUVT)

Apple ][

Apple II (or Apple ][) - Apple's first and highly successful mass-produced computer, first introduced in 1977 at the West Coast Computer Fair and became one of the most successful computers of its time. It came with a built-in keyboard, a connector for connecting a cassette recorder and supported color output of pictures in different modes ( text, graphic color with a resolution of 280x192 and 6 colors and low-resolution graphics, 40x48, 16 colors).

The computer was equipped with a 1 MHz MOS Technology 6502 processor, 4 KB RAM, expandable up to 48 KB, and 4 KB ROM with a monitoring program and an Integer BASIC (Basic for integer operations) interpreter. The sound was output to the built-in speaker, 8 expansion slots were provided, 1 for additional RAM, the rest for external devices.

Tandy (RadioShack) TRS-80

In 1977 Tandy developed the TRS-80 computer. The implementation was carried out by the RadioShack chain of stores, which Tandy has owned since 1963. Actually, the computer was sold under the RadioShack TRS-80 brand (later Model I). The processor used was a Zilog Z80 clocked at 1.77 MHz (later Z80A). The amount of RAM was 4 KB, later models had 16 KB. We used as carriers monophonic compact cassettes, and a Radio Shack CTR-41 tape recorder was supplied.

The main advantages of the computer were relatively low cost, a monitor included (black and white), relatively small dimensions and a full keyboard. The main problem of the computer was the high level of radio interference emitted by it, which eventually became the reason for its withdrawal from the market. Later, several more models were created, including those with a color monitor.

BBC Micro

The British company Acorn, which created the Atom home computer in 1981, was working on an updated version called the Proton. At the same time, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) began its BBC Computer Literacy Project about computers, in particular, the TV series The Computer Program, for which they needed a computer with fairly wide (at that time) capabilities, including programming, computer graphics , sound, work with text, external equipment control and so on. Acorn Proton, later BBC Micro has fully met these needs.

Like most computers of that time, it was equipped with a built-in keyboard, hit the market at the end of 1981 and was very popular in its homeland. There were two main models: Model A and Model B (and its variation Model B +), which differed somewhat in power. The computers used MOS Technology 6502A processors in the Model A and 6512A in Model B, the clock frequency is 2 MHz. The amount of RAM was 16 and 32 KB, respectively (64 KB in Model B +). ROM: 32 and 48 KB respectively. The keyboard consisted of 78 buttons, the Texas Instruments SN76489 chip was responsible for the sound.

Electronics BK

It is worth recalling the creations of domestic engineers, in particular, the family of 16-bit computers developed in the USSR BK (Household Computer), which were used for educational and home purposes and were compatible in terms of command system and partially architecture with other DVK compatriots. largely inherited PDP-11 of the American company DEC. models have been released BK-0010, BK-0011 and BK-0100, each of which was produced in several versions.

They differed in internals, keyboard (film or full), the presence of Focal and BASIC-86 interpreters ("Basic Vilnius ") etc. Models with the letter Sh at the end were intended for educational purposes and KUVT (a set of educational computer equipment) along with DVK-2MSh or DVK-3, which were used as a file server. Internals: Processor: K1801VM1 (command system compatible with overseas LSI-11/03 from PDP-11) with a frequency of 3 MHz (in BK-0011/BK-0011M - 4 MHz), 32 KB of RAM and 32 KB of permanent memory. The storage device was a cassette recorder.

Electronics DVK

The last one for today - the aforementioned DVK (Dialogue Computing Complex), as well as BC, architecturally repeated PDP-11 of the American company DEC using an improved element base and single-chip microprocessors. Produced in a number of models DVK-1, DVK-2, DVK-3 and DVK-4 (abbreviated names, full were of the form Electronics HMS 01100.1).

Characteristics: p Micro-computer processors H MC11100.1 or MS 1201 (MS 1201.01) based on the above K1801VM1, 48 KB of RAM, 8 KB of ROM with BASIC or Focal language interpreters, alphanumeric display 15IE-00-013 or 15IE-00-013 -01 ( "Fryazinsky display", on such Tetris was developed) and thermal printer 15VVP80-002. The BK and DVK series were produced from the mid-80s to the early 90s.


A personal computer (desktop or, increasingly, portable) has long become a familiar and integral part of the home interior. Gone are the days when friends and neighbors ran to the happy owner of a PC in the evenings, eager to join a new, hitherto unknown world, which is commonly called virtual. With the true heyday of the computer industry in the second half of the 90s of the last century, a computer for a home user became not only a replacement for a typewriter, but began to perform three important functions at once: communicative (Internet / local network access), developing (training) and entertaining (listening to music, watching movies, video games). Although, it is worth recognizing that the optimistic forecasts that used to be that the computer will help to release the creative potential of a significant part of the population are not justified - the current user is more concerned about his own person, and he considers external events nothing more than an occasion for another note in his LiveJournal. Other worries agitated the minds of those who used one of the first personal computers on the planet in the 70s of the last century. It is today that many people turn on their PC to launch their favorite toy or hang out in a chat. After the Second World War, huge computers performed serious tasks related to scientific and military projects. It was still possible to imagine a small computer that fits on a desk in the late 60s - but why would ordinary people need one? It is no coincidence that in 1943 Thomas Watson of IBM said: "I think that there is a demand in the world for, say, five computers." And he was right! At that time, both demand and supply in the computer market were near zero. However, Watson did not want to see the prospect of the market (or did not try), just as representatives of the committee created by the Western Union Company, to which Alexander Bell unsuccessfully tried to sell a patent for his historical invention, did not see it in their time in the invention of the telephone. The committee's conclusion was damning: "Messrs. Hubbard and Bell want to install their 'telephones' in virtually every home or business establishment in our city. This idea is absurd in itself." Of course, personal computers were not welcome guests of ordinary private property owners. They found their first audience among enthusiasts (radio amateurs, programmers) and educational institutions. For the latter, for example, the very first microcomputer, Kenbak-1, was created. If we recall the history of computer construction, we will see that without the advent of transistors and microcircuits, the transition from computers that occupied several rooms, built on relays or lamps, to very small-sized computers (during the period we are considering, these were often called "microcomputers") could not have taken place. The ability to technologically create microchips led to the appearance of the first processors, and the now well-known company Intel turned out to be just in time, announcing on November 15, 1971 the release of its first i4004 processor.

Of course, one should not think that all microcomputers of the 70s were equipped with Intel processors. Some people did not have time to wait for the i4004, such as John Blankenbaker, the creator of Kenbak-1 (he "pulled out the name Kenbak" from the middle of the surname - Blaner). This computer can be considered the very first personal computer, although, introduced by Kenbak Corporation in September 1971, it used a TTL logic chip as a CPU, the clock frequency of which was approximately 1 MHz. There was also random access memory (RAM) with a capacity of 256 bytes. However, the Kenbak-1 didn't store information, didn't have an input/output (I/O) device, expansion options, a bus, a video card - most of what any "normal" PC needs. Kenbak-1 was a dead end branch in the microcomputer tree that flourished in the mid-70s. Although the Kenbak-1 cost only $750 (very cheap for those times), it was managed to be sold in the amount of approximately 40 pieces. Curiously, C.T.I. Educational bought the rights to his PC from Blankenbaker in order to then rename the Kenbak-1 to CTI 5050. However, for the Kenbak-1, as was customary at the time, a detailed manual ("Kenbak Coding Sheet") was written, with which those who wished could master the science of programming on this device. John Blankenbaker himself wrote programs for his brainchild, for example, a 3D tic-tac-toe toy.

In April 1972, Intel released the i8008, an 8-bit, 0.5 MHz processor that performed 0.06 million operations per second. The advent of a new powerful processor gave a significant impetus to the creation of more advanced microcomputers than the Kenbak-1. In 1973, the legendary Intellec-8, Micral and SHELBI-8H appeared. The "heart" of this trinity was the i8008 chip. The Intellec-8 was a whole series of microcomputers created, oddly enough to hear now, by Intel itself. The Intellec family (the full name sounded like The Intellec Microcomputer Development Systems) included the low-power Intellec-4 (also appeared in 1973, was assembled on the basis of the i4004 chip), the Intellec-4/40, the advanced Intellec-8/80 with the i8080 processor ( appeared in 1974, clocked at 2 MHz), as well as Intellec Series 2 MDS and Intellec Series 3 MDS. Moreover, in 1978, the German company Siemens legally (licensed the use of the i8080 chip) released an Intellec Series 2 MDS "clone" called SME (Siemens Microcomputer Entwicklungssystem). The Intellec-8 programming language, PL/M, was written by Gary Kildall, who worked at Intel as a programming consultant, as a result of his enthusiasm after working on the Intellec-8, which he got as part of his salary. PL/M was a simplified version of PL/I, the mainframe language. In 1974, Kildall introduced the de facto first PC operating system called CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers), which was the standard for personal computers until the early 1980s.

It is worth recognizing that the Intellec series did not have much success. In many ways, this was due to the high cost, for example, they asked for $2395 for the Intellec-8. Therefore, the manufacturers of the first PCs, first of all, tried to reduce the cost of production as much as possible. An ardent desire to reduce the price by any means forced individual manufacturers to come up with the idea of ​​a "computer-designer". That is, the user bought a set of parts, an assembly certificate, armed himself with patience, a soldering iron and ... paid two to three times less. Such was the SCELBI-8H computer (name taken from sc orientific, El electronic and Bi ological), which was sold for $565 (or $580 according to another source) by the American company SCELBI Computer Consulting. This marketing ploy attracted several hundred enthusiasts, but the success of the Americans ended there.

The Europeans did not lag behind the Americans. The Micral computer was created by the French company R2E (Réalisation et Etudes Electroniques). From the moment it went on sale in April until the end of 1973, Micral was sold in the amount of approximately five hundred pieces. This was not a bad result, since this microcomputer cost 8500 French francs. It was at this price that the I.N.R.A. (French National Institute for Agronomic Research), who, for financial reasons, could not purchase the famous Dec PDP-8, and therefore ordered a simpler computer, which turned out to be the Micral. After relative success at home, Micral was taken overseas - in 1974 at the National Computer Conference held in Chicago, it was demonstrated already with a program written in assembler. But the American market reacted coolly to the possibilities of Micral, and the cost of this microcomputer exceeded one thousand dollars. The Micral brand was lucky - it did not remain a memory of the 70s, like most others, but cheerfully stepped into the next decade. Of course, these were already other PCs. For example, the 1982 model Micral 9050 was assembled on i8086, i8089 or Z80 chips, had two 5-inch FDDs and a monochrome display (640x288 pixels).

In 1974, the most bizarre microcomputer for self-assemblers appeared - Mark 8. Radio amateurs learned about its existence from an advertisement on the cover of the July issue of Radio-Electronics magazine. The striking thing was that the Mark 8 was not even sold as a kit. First it was necessary to order a manual of 48 pages, and then all the other components. History says that out of more than seven thousand who ordered the manual, only a few dozen began to purchase parts for self-assembly (i8008 processor, motherboard, 256 bytes of memory, 16 toggle switches, etc.). It is difficult to say what the creator of the Mark 8, Jonathan Titus, was counting on - after all, his brainchild, among other things, did not have such the necessary permanent memory (ROM), which meant that the Mark 8 had to be reloaded each time the program instructions were turned on. However, the time was romantic then, and therefore even such an "under-computer" became known. Today, thousands of people are engaged in self-assembly. However, each computer assembled in such a handicraft way has no historical value, which is the “fault” of total standardization.

This standardization led to the development of computer engineering in the 70s. It was impossible to conquer the mass market without offering some unified solution that other manufacturers could repeat, which would eventually lead to a cheaper final product. In addition, such a unification would put an end to the appearance of computers like the Mark 8. And such an almost perfect personal computer appeared in early 1975. Its name was Altair 8800. This, of course, an outstanding PC of its time, was accompanied by a number of happy occasions, like the computer God himself favored "Altair" from the first days of its creation. The creator of the Altair 8800 was Ed Roberts, who was the president of the American company MITS Incorporated. Fate smiled at Roberts already when buying a batch of i8080 processors. Intel sold them for $300 a piece in small wholesale. But Roberts was able to find "defective" chips in Intel warehouses, which were sold to him for $75. These were fully functional processors, but with various defects on the case. Thus, it became possible to sell the future Altair 8800 for about $400 to those who wanted to build a computer themselves. The next happy event was ... the strike of the workers of the bankrupt railway agency "Railway Express". The first assembled Altair 8800 was sent to Popular Electronics CTO Leslie Solomon via Railway Express. But in the turmoil of those strike days, the precious parcel was lost. It would seem that the situation is not in favor of “Altair”. But no! The first version of the computer was very archaic, that is, its boards were connected by cables. And Roberts, forced to practically re-create the Altair 8800, suddenly came up with a fresh idea - to make a motherboard with sockets with a 100-pin connector, where expansion cards are installed. Altair's similar open architectural concept was originally called The Altair Bus and then the S-100 Bus. The Altair 8800 motherboard had 12 expansion slots, where the processor (yes, the processor was one of the cards at that time), memory, video card, floppy drive, printer, keyboard, monitor, etc. were connected. The success of the S-100 Bus was that components for it could be created by various component manufacturers, and the bus itself could be freely reproduced in their computers by third-party assemblers. A great contribution to the development of the S-100 Bus was made by George Morrow, who headed the S-100 Bus Standards Committee (at the end of 1983. The S-100 Bus has been standardized as an IEEE-696 bus). A real revolution in computer building began - Altair 8800 brought microcomputers out of the "underground". The short era of enthusiastic assemblers was coming to an end - they were replaced by manufacturing firms. Of course, at first the computer market was small, and "Altair", as we remember, was supplied in the form of a set of components. But the S-100 Bus showed that the future belongs to open universal platforms. The victory of the IBM PC platform in the 1980s clearly illustrated this judgment.

The Altair was followed in 1976 by the Imsai 8080 computer, built by William Millard of IMS Associates. It was not some new or other personal (home) computer, no, it was a copy of the Altair 8800. However, there were plenty of such "clones" using the S-100 Bus in the 70s. Among these are the NorthStar Horizon, which was one of the first PCs to come preloaded with floppy drives, Vector-1, Godbout/Compupro (based on the 16-bit 8086 chip), TEI, Wynchester, Sol-10, Sol-20, and The Compuduct. "Rainbow", which stood out with a 12-inch monitor. The Altair 8800 gave new life to PC software. Especially for Altair, Bill Gates and Paul Allen wrote the Basic programming language. By the way, the MITS order was the first commercial order for the then-starting Microsoft. Since Basic required 4 kb of memory (the base configuration of the Altair 8800 had only 256 bytes of RAM, and a board with 1 kb of memory cost $97), a "Basic for the poor" was also created - Tiny Basic (literally "Tiny BASIC"), which even ran on 2 KB RAM. The standard operating system for microcomputers with the S-100 Bus was the mentioned CP/M.

As today, and ten, and twenty years ago, in the mid-70s, the processor market belonged not only to Intel. To build a PC, chips from other manufacturers were used: Motorola 6800, Rockwell 6502, MOS MSC6502 (all with a clock frequency of 1 MHz). The SWTPC microcomputer, introduced by the American company Southwest Technical Products Corporation in 1976, was built on the first processor. This type of PC was very popular - several thousand (if not more) copies were sold. A set of parts was cheap - $400. AIM 65 (1977) was assembled on the second chip, and Jolt on the third. This last microcomputer of the American company Microcomputer Associates was released in November 1975 for $249 (already assembled it cost $348). It had 512 bytes of expandable RAM (up to 4 kb), 1 kb ROM, and a terminal interface (TTY or EIA). In addition, Altair 680b from MITS worked on the Motorola 6800, but it was not very successful. If you look at photographs of personal computers released only in 1977 (CompuColor II, Apple II, TRS-80, Commodore PET), then we will see the main drawback of earlier PCs - the lack of a normal screen that would become a link between the processes taking place inside the computer, and by the end user. Independent programming (often - entering instructions at each start due to the lack of permanent memory) using toggle switches and LEDs could not last long. The computing power of the PC grew every year, not only new productive processors appeared, but also other significant devices for personal computers: 5-inch floppy disks (1976), printers (in 1977, Siemens offered an inkjet printer specifically for PC) and, of course , monitors. All this made the PC a powerful force capable of replacing the old tools of production. At the same time, Homo Ludens ("Man playing") woke up in Homo Sapiens, and large displays came in handy for fans of virtual games. Needless to say, the next step was software, with the help of which it was possible not only to calculate, but also to draw complex pictures (including color ones), type texts, keep accounts, etc. So personal computers of the first half of the 70s with their toggle-lamp interface were doomed. However, their appearance, their formation and development over the course of several years was of great importance for the next generation of PCs. And the microcomputers themselves mentioned in this article still live a full life, being in the hands of enthusiasts who have not died out even today. Therefore, it is impossible to consider these PCs as "fossils" or "museum exhibits", rather, today they are something like a living coelacanth, which has been moving its fins in the ocean depths for tens of millions of years. So the copies of Altair 8800 or Mark 8 that have survived to this day are still blinking LEDs, illuminating someone's life with a joyful light, filling it with meaning and meaning.

Which clearly demonstrates that the federal departments of the country have a real problem with the IT infrastructure. Every year, the US government spends about 75% of the entire IT budget on the operation and maintenance of outdated systems. So, in 2015, out of 80 billion budget dollars, 61 billion dollars sunk into oblivion. The problem is that many departments are still using long-outdated technology, such as IBM Series / 1 computers with 8-inch floppy disks.

The US Accountability Office report is amazing. If someone is annoyed that many government agencies in Russia still require data to be brought in on diskettes, then after reading the document it becomes clear that other countries are familiar with similar problems.

Analysts write that the US Department of Justice still uses the COBOL language, one of the oldest programming languages, the first version of which dates back to 1959. The US Department of Transportation is using systems to track hazardous materials incidents that are decades old. Most US Department of Homeland Security systems run on Windows Server 2003, which was officially discontinued over a year ago. At the same time, the upgrade should be expected no earlier than 2018 due to some problems with backward compatibility.

But the highlight of the report can definitely be called data on the state of affairs in the US Department of Defense, namely information regarding the Strategic Automated Command Control System (SACCS).

“SACCS provides coordination and operational control functions for US nuclear forces, such as intercontinental ballistic missiles, nuclear bombers, and refueling aircraft. This system runs on IBM Series/1 computers, computer systems from the 1970s, and uses 8-inch floppy disks,” the document reads.

The SACCS update is scheduled to begin before the end of fiscal year 2017, but it will not be possible to fully transfer the guidance and nuclear control systems to the new infrastructure until 2020.

Specialists of the Accounts Chamber note that more and more budget funds are spent on maintaining such “museum exhibits” in working order. If in 2015 75% of the budget was spent on maintaining existing systems, then in 2017 this figure should grow to 77%. As a result, there is practically no money left to upgrade the infrastructure and develop new systems. The situation is also complicated by the fact that there are fewer and fewer programmers who are familiar with COBOL and Fortran every year.

The full 28-page version of the report is available (PDF).

In the short history of computer technology, there are several periods based on what basic elements were used to make a computer. The time division into periods is to a certain extent conditional, because when the old generation computers were still being produced, the new generation was beginning to gain momentum.

There are general trends in the development of computers:

  1. Increasing the number of elements per unit area.
  2. Downsizing.
  3. Increasing the speed of work.
  4. Cost reduction.
  5. The development of software, on the one hand, and the simplification, standardization of hardware, on the other.

Zero generation. Mechanical calculators

The prerequisites for the appearance of a computer were probably formed since ancient times, but often the review begins with Blaise Pascal's calculating machine, which he designed in 1642. This machine could only perform addition and subtraction operations. In the 70s of the same century, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz built a machine that could perform not only addition and subtraction, but also multiplication and division.

In the 19th century, Charles Babbage made a great contribution to the future development of computer technology. His difference engine, although it could only add and subtract, but the results of the calculations were squeezed out on a copper plate (an analogue of information input-output means). Later described by Babbage analytical engine had to perform all four basic mathematical operations. The analytical engine consisted of a memory, a computing mechanism and input-output devices (just like a computer ... only mechanical), and most importantly, it could execute various algorithms (depending on which punched card was in the input device). The programs for the Analytical Engine were written by Ada Lovelace (the first known programmer). In fact, the machine was not realized at that time due to technical and financial difficulties. The world lagged behind Babbage's train of thought.

In the 20th century, automatic calculating machines were designed by Konrad Zus, George Stibits, John Atanasoff. The machine of the latter included, one might say, a prototype RAM, and also used binary arithmetic. Howard Aiken's Relay Computers: Mark I and Mark II were similar in architecture to Babbage's Analytical Engine.

First generation. Vacuum tube computers (194x-1955)

Speed: several tens of thousands of operations per second.

Peculiarities:

  • Since the lamps are of substantial size and there are thousands of them, the machines were enormous.
  • Since there are many lamps and they tend to burn out, the computer was often idle due to the search and replacement of a failed lamp.
  • Lamps emit a large amount of heat, therefore, computers require special powerful cooling systems.

Computer examples:

Colossus- a secret development of the British government (Alan Turing took part in the development). This is the world's first electronic computer, although it did not have an impact on the development of computer technology (due to its secrecy), but helped win the Second World War.

eniac. Creators: John Mowshley and J. Presper Eckert. Machine weight 30 tons. Cons: use of the decimal number system; lots of switches and cables.

Edsak. Achievement: the first machine with a program in memory.

Whirlwind I. Words of small length, work in real time.

Computer 701(and subsequent models) from IBM. The first computer to lead the market for 10 years.

Second generation. Transistor computers (1955-1965)

Speed: hundreds of thousands of operations per second.

Compared with vacuum tubes, the use of transistors has made it possible to reduce the size of computing equipment, increase reliability, increase the speed of operation (up to 1 million operations per second) and almost nullify heat transfer. Methods for storing information are developing: magnetic tape is widely used, later disks appear. During this period, the first computer game was seen.

First transistorized computer TX became the prototype for branch computers PDP DEC firms, which can be considered the founders of the computer industry, because the phenomenon of mass sale of cars appeared. DEC releases the first minicomputer (cabinet sized). Fixed the appearance of the display.

IBM is also actively working, already producing transistorized versions of its computers.

Computer 6600 CDC, which Seymour Cray developed, had an advantage over other computers of the time - this is its speed, which was achieved through parallel execution of instructions.

Third generation. Integrated circuit computers (1965-1980)

Speed: millions of operations per second.

An integrated circuit is an electronic circuit etched onto a silicon chip. Thousands of transistors fit in such a circuit. Consequently, computers of this generation were forced to become even smaller, faster and cheaper.

The latter property allowed computers to penetrate into various areas of human activity. Because of this, they became more specialized (i.e., there were different computers for different tasks).

There was a problem of compatibility of produced models (software for them). For the first time, IBM paid great attention to compatibility.

Multiprogramming was implemented (this is when there are several executable programs in memory, which has the effect of saving processor resources).

Further development of minicomputers ( PDP-11).

Fourth generation. Computers on large (and ultra-large) integrated circuits (1980-…)

Speed: hundreds of millions of operations per second.

It became possible to place on one chip not one integrated circuit, but thousands. The speed of computers has increased significantly. Computers continued to get cheaper and even individuals were now buying them, which heralded the so-called era of personal computers. But the individual was most often not a professional programmer. Consequently, software development was required so that the individual could use the computer in accordance with his imagination.

In the late 70s and early 80s, the computer was popular Apple, designed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Later, the personal computer was put into mass production. IBM PC on an Intel processor.

Later, superscalar processors appeared, capable of executing many instructions simultaneously, as well as 64-bit computers.

Fifth generation?

This includes the failed project of Japan (well described on Wikipedia). Other sources refer to the fifth generation of computers the so-called invisible computers (microcontrollers built into household appliances, cars, etc.) or pocket computers.

There is also an opinion that the fifth generation should include computers with dual-core processors. From this point of view, the fifth generation began around 2005.

In the 60s and 70s of the twentieth century, the computer industry continued to develop. IBM, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Sperry and other companies that broke into this industry expanded their operations around the world, improving and expanding product lines, adding services and peripheral equipment markets. However, in 1978, as the major computer manufacturers aimed to build larger, more powerful machines for the business market, Apple Computer, Inc. created an entirely new market space with the release of its Apple I home computer.

Contrary to popular belief, Apple was not actually the first personal computer on the market. Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) had released the Altair 8800 two years earlier. There were high hopes for the Altair in computer circles. Business Week quickly dubbed MITS "IBM Home Computers".

However, MITS did not create a blue ocean. Why? Her machine had no monitor, no permanent memory, only 256 RAM, no software, no keyboard. To enter data, users switched toggle switches on the front of the box, and the results of the program were displayed in the form of light bulbs that light up in a certain order on the front panel. Not surprisingly, there was no market for such a difficult-to-use home computer. Expectations were so modest that in the same year, Ken Olsen, president of Digital Equipment, uttered his famous phrase: "There is absolutely no need for a person to have a computer at home."

Two years later, the Apple II created a blue ocean of home computing and made Olsen regret his words. Based largely on then-existing technology, the design of the Apple II offered an all-in-one, easy-to-use plastic case with an integrated keyboard, power supply, and graphics display device. The Apple II came with a variety of software, from games to business programs, such as the Apple Writer text editor and the VisiCalc spreadsheet, which made the computer accessible to the mass consumer.

Apple changed the then conventional wisdom about computers. Computers were no longer seen as reserved for "lunatics" who were obsessed with technological innovations; The PC, like the Model T, has become an indispensable fixture of the American home. Just two years after the introduction of the Apple II, Apple's annual sales exceeded 200,000. Only three years after its founding, the company made it to the Fortune 500 list - an unprecedented honor." In 1980, about two dozen companies sold 724,000 personal computers, earning more than $1.8 billion.” The following year, twenty more companies entered the market, and sales doubled to 1.4 million units and brought in almost $3 billion.

Being cautious, IBM waited for the first few years, studied the market and technologies, planning the release of its own computer. In 1982, the company dramatically expanded the blue ocean of home computing by offering a much more open architecture that allowed other companies to write software and develop peripherals. By creating a standardized operating system for which external developers could create software and peripheral tools, IBM was able to keep prices and costs low while offering greater value to customers. Due to economies of scale and volume of production, the company was able to establish a price affordable to the mass buyer19. In its first year, IBM sold 200,000 personal computers (PCs), slightly less than it planned to sell in five years; by 1983, customers had purchased 1.3 million IBM personal computers20.