Who used poisons and how they made them. History of poisons, or chronicles of the most famous poisonings. Historical essay. Origin of medical knowledge
Since ancient times, poisons have been widely used in the struggle for power, for inheritance, for the love of beautiful women. There are no statistics on how many people in the history of mankind became victims of poisons, most likely there were millions of them.
In ancient times, hydrocyanic acid extracted from peach seeds was used for executions, which they called "punishment with a peach."
Without a doubt, once the use of poisons could significantly affect the course of historical processes, because kings, ministers, religious and political figures became victims of poison.
Trial and error
In their daily lives, ancient people often encountered poisonous plants, berries, mushrooms, reptiles and insects. Of course, initially they did not know that this or that plant was poisonous, just one of them ate an appetizing-looking berry or mushroom, and then parted with their lives in agony. It immediately became clear that it was impossible to eat, so by trial and error, knowledge about poisonous plants, berries and mushrooms was accumulated.
Similarly, there was an acquaintance with poisonous snakes and insects. A harmless-looking little snake bit a mighty tall hunter, and he suddenly died in a few minutes; of course, his comrades memorized what this reptile looked like, and then bypassed it or killed it. They also remembered a small spider, from the bite of which the body first went numb, and then the heart stopped. So gradually humanity got acquainted with poisons and their "carriers".
When writing appeared, knowledge about poisons began to be recorded in ancient texts. In the most ancient Sumerian, Babylonian, and ancient Egyptian medical treatises, there is already information about various poisonous drugs that can kill a person. They mentioned such plant poisons as henbane, strychnine, opium, hemp and hydrocyanic acid, the latter then already learned to get from bitter almonds or peach pits. For example, in ancient Egypt, hydrocyanic acid extracted from peach seeds was used for executions, which were called “peach punishment”.
Did poisons change the history of civilization?
In ancient times, the word "poison" was often closely associated with the other two words "witchcraft" and "corruption", because the mysterious sudden death of quite healthy people was often explained by witchcraft or sinister rituals of witches. No autopsy and study of the causes of death was carried out then, so the use of poisons very often went unpunished.
Poisons were not only added to food or drinks, they soaked clothes and shoes, lubricated pins, keys and bandages for the wounded, sprayed flowers and beds, stuffed torches and candles. No one was immune from sudden and often painful death, so the fear of poisons literally reigned in the ancient world, and various antidotes, of very dubious quality, were worth their weight in gold. Even in the custom of clinking glasses, it turns out that there was once a hidden fear of being poisoned. This custom originated in ancient Rome, where poisoning was a common occurrence.
When the goblets collided, the wine spilled from one to the other, thus, those who clinked glasses received a certain guarantee that “it is not poisoned.
It is quite possible to say that at a certain period in the development of our civilization, poisons to a large extent influenced the history of mankind, even almost ruled the world. Let us recall at least the great commander Alexander the Great, who died on June 13, 323 BC. e. in Babylon in the 33rd year of his life. The main version of the cause of his death is poisoning. It is believed that Alexander was poisoned by one of his wives because of jealousy for the new wife of the commander or for his lover Hephaestion (Macedonsky was bisexual).
In his book Alexander the Great, Murder in Babylon, historian Graham Phillips writes: “The first symptoms of the disease were great agitation and trembling, then sharp pain in the region of the stomach. The king fell to the floor, writhing in convulsions. Alexander was tormented by a strong thirst, he was delirious. At night he had hallucinations, he had convulsions ... ”These symptoms are very similar to those of strychnine poisoning.
Macedonian conquered many territories, forming a huge empire, which collapsed after his death. If this ancient commander and ruler had not been poisoned in the prime of his life, undoubtedly, the history of mankind would have changed at least a little. Many Eastern rulers, European monarchs, their ministers died from poison.
For example, the English king John the Landless (1167-1216) died of toad poison. The French king Louis XIII died from poisoning with small doses of arsenic, they were seasoned not only with the king’s food, but also administered with an enema during periodic “healthy” washing ... His successor Louis XIV believed that he had lost his half-sister from poison, one of lovers and children. In his reign, he himself narrowly escaped death from a poisoned petition, which was submitted to him by La Voisin, a famous French adventuress. A study of the remains of the mother and second wife of Tsar Ivan the Terrible showed that they were victims of poisoners.
Many more such examples could be cited. The famous Cardinal Richelieu was so maniacally afraid of poison that he bred cats, but not at all out of love for these animals, he used them as tasters of his food. But Alexei Arakcheev, a confidant of Alexander I, was accompanied everywhere by a servant with a dog Zhuchka, who served as a taster for the royal favorite, who was afraid of possible poisoning.
The myth of the universal antidote
However, it was quite difficult to protect oneself from the poison, even special tasters did not help - servants who tried all the dishes and drinks served at the table of the nobility. Firstly, it was possible to apply a slow-acting poison or introduce it in small portions, then the taster and his master died after a while; secondly, the poison could be in a completely unexpected place, for example, on a knife blade, the tip of a needle, or in a sheet soaked in it.
King of Pontus and Bosporus Mithridates VI Eupator (126-163 BC) always remembered his father, who died from poison, so from a young age he did everything to avoid such a fate. He became a real connoisseur of poisons, he personally prepared them and tested the effect of the poison on criminals sentenced to death. There is a legend that Mithridates, wishing to gain immunity to the effects of poisons, regularly took small doses of a mixture of 52 ingredients, some of them were poisonous. Thanks to this, he made his body so resistant to poisons that when, after the defeat from the Romans, he decided to poison himself, not a single poison helped him, Mithridates had to stab himself with a dagger.
However, those who wanted to protect themselves from poisons could hardly follow the example of Mithridates, so they tried with all their might to acquire a universal antidote. Of course, such a remedy for all poisons simply could not exist, but over the centuries there have always been rogue people who tried to sell it for a lot of money. True, such an occupation was very risky, some noble lord or patrician could always force the seller to prove the effectiveness of this remedy. He was offered to drink the poison, and then neutralize its effect with his universal antidote. Such an "experiment" usually ended in the death of the crook.
Since there was no universal antidote, there was only one thing left - to fight the uncontrolled spread of poisons. The Italians were the first to stop the free trade in poisons. Since 1365 in Siena, pharmacists could sell arsenic and sublimate only to acquaintances and reliable people. In the 15th century, a complete ban on the sale of these poisons was already introduced, and a pharmacist convicted of violating the ban was punished by law. In 1485, a similar ban was introduced in, and in 1662 it was forbidden to freely sell poisonous substances in. We banned the sale of a number of poisons only in 1733. With the development of toxicology, poisoning declined sharply, because those who used poisons were most attracted by impunity, the impossibility of establishing the use of any poison.
Creation date: 2013/11/27
On the globe, according to modern science, there are about 10 thousand poisonous plants. This number includes shrubs, herbs, mushrooms. For example, out of 200 species of mushrooms growing in Russia, 40 are poisonous. Of the total number of chemical elements, 75 are found in plant and animal organisms. And each of them can be called both medicinal and poisonous. “If you look around with the eyes of a doctor,” says the Buddhist commandment, “looking for a cure, then we can say that we live in a world of drugs, because there is no substance in nature that would not be suitable as a medicine.” Now, more than ever, the treatment with poisons is quite widely used in medicine. For example, everyone knows the ointments used for external rubbing of muscles and joints, for the treatment of the widest range of skin diseases. One of the most common areas of therapeutic practice is apitherapy, in which not only bee products, but also targeted bee stings are successfully used.
Medicines and poisons in antiquity
A poison is a chemical compound that, when it enters the body from the outside, causes poisoning. Since ancient times, poison and man have lived hand in hand. They were treated with poisons, sometimes poisoned and poisoned, solving political affairs, amorous and hereditary. In the latter case, they acted with special sophistication: in comparison with other means of eliminating political and amorous opponents, poisons had an undeniable advantage - the unfortunate went to the forefathers only from "indigestion." Quiet, peaceful, no shocks. That is why this world preferred to keep faithful pharmacists with them, who know a lot about poisons and antidotes.
The modern world is very poisonous. Oxygen in the air, water in the tap and salt in the soup, if consumed in excess, can send you to the next world. However, in animate and inanimate nature there are substances that, not only put into the mouth, but even take it into the hands, are harmful. However, they are very useful. The same compositions can produce alcohol, fertilizers, medicines, and with a favorable wind direction, destroy an entire army on the battlefield. They are very practical. Just one drop in a glass of wine is enough to change the ruling dynasty and change the course of history. They are cheap and can be obtained literally from toothpaste. They must be reckoned with.
The history of the use of plants as medicines begins in ancient times, and herbal medicine is currently popular. In ancient times, there were more than 21 thousand medicinal plants in the world. One of the ancient references to plants dates back to the Sumerian era. A clay tablet with 15 recipes has been preserved, which, according to historians, belongs to the third millennium BC. Plants were widely used in Babylon, Ancient China, Tibet, India, Africa and many other countries. Chinese medicine used more than 2000 medicinal plants, and in India more than 1000. Herbal medicine was also used in ancient Greece. The works of Hippocrates, which contain more than 200 names of medicines, have survived to this day. Hippocrates believed that there was no need to process them, the most effective treatment was through the use of pulp and juices.
Claudius Galen, on the other hand, believed that raw plants contain many substances that are unnecessary, and even harmful. Therefore, he proposed to make decoctions and herbal medicinal tinctures from useful components. The widespread use of plants and medicines arose in Europe and on the territory of Ancient Russia. For the first time, the term "herbal medicine" was introduced by the French physician Henri Leclerc (1870-1955). It was believed that many diseases, or rather, half of them, could be cured by means of plant origin.
But are all components of medicinal plants useful? No, many of them are harmful and even toxic, therefore, like synthetic drugs, they can cause unwanted side effects. Many plants not only contain potent toxins, but also mutagens and carcinogens.
The myths of the Ancient East tell that medicines and poisons can be obtained from the same plants. For example, an Indian myth says that the gods, who received the drink of immortality - amrit, added the juices of medicinal plants there. After receiving the drink of immortality, the god took it out in a bowl, after which the ocean was filled with a strong poison that threatened to poison the whole world. The gods decided to seek help from Shava, who swallowed the poison and saved the world from death. Perhaps this is the idea of the ancient Hindus that the juices of plants must be handled with care, because not only medicines, but also poisons are obtained from them.
We know that parts of the same plant can be both medicines and poisons. For example, potatoes, in which all parts are poisonous except tubers, in tomatoes - everything except fruits and seeds. Sometimes medicines and poisons were prepared from the same plants. In ancient Egypt, the priests prepared medicines from the pulp of the peach, and from the leaves and seeds they obtained a strong poison, which contained a strong acid.
Poison therapy
The properties of poisons for the purpose of their therapeutic use have been studied for a very long time. In particular, it is known that even before our era, at the court of the king of Pontus Mithridates VI, experiments were carried out to find antidotes for snake bites. Various substances were also studied - antidotes, the so-called antidotes. In particular, Hippocrates devoted a whole work to them, which is called "Antidotes". In Europe, in the middle of the century, poisons of plant origin were mainly used. These were alkaloids, physically active compounds of the ranunculus, poppy, nightshade, etc.
The most widespread use of poisons has found its place in herbal medicine. Here, poisonous plants are a necessary component of many remedies: tinctures, infusions of decoctions, herbal teas. Poisonous mushrooms, in particular fly agarics, are also often used. If you open any reference book on traditional medicine, any herbalist, you can immediately understand that poisonous plants are an integral part of most recipes for preparing medicines that cure such diseases as: oncological, skin, musculoskeletal, respiratory, etc.
Arsenic(As)
Forensic toxicology was established in France. Arsenic played a direct role in its history. White arsenic, by the way, is suitable for committing murder. It has no color or smell. 60 mg is a lethal dose, the symptoms of poisoning are similar to those of cholera. With periodic or prolonged use of low doses of quarantine, poisoning can be confused up to HIV diseases. This is not surprising, because arsenic affects the gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, causes diseases of the mucous membranes and skin. Arsenic, as a weapon of crime, will soon supplant the poisons of the ancient world.
Probably the composition of the poison was not known, and it was usually assumed that it was much more complicated than that often used by poisoners, but the properties of arsenic were already well studied by alchemists, doctors and apothecaries. In this regard, the laws tried to limit the sale of not only arsenic, but also poisonous sublimate.
Apparently, the first legislative restrictions appeared in Italy. In 1365, in Siena, the pharmacist was allowed to sell red arsenic (realgar) and sublimate only to people whom he knew well, and in the 15th century, the sale of these poisons was already generally prohibited, and the pharmacist who violated this decree was punished. A similar ban was issued in Germany in 1485. After the trial of the Marquise de Brainvilliers, the French Parliament also took action against the free sale of arsenic. The regulation stated that the sale of arsenic could be allowed "to doctors, pharmacists, goldsmiths, dyers and other persons in need of it after finding out their names, position and place of residence." The name of the buyer must be entered in a special book. But money did its job, and poisons were secretly sold.
Sulfur dioxide (sulphurous anhydride)
This harmful substance is released into the environment due to the combustion of products that contain fuel sulfur, such as coal, coke, oil shale, sour oil. The toxic effect of sulfur dioxide on humans is very diverse. If you breathe even small doses of sulfur dioxide, then soon there will be bronchitis and respiratory disease. The effect of sulfur dioxide may be enhanced by exposure to other substances such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. In the air of large cities and industrial centers, the content of sulfur dioxide exceeds the norm.
Pesticides
A number of researchers put this large group of plant protection chemicals in first place in terms of the intensity of their environmental pollution. And not by chance. The scale of their production and use is rapidly increasing. It is generally recognized that increasing the yield of agricultural crops is practically impossible without their widespread use.
Pesticides are really dangerous for the biosphere. However, this should be specially emphasized, although they are among the substances that most pollute the human environment, their "leading" position is temporary. The development of more "short-lived" drugs, as well as substances that are less toxic to humans and warm-blooded animals, and the wider use of biological plant protection products, will inevitably "push" pesticides to a lower level of danger for a number of pollutants.
If we exclude from consideration the danger associated with the possibility of a nuclear catastrophe or chemical warfare, then, apparently, in the peaceful conditions of the existence of mankind on Earth, it is heavy metals that will pose the greatest danger in the foreseeable future. Everything that was mentioned as examples of environmental pollution with harmful substances can be conditionally called everyday pollution associated with the activities of the chemical industry, with the combustion of fuel in transport, in industry and public utilities, with the use of chemicals in agricultural production and at home. This kind of everyday pollution occurs so far, unfortunately, in all countries of the world. However, in capitalist countries such pollution is often extremely intense.
The world-famous chemical concern Montedison, the largest company in Italy, located in Lombardy, has so badly polluted at least three rivers flowing in this province - Olona, Seveso and Lambro. A study has shown that a glass of water taken from the Lambro River could kill a bull within half an hour. The Bormidadi Spino River is so poisoned by the discharge of various harmful substances from the enterprises of this company that the fish released into it die instantly, faster than they can pull it out of the water. Dead Lake Orta due to the release of copper by the Châtillon company (part of the Montadison concern).
Pesticides are a serious problem. However, it is also clear that the solution to the problem is not illusory. The introduction of low-waste and waste-free technologies, the use of biological means of pest control in agriculture, and much more testifies to the possibilities of scientific and technological progress to solve this global problem. It is also quite obvious that the arms race is a serious impediment to its solution. It diverts huge material resources. After the Second World War, mankind spent an astronomical amount of 6 trillion dollars on weapons. This is money thrown away, as the Soviet scientist G. L. Yagodin rightly points out, to the wind. The growth of expenditures on armaments inevitably entails their reduction in other items, including the item "Protection of the environment."
Here is an example given by G. L. Yagodin (1985) for the USA:
- 1982 - environmental protection ($5 billion), military spending ($187.4 billion);
- 1983 - environmental protection ($4.3 billion), military spending ($214.8 billion);
- 1984 - environmental protection ($4.1 billion), military spending ($245.3 billion).
And one cannot but agree with the conclusion that G. L. Yagodin makes: "Humanity has put itself before a choice - either learn to live in peace and good cooperation, or perish."
History of the use of poisons
Poison poisoning is often referred to as the "weapon of cowards". But, if we trace the history of the use of poisons, then such a definition does not seem perfect. We know from archaeological evidence that primitive people sought to find weapons that would be more effective against animals and enemies. In their search, in addition to healing substances, toxic (poisonous) substances were found that could be used as weapons.
Archaeological finds of such hunting tools, which contained harmful substances, such as tubocurarine, prove this.
Data on toxic substances were kept secret, only a few members of the tribe owned the secret. This gave them power and authority. The ritual of preparing poisons was considered the most important step in the act of poisoning.
Toxicology, the name given to the study of poisons, comes from the Greek word, toxon. This is a bow with arrows. The word toxeuma meant an arrow, and toxicos a poisoned arrow, which in ancient times was often used as the most deadly weapon.
In antiquity, poisons were viewed primarily as "mysterious" substances and were defined as substances that kill. However, a typical example - table salt in large quantities also kills. But is salt a poison? Maybe it's all about microdoses? So what is poison?
The use of poisons dates back to the ancient times of mythological beliefs. Perhaps the first records of them appeared among the Sumerians in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). There are references to poison in Greek mythology, although there is no obvious quotation for specific poisons. For example, that Theseus returned to Athens to claim his rights; and Medea, according to the myth, resenting this, tried to poison Theseus with a poisoned goblet.
Or now, Menes is an early record of the Egyptian king about the properties of poisonous plants. Detailed writing during these times was not typical, as it was forbidden to reveal any of the secrets taught in the temples. Exposing these secrets was punishable by death. There is, however, ample evidence, on various papyri, that the Egyptians were versed in antimony, copper, crude arsenic, lead, opium, mandrake, and other poisonous substances.
Some papyri also show how the Egyptians were probably the first people to master distillation and discover a way to extract a powerful poison from peach pits. A translation of Duteuil, on a papyrus in the Louvre, shows the earliest writing of the drug for lethal purposes. Today, this extract is known as hydrocyanic acid (potassium cyanide). Peach kernels contain "cyanogenic glycosides" that release toxic substances in the presence of water.
The ancient Greeks were aware of arsenic and metals such as lead, mercury, gold, silver, copper and their properties to some extent. As for vegetable poisons, the Greeks mainly used hemlock. It was a poison for suicidal purposes.
Under certain conditions, suicide at this time was noted to be noble, and the use of the "poisoned cup" was often sanctioned as a form of capital punishment. "State Poison" is a type of hemlock known as hemlock poison.
The doses, however, were not always lethal, and repeated doses were often required. The Phocian describes it thus: "having drunk all the Hemlock's juice, the amount was considered insufficient, and the executioner refused to cook more unless he was paid 12 drachmas." and the State Poison was made for him to drink.
There is a record in later history of the use of state poison. Dioscorides, in his work Materia Medica, made a valuable contribution to the classification of poisons, distinguishing between poisons of plant, animal, and mineral origin. This work remained the most authoritative, for fifteen centuries or more, in the field of toxicology.
The knowledge of poisons seems to have been a common race among the Eastern races. The Persians were very interested in the art of poisoning. Both Plutarch and Ctesias describe an incident that occurred during the reign of Artaxerxes II (405 - 359BC). Queen Parysatis allegedly poisoned her daughter-in-law Stateira with a poisoned knife. A knife that is used to cut a bird at the dinner table - one of its sides was smeared with poison. Using the blade of the untainted half, Parysatis remained alive while her sister-in-law died.
Poisoning at the dinner table was certainly not uncommon, especially in ancient Roman times. According to the writer Livy, murder by poisoning happens all the time in the high circles of Roman society. There have been infamous cases of "utilization" of unwanted families, using the poison Locusta. And Locasta was used on behalf of Agrippa, wife of Claudius, to kill him. Nero killed his brother Britanicus with cyanide. Belladonna was also the favorite poison of ancient society.
A custom adopted by the Chinese in 246 BC, which still exists today, is the Zhou Ritual (Dough Tube Ritual). Of the 5 poisons used, 4 are known; cinnabar (mercury), realger (arsenic), iron vitriol (copper sulfate) and loadstone (magnetic iron ore). (Thompson, 1931)
Soon after the discovery of the properties of toxic substances, people began to look for antidotes - methods to prevent their fatal consequences. Mithridates was the king of Pontus (Turkey) during 114-63 BC. He is believed to have lived in constant fear of being poisoned by his enemies, as he studied the subject of antidotes quite extensively.
He tested the potency of various poisons on convicted criminals and experimented with various poisons to find antidotes for them. He took small doses of poisons daily in an attempt to make himself invulnerable. The formula for his antidote was known as Mithridatum, the secret of which he guarded. Pliny describes 54 different poisons, and he also mentions “A duck that lived on poisonous food; and the blood of this duck was afterwards used in the preparation of Mithridatum."
Since ancient times, poison and man have lived hand in hand. They were treated with poisons, sometimes poisoned and poisoned, solving political, amorous and hereditary cases. In the latter case, they acted with special sophistication: in comparison with other means of eliminating opponents, poisons had an undeniable advantage - the unfortunate went to the forefathers only from "indigestion." Quiet, peaceful, no shocks.
But it is worth noting that poisonings did not always occur from the malicious intent of ill-wishers. Far more often, the drugs themselves were to blame for the untimely death. Even in the ancient Egyptian manuscripts it is written that, depending on the method of preparation, the drug can be either harmful or beneficial. Medieval medicines were such that it was enough to increase the dose a little, and it became a poison without any hope of survival.
The Dark Ages have sunk into oblivion, bringing with them unsolved secrets, poisoned boxes, rings and gloves. People have become more pragmatic, medicines have become more diverse, doctors have become more humane. However, there was still no order with potent and toxic substances. Peter the Great tried to restore order by banning trading in "green shops" and ordering the opening of the first free pharmacies. In July 1815, the Russian Empire published "Catalogues of pharmaceutical materials and poisonous substances" and "Rules on the sale of pharmaceutical materials from herbal and mosquito shops"
Historical essay. Origin of medical knowledge
Since the time of ancient Rome, anyone whose body had a bluish-black tint or was covered with spots was considered to have died of poisoning. Sometimes it was considered sufficient that it "smelled badly". They believed that a poisoned heart does not burn. Killers of poisoners were equated with sorcerers. Many have tried to penetrate the secrets of the poison. Someone dreamed of eliminating a rival on the path to wealth and power. Someone was just jealous of a neighbor. The supreme rulers often kept secret services of poisoners who studied the effects of poisons on slaves. Sometimes the lords themselves did not hesitate to participate in such studies. So, the legendary Pontic king Mithridates, together with his court physician, developed a universal antidote, experimenting on prisoners sentenced to death. The antidote they found included 54 ingredients, including opium and the dried organs of poisonous snakes. Mithridates himself, according to ancient sources, managed to develop immunity to poisons, and after the defeat in the war with the Romans, trying to commit suicide, he could not get poisoned. He threw himself on the sword, and his "Secret Memoirs", containing information about poisons and antidotes, were taken to Rome and translated into Latin. So they became the property of other peoples.
Not less often resorted to deliberate poisoning in the East. The perpetrator of the crime was often one of the slaves, who had previously developed immunity to poison. Quite a lot of attention to poisons and antidotes is given in the writings of Avicenna and his students.
History has left evidence of the outstanding poisoners of their time. The attackers' arsenal consisted of plant and animal poisons, antimony, mercury and phosphorus compounds. But white arsenic was destined for the role of "King of Poisons". It was so often used in resolving dynastic disputes that the name "hereditary powder" stuck behind it. It was especially widely used at the French court in the fourteenth century, among the Italian princes of the Renaissance and in papal circles of the time when few wealthy people were not afraid to die from poison.
Until the middle of the last century, poisoners could feel relatively safe. If they were tried, it was only on the basis of circumstantial evidence, and arsenic itself remained elusive.
In 1775, the Swedish pharmacist Carl Schiele discovered a garlic-smelling gas - arsenic hydrogen (arsine). Ten years later, Samuel Hahnemann treated with hydrochloric acid and hydrogen sulfide an extract from the tissues of a person who died from arsenic poisoning and precipitated the poison in the form of a yellowish precipitate. Since then, hydrogen sulfide has become one of the main reagents for the detection of metal poisons. But the first serious work on toxicology was published only in 1813 in France. ITS author Matthieu Orfillat became the first forensic expert on poisons.
In 1900, there was a massive beer poisoning in Manchester. The examination found arsenic in the beer. The Special Investigation Commission began to figure out how he got there, and was horrified: arsenic was in both artificial yeast and malt. There was no time for beer - arsenic was found in vinegar, marmalade, bread and, finally, in the body of perfectly healthy people (about 0.0001%).
Arsenic was truly ubiquitous. Marsh's test (chemist at the British Royal Arsenal) made it possible to detect it even in acid and zinc used for analysis, if they were not previously purified.
The rapid development of physicochemical methods of analysis made it possible by the middle of the last century to solve the problem of quantitative determination of trace amounts of arsenic. Now it was possible to reliably distinguish the background, natural content of arsenic from poisoning doses, which were much higher.
Having removed the terrible harvest of death, arsenic from the second half of the nineteenth century turned to humanity with a completely different side. Starting in 1860, arsenic-containing stimulants became widespread in France. However, a real revolution in the idea of this ancient poison occurred after the work of Paul Ermech, which marked the beginning of synthetic chemotherapy. As a result, arsenic-containing preparations were obtained that are effective in the treatment of many diseases in humans and animals.
It is impossible not to mention the poisons of plant origin. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, alkaloids broke free from laboratories and clinics, the world, as a result, entered a period of mysterious murders and suicides. Plant poisons left no traces. The French prosecutor de Broe made a desperate speech in 1823: "We should have warned the killers: do not use arsenic and other metal poisons. They leave traces. Use vegetable poisons !!! Poison your fathers, your mothers, poison your relatives - and inheritance will be yours. Do not be afraid! You will not have to bear punishment for this. There is no corpus delicti, because it cannot be established."
Even in the middle of the nineteenth century, doctors could not say with certainty what dose of morphine is fatal, what symptoms accompany poisoning with plant poisons. Orfilla himself, after several years of unsuccessful research, in 1847 was forced to admit defeat to them.
But less than four years later, Jean Stae, professor of chemistry at the Brussels Military School, found a solution to the problem. The guess that made him famous came to the professor while investigating a murder committed with nicotine. The victim of the atrocity that Jean Stae was investigating received a dose much higher than the lethal one, but the perpetrator, frightened, tried to hide the traces of poisoning with the help of wine vinegar. This accident helped to discover a method for extracting alkaloids from body tissues ...
The founder of homeopathy, S. Hahnemann, very subtly felt the quantitative side of the action of substances on the body. He noticed that small doses of quinine cause signs of malaria in a healthy person. And since, according to Hahnemann, two similar diseases cannot coexist in the same organism, one of them must certainly crowd out the other. "Like should be treated with like," Hahnemann taught, using sometimes incredibly low concentrations of medicine to treat. Today, such views may seem naive, but they are filled with new content, given the paradoxical effects known to toxicologists, when as the concentration of the active substance decreases, the strength of the toxic effect increases.
Variety of poisons and their mechanism of action
Lethal doses of some poisons:
White arsenic 60.0mgkg
Muscarine (fly agaric poison) 1.1mgkg
Strychnine 0.5mgkg
Rattlesnake venom 0.2mgkg
Cobra venom 0.075mgkg
Zorin (combat OV) 0.015mgkg
Palitoxin (marine coelenterates toxin) 0.00015mgkg
Botulinum neurotoxin 0.00003mgkg
What is the reason for this difference between poisons?
First of all - in the mechanism of their action. One poison, once in the body, behaves like an elephant in a china shop, destroying everything. Others act more subtle, more selectively, hitting a specific target, such as the nervous system or the key links of metabolism. Such poisons, as a rule, exhibit toxicity at much lower concentrations.
Finally, one cannot ignore the specific circumstances associated with the poisoning. Highly poisonous salts of hydrocyanic acid (cyanides) may be harmless due to their tendency to hydrolysis, which begins already in a humid atmosphere. The resulting hydrocyanic acid either volatilizes or enters into further transformations.
It has long been noted that when working with cyanides, it is useful to hold a piece of sugar behind the cheek. The secret here is that the sugars convert cyanides into relatively harmless cyanohydrins (oxynitrriles).
Poisonous animals contain in the body constantly or periodically substances that are toxic to individuals of other species. In total, there are about 5 thousand species of poisonous animals: protozoa - about 20, coelenterates - about 100, worms - about 70, arthropods - about 4 thousand, molluscs - about 90, echinoderms - about 25, fish - about 500, amphibians - about 40, reptiles - about 100, mammals - 3 species. There are about 1500 species in Russia.
Of the poisonous animals, snakes, scorpions, spiders, etc. are the most studied, the least studied are fish, mollusks and coelenterates. Of the mammals, three species are known: two species of open teeth, three species of shrews, and a platypus.
Paradoxically, the sloth teeth are not immune to their own poison and die even from light bites received during fights among themselves. Shrews are also not immune to their own poison, but they do not fight among themselves. Both open-toothed and shrews use a toxin, a paralytic kllikren-like protein. Platypus venom can kill small animals. For a person, it generally does not cause death, however, it causes very severe pain and swelling, which gradually spreads to the entire limb. Hyperalgia can last for many days and even months. Some of the poisonous animals have special glands that produce poison, others contain toxic substances in certain tissues of the body. Some animals have a wounding apparatus that contributes to the introduction of poison into the body of an enemy or victim.
Some animals are insensitive to certain poisons, for example, pigs - to the poison of a rattlesnake, hedgehogs - to the poison of a viper, Rodents living in deserts - to the poison of scorpions. There are no poisonous animals that are dangerous to everyone else. Their toxicity is relative.
More than 10,000 species of poisonous plants are known in the world flora, mainly in the tropics and subtropics, and there are many of them in countries with temperate and cold climates. In Russia, about 400 species of poisonous plants are found among mushrooms, horsetails, club mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms. The main active ingredients of poisonous plants are alkaloids, glycosides, essential oils, organic acids, etc. They are usually found in all parts of plants, but often in unequal quantities, and with the general toxicity of the whole plant, some parts are more poisonous than others. Some poisonous plants (for example, ephedra) can be poisonous only if they are used for a long time, since the active principles in their body are not destroyed and not excreted, but accumulated. Most poisonous plants act simultaneously on various organs, but one organ or center is usually more affected.
Plants with absolute toxicity do not seem to exist in nature. For example, belladonna and dope are poisonous to humans, but harmless to rodents and birds; sea onions, which are poisonous to rodents, are harmless to other animals; feverfew is poisonous to insects, but harmless to vertebrates.
Plant poisons. alkaloids
It is known that medicines and poisons were prepared from the same plants. In ancient Egypt, the pulp of peach fruits was part of medicines, and the priests prepared a very strong poison containing hydrocyanic acid from the kernels of the seeds and leaves. A person sentenced to "punishment with a peach" was obliged to drink a thicket of poison.
In ancient Greece, criminals could be sentenced to death by a bowl of poison obtained from aconite. Greek mythology connects the origin of the name aconite with the word "akon" (translated from Greek - poisonous juice). According to legend, the guardian of the underworld, Cerberus, during the battle with Hercules, became so furious that he began to emit saliva, from which aconite grew.
Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing heterocyclic bases with strong and specific activity. In flowering plants, several groups of alkaloids are most often present simultaneously, differing not only in chemical structure, but also in biological effects.
To date, more than 10,000 alkaloids of various structural types have been isolated, which exceeds the number of known compounds of any other class of natural substances.
Once in the body of an animal or a person, alkaloids bind to receptors intended for regulatory molecules of the body itself, and block or trigger various processes, for example, signal transmission from nerve endings to muscles.
Strykhine (lat. Strychninum) - C21H22N2O2 indole alkaloid, isolated in 1818 by Peltier and Cavent from emetic nuts - chilibuha seeds (Strychnos nux-vomica).
Strychnine.
In case of strychnine poisoning, a pronounced feeling of hunger appears, fearfulness and anxiety develop. Breathing becomes deep and frequent, there is a feeling of pain in the chest. Painful muscle twitching develops and, accompanied by visual sensations of flashing lightning, an attack of tetanic convulsions is played out (simultaneous contraction of all skeletal muscles - both flexors and extensors) - causing opistonus. The pressure in the abdominal cavity increases sharply, breathing stops due to tetanus of the pectoral muscles. Due to the contraction of the facial muscles, a smile expression (sardonic smile) appears. Consciousness is preserved. The attack lasts a few seconds or minutes and is replaced by a state of general weakness. After a short interval, a new attack develops. Death does not occur during an attack, but somewhat later from respiratory depression.
Strychnine leads to an increase in the excitability of the motor areas of the cerebral cortex. Strychnine already in therapeutic doses causes an exacerbation of the senses. There is an exacerbation of taste, tactile sensations, smell, hearing and vision.
In medicine, it is used for paralysis associated with damage to the central nervous system, for chronic disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, and mainly as a general tonic in various states of malnutrition and weakness, as well as for physiological and neuroanatomical studies. Strychnine also helps with poisoning with chloroform, hydrochloride, etc. With heart weakness, strychnine helps in cases where the lack of cardiac activity is caused by insufficient vascular tone. Also used for incomplete atrophy of the optic nerve.
Tubocurarine. Under the name "curare" is known poison prepared by the Indians living in the tropical forests in Brazil along the tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers, used to hunt animals. From the subcutaneous tissue, this poison is absorbed extremely quickly and it is enough to anoint an insignificant scratch on the body with curare in order for a person or animal to die. The drug paralyzes the peripheral endings of the motor nerves of all the striated muscles, and therefore the muscles that control breathing, and death occurs due to strangulation with full and almost undisturbed consciousness.
Tubocurarine.
The Indians prepare curare according to different recipes, depending on the purpose of the hunt. There are four orta curare. They got their name from the method of packaging: calabash-curare ("pumpkin", packed in small dried pumpkins, i.e. calabash), pot-curare ("pot", i.e. stored in clay pots), "bag" (in small woven bags) and tubocurare ("pipe", packed in bamboo tubes 25 cm long). Since curare, packaged in bamboo tubes, had the strongest pharmacological action, the main alkaloid was named tubocurarine.
The first alkaloid curarine was isolated from tubocurare in 1828 in Paris.
Toxiferin.
Later, the presence of alkaloids in all types of curare was proved. Curare alkaloids obtained from plants of the genus Strychnos, like strychnine, are derivatives of indole (C8H7N). Such, in particular, are the alkaloids contained in pumpkin curare (dimeric C-toxiferin and other toxiferins). Curare alkaloids obtained from plants of the genus Chodrodendron are derivatives of bisbenzylichinol - such, in particular, is B-tubocurarine contained in tubular curare.
Pharmacologists use curare in animal experiments when it is necessary to immobilize muscles. At present, they began to use this property - to relax skeletal muscles during operations necessary to save people's lives. Curare is used to treat tetanus and convulsions, as well as strychnine poisoning. It is also used for Parkinson's disease, and some nervous diseases accompanied by convulsions.
Morphine is one of the main alkaloids of opium. Morphine and other morphine alkaloids are found in plants of the genus poppy, stephania, synomenium, moonseed.
Morphine was the first alkaloid obtained in its pure form. However, it gained popularity after the invention of the injection needle in 1853. It has been (and continues to be) used for pain relief. In addition, it was used as a "treatment" for opium and alcohol addiction. The widespread use of morphine during the American Civil War is believed to have led to "army sickness" (morphine addiction) in more than 400,000 people. In 1874, diacetylmorphine, better known as heroin, was synthesized from morphine.
Morphine is a powerful pain reliever. Lowering the excitability of pain centers, it also has an anti-shock effect in case of injuries. In large doses, it causes a hypnotic effect, which is more pronounced in sleep disorders associated with pain. Morphine causes a pronounced euphoria, and with its repeated use, a painful addiction quickly develops. It has an inhibitory effect on conditioned reflexes, lowers the summation capacity of the central nervous system, enhances the effect of narcotic, hypnotic and local anesthetics. It reduces the excitability of the cough center. Morphine causes excitation of the center of the vagus nerves with the appearance of bradycardia. As a result of the activation of neurons of the oculomotor nerves under the influence of morphine, miosis appears in humans. Under the influence of morphine, the tone of the smooth muscles of the internal organs increases. An increase in the tone of the sphincters of the gastrointestinal tract is observed, the tone of the muscles of the central part of the stomach, the small and large intestines increases, peristalsis is weakened. There is a spasm of the muscles of the biliary tract. Under the influence of morphine, the secretory activity of the gastrointestinal tract is inhibited. Basal metabolism and body temperature decrease under the influence of morphine. Characteristic of the action of morphine is the inhibition of the respiratory center. Large doses provide a decrease and a decrease in the depth of breathing with a decrease in pulmonary ventilation. Toxic doses cause the appearance of periodic breathing and its subsequent stop.
The possibility of developing drug addiction and respiratory depression are major drawbacks of morphine, limiting in some cases the use of its powerful analgesic properties.
Morphine is used as an analgesic for injuries and various diseases accompanied by severe pain, in preparation for surgery and in the postoperative period, with insomnia associated with severe pain, sometimes with severe coughing, severe shortness of breath due to acute heart failure. Morphine is sometimes used in x-ray practice in the study of the stomach, duodenum, gallbladder.
Cocaine C17H21NO4 is a powerful psychoactive stimulant derived from the South American coca plant. The leaves of this shrub, containing from 0.5 to 1% cocaine, have been used by people since ancient times. Chewing coca leaves helped the Indians of the ancient Inca empire endure the high mountain climate. This way of using cocaine did not cause the drug addiction that is so common today. The content of cocaine in the leaves is still not high.
Cocaine was first isolated from coca leaves in Germany in 1855 and has long been considered a "miracle cure". It was believed that cocaine could treat bronchial asthma, digestive disorders, "general weakness" and even alcoholism and morphinism. It also turned out that cocaine blocks the conduction of pain impulses along the nerve endings and therefore is a powerful anesthetic. Previously, it was often used for local anesthesia in surgical operations, including eye surgery. However, when it became clear that cocaine use leads to addiction and serious mental disorders, and sometimes death, its use in medicine was sharply reduced.
Like other stimulants, cocaine reduces appetite and can lead to physical and mental destruction of the individual. Most often, cocaine addicts resort to inhaling cocaine powder; through the nasal mucosa, it enters the bloodstream. The impact on the psyche appears after a few minutes. A person feels a surge of energy, feels new opportunities in himself. The physiological effect of cocaine is similar to mild stress - blood pressure rises slightly, heart rate and breathing become more frequent. After a while, depression and anxiety sets in, leading to a desire to take a new dose, no matter what the cost. For cocaine addicts, delusional disorders and hallucinations are common: the feeling under the skin of running insects and goosebumps is so clear that inveterate drug addicts, trying to get rid of it, often injure themselves. Due to its unique ability to simultaneously block pain and reduce bleeding, cocaine is still used in medical practice for surgical operations in the oral and nasal cavities. In 1905, novocaine was synthesized from it.
Animal poisons
The symbol of a good deed, health and healing is a snake wrapping around a bowl and bowing its head over it. The use of snake venom and the snake itself is one of the most ancient techniques. There are various legends according to which snakes perform various positive deeds, which is why they deserve to be immortalized.
Snakes in many religions are sacred. It was believed that through the snakes the gods convey their will. Nowadays, a huge number of medicines have been created on the basis of snake venom.
Snake poison. Poisonous snakes are equipped with special glands that produce poison (different species have a different composition of the poison), which causes very serious damage to the body. These are one of the few living creatures on Earth that can easily kill a person.
The strength of snake venom is not always the same. The more angry the snake, the stronger the poison. If, when inflicting a wound, the snake's teeth should bite through the clothes, then some of the poison can be absorbed by the tissue. In addition, the strength of the individual resistance of the bitten subject does not remain without influence. It happens that the effect of poison can be compared with the effect of a lightning strike or with the intake of hydrocyanic acid. Immediately after the bite, the patient shudders with an expression of pain on his face and then falls dead. Some snakes inject poison into the body of the victim, which turns the blood into a thick jelly. It is very difficult to save the victim, you have to act within a few seconds.
But most often the bitten place swells and quickly acquires a dark purple hue, the blood becomes liquid and the patient develops symptoms similar to those of putrefaction. The number of heart contractions increases, but their strength and energy weakens. The patient has an extreme breakdown; the body is covered with cold sweat. Dark spots appear on the body from subcutaneous hemorrhages, the patient weakens from depression of the nervous system or from the decomposition of the blood, falls into a typhoid state and dies.
Snake venom seems to affect mainly the vagus and adnexal nerves, therefore, as characteristic phenomena, negative symptoms from the larynx, respiration and heart.
One of the first pure cobra venom for therapeutic purposes in malignant diseases was used about 100 years ago by the French microbiologist A. Calmet. The obtained positive results attracted the attention of many researchers. Later it was found that cobrotoxin does not have a specific antitumor effect, and its effect is due to the analgesic and stimulating effect on the body. Cobra venom can replace the drug morphine. It has a longer effect and is not addictive to the drug. Cobrotoxin, after liberation from hemorrhages by boiling, was successfully used to treat bronchial asthma, epilepsy and neurotic diseases. With the same diseases, a positive effect was also obtained after the administration of rattlesnake venom (crotoxin) to patients. Employees of the Leningrad Research Psychoneurological Institute named after V.M. Bekhterev concluded that in the treatment of epilepsy, snake venoms, in terms of their ability to suppress foci of excitation, are in one of the first places among known pharmacological preparations. Preparations containing snake venoms are used mainly as painkillers and anti-inflammatory drugs for neuralgia, arthralgia, radiculitis, arthritis, myositis, periarthritis. And also with carbuncle, gangrene, adynamic conditions, typhoid fevers and other diseases. From the poison of the gyurza, the drug "Lebetox" was created, which stops bleeding in patients with various forms of hemophilia.
Spider poison. Spiders are very useful animals that exterminate harmful insects. The venom of most spiders is harmless to humans, even if it is a tarantula bite. It used to be that the antidote to a bite could be a dance until you drop (hence the name of the Italian dance - "tarantella"). But the bite of a karakurt causes severe pain, convulsions, suffocation, vomiting, saliva and sweating, disruption of the heart.
Poisoning with the venom of a tarantula is characterized by severe pain that spreads from the site of the bite throughout the body, as well as involuntary contractions of the skeletal muscles. Sometimes a necrotic focus develops at the site of the bite, but it can also be the result of mechanical damage to the skin and secondary infection.
Spiders inhabiting Tanzania possess neurotoxic venom and cause severe local pain, anxiety, and hypersensitivity to external stimuli in mammals. Then hypersalivation, rhinorrhea, priapis, diarrhea, convulsions develop in poisoned animals, respiratory failure occurs, followed by the development of severe respiratory failure.
Nowadays, spider venom is increasingly used in medicine. The discovered properties of the poison demonstrate their immunopharmacological activity. The distinct biological properties of tarantula venom and its predominant effect on the central nervous system make it promising to study the possibility of its use in medicine. There are reports in the scientific literature of its use as a sleep modifier. It selectively acts on the reticular formation of the brain and has advantages over similar drugs of synthetic origin. Probably, similar spiders are used by the inhabitants of Laos as psychostimulants. The ability of spider venom to influence blood pressure is used in hypertension. Spider venom causes necrosis of muscle tissue and hemolysis.
Scorpion venom. There are about 500 species of scorpions in the world. These creatures have long been a mystery to biologists, as they are able, while maintaining a normal lifestyle and physical activity, to do without food for more than a year. This feature indicates the originality of metabolic processes in scorpions. Scorpion poisoning is characterized by damage to the liver and kidneys. According to many researchers, the neurotopic component of the poison acts like strychnine, causing convulsions. Its influence on the vegetative center of the nervous system is also expressed: in addition to impaired heartbeat and respiration, vomiting, nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, and chills are observed. Neuropsychiatric disorders are characterized by the fear of death. Poisoning with scorpion venom is accompanied by an increase in blood glucose, which in turn affects the function of the pancreas, in which the secretion of insulin, amylase and trypsin increases. This condition often leads to the development of pancreatitis. It should be noted that scorpions themselves are also sensitive to their poison, but in much larger doses. This feature was used in the past to treat their bites. Quintus Serek Samonik wrote: "Burning when a scorpion inflicted a cruel wound, they immediately grab him, and deservedly deprived of life, he, as I heard, is suitable to cleanse the wound of poison." The Roman physician and philosopher Celsus also noted that the scorpion itself is an excellent remedy for its bite.
The literature describes recommendations for the use of scorpions for the treatment of various diseases. Chinese doctors advised: "If live scorpions are insisted on vegetable oil, then it is fashionable to use the resulting remedy in inflammatory processes of the middle ear." Preparations from the scorpion are prescribed in the east as a sedative, its tail part has an antitoxic effect. They also use non-poisonous false scorpions that live under the bark of trees. Residents of Korean villages collect them, prepare a drug for the treatment of rheumatism and sciatica. The venom of some species of scorpions can have a beneficial effect on the body of a person suffering from cancer. Studies show that scorpion venom drugs have a destructive effect on malignant tumors, it has an anti-inflammatory effect and, in general, improves the well-being of patients suffering from cancer.
Batrachotxin.
Bufotoxin.
Toad poison. Toads are poisonous animals. Their skin contains many simple saccular poison glands that accumulate behind the eyes in "parotids". However, toads do not have any piercing and injuring devices. For protection, the cane toad contracts the skin, due to which it is covered with an unpleasantly smelling white foam with the secretion of poisonous glands. If the aga is disturbed, its glands also secrete a milky-white secret, it is even able to "shoot" it at a predator. Aghi poison is potent, affecting mainly the heart and nervous system, causing profuse salivation, convulsions, vomiting, arrhythmia, increased blood pressure, sometimes temporary paralysis and death from cardiac arrest. For poisoning, simple contact with poisonous glands is sufficient. The poison penetrated through the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth causes severe pain, inflammation and temporary blindness.
Toads have been used in folk medicine since ancient times. In China, toads are used as a heart remedy. The dry poison secreted by the cervical tonsils of toads can slow down the progression of oncological diseases. Substances from the venom of toads do not help cure cancer, but they can stabilize the condition of patients and stop the growth of the tumor. Chinese therapists claim that toad venom can improve immune system function.
Bee venom. Poisoning with bee venom can occur in the form of intoxication caused by multiple stings of bees, and also be allergic in nature. When massive doses of poison enter the body, damage to internal organs, especially the kidneys, involved in the removal of poison from the body, is observed. There have been cases where kidney function has been restored by repeated hemodialysis. Allergic reactions to bee venom occur in 0.5 - 2% of people. In sensitive individuals, a sharp reaction up to anaphylactic shock may develop in response to a single sting. The clinical picture depends on the number of stings, localization, functional state of the body. As a rule, local symptoms come to the fore: sharp pain, swelling. The latter are especially dangerous when the mucous membranes of the mouth and respiratory tract are affected, as they can lead to asphyxia.
Bee venom increases the amount of hemoglobin, reduces blood viscosity and clotting, reduces the amount of cholesterol in the blood, increases diuresis, dilates blood vessels, increases blood flow to the diseased organ, relieves pain, increases overall tone, performance, improves sleep and appetite. Bee venom activates the pituitary-adrenal system, has an immunocorrective effect, improves adaptive capabilities. Peptides have a preventive and therapeutic anticonvulsant effect, preventing the development of epileptiform syndrome. All this explains the high effectiveness of bee treatment for Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, post-stroke, post-infarction, cerebral palsy. And also bee venom is effective in the treatment of diseases of the peripheral nervous system (radiculitis, neuritis, neuralgia), joint pain, rheumatism and allergic diseases, trophic ulcers and sluggish granulating wounds, varicose veins and thrombophlebitis, bronchial asthma and bronchitis, ischemic disease and the consequences of radioactive exposure and other diseases.
"Metal" poisons. Heavy metals... This group usually includes metals with a density greater than that of iron, namely: lead, copper, zinc, nickel, cadmium, cobalt, antimony, tin, bismuth and mercury. Their release into the environment occurs mainly during the combustion of mineral fuels. Almost all metals are found in the ashes of coal and oil. In coal ash, for example, according to L.G. Bondarev (1984), the presence of 70 elements was established. 1 ton contains on average 200 g of zinc and tin, 300 g of cobalt, 400 g of uranium, 500 g of germanium and arsenic. The maximum content of strontium, vanadium, zinc and germanium can reach 10 kg per 1 ton. Oil ash contains a lot of vanadium, mercury, molybdenum and nickel. Peat ash contains uranium, cobalt, copper, nickel, zinc, and lead. So, L.G. Bondarev, taking into account the current scale of the use of fossil fuels, comes to the following conclusion: not metallurgical production, but coal combustion is the main source of many metals entering the environment. For example, with the annual combustion of 2.4 billion tons of hard and 0.9 billion tons of brown coal, 200 thousand tons of arsenic and 224 thousand tons of uranium are dissipated together with ash, while the world production of these two metals is 40 and 30 thousand tons. tons per year, respectively. It is interesting that technogenic dispersion of metals such as cobalt, molybdenum, uranium and some others during coal combustion began long before the elements themselves began to be used. “To date (including 1981), continues L.G. Bondarev, around 160 billion tons of coal and about 64 billion tons of oil have been mined and burned around the world. Many millions of tons of various metals.
It is well known that many of these metals and dozens of other trace elements are found in the living matter of the planet and are absolutely necessary for the normal functioning of organisms. But, as they say, "everything is good in moderation." Many of these substances, when they are in excess in the body, turn out to be poisons and begin to be dangerous to health. So, for example, the following are directly related to cancer: arsenic (lung cancer), lead (cancer of the kidneys, stomach, intestines), nickel (oral cavity, large intestine), cadmium (almost all forms of cancer).
The conversation about cadmium should be special. L.G. Bondarev cites the disturbing data of the Swedish researcher M. Piskator that the difference between the content of this substance in the body of modern adolescents and the critical value, when one has to reckon with impaired kidney function, diseases of the lungs and bones, is very small. Especially for smokers. During its growth, tobacco accumulates cadmium very actively and in large quantities: its concentration in dry leaves is thousands of times higher than the average values for the biomass of terrestrial vegetation. Therefore, with each puff of smoke, along with such harmful substances as nicotine and carbon monoxide, cadmium also enters the body. One cigarette contains 1.2 to 2.5 micrograms of this poison. World production of tobacco, according to L.G. Bondarev, is approximately 5.7 million tons per year. One cigarette contains about 1 g of tobacco. Consequently, when smoking all cigarettes, cigarettes and pipes in the world, from 5.7 to 11.4 tons of cadmium is released into the environment, getting not only into the lungs of smokers, but also into the lungs of non-smokers. Finishing a brief note about cadmium, it should also be noted that this substance increases blood pressure.
The relatively higher number of cerebral hemorrhages in Japan, compared to other countries, is naturally associated, including with cadmium pollution, which is very high in the Land of the Rising Sun. The formula "everything is good in moderation" is also confirmed by the fact that not only an excess amount, but also a lack of the above substances (and others, of course) is no less dangerous and harmful to human health. For example, there is evidence that the lack of molybdenum, manganese, copper and magnesium can also contribute to the development of malignant neoplasms.
Lead. In acute lead intoxication, neurological symptoms, lead encephalopathy, "lead" colic, nausea, constipation, pain throughout the body, decreased heart rate and increased blood pressure are most often noted. In chronic intoxication, there is irritability, hyperactivity (impaired concentration), depression, decreased IQ, hypertension, peripheral neuropathy, loss or decrease in appetite, stomach pain, anemia, nephropathy, "lead border", dystrophy of the muscles of the hands, a decrease in the content of body calcium, zinc, selenium, etc.
Once in the body, lead, like most heavy metals, causes poisoning. And, nevertheless, lead is necessary for medicine. Since the time of the ancient Greeks, lead lotions and plasters have remained in medical practice, but the medical service of lead is not limited to this ...
Bile is one of the important body fluids. The organic acids contained in it - glycolic and taurocholic stimulate the activity of the liver. And since the liver does not always work with the accuracy of a well-established mechanism, these acids in their pure form are needed by medicine. Separate and separate them with acetic lead. But the main work of lead in medicine is connected with X-ray therapy. It protects doctors from constant x-ray exposure. For almost complete absorption of X-rays, it is enough to put a 2-3 mm layer of lead in their path.
Lead preparations have been used in medicine since ancient times as astringents, cauterizers and antiseptics. Lead acetate is used in the form of 0.25-0.5% aqueous solutions for inflammatory diseases of the skin and mucous membranes. Lead plasters (simple and complex) are used for boils, carbuncles, etc.
Mercury. Ancient Indians, Chinese, Egyptians knew about mercury. Mercury and its compounds were used in medicine, red dyes were made from cinnabar. But there were also rather unusual "applications". So, in the middle of the tenth century, the Moorish king Abd al-Rahman built a palace, in the courtyard of which there was a fountain with a continuously flowing stream of mercury (until now, Spanish deposits of mercury are the richest in the world). Even more original was another king, whose name history has not preserved: he slept on a mattress that floated in a pool of mercury! At that time, the strong toxicity of mercury and its compounds, apparently, was not suspected. Moreover, not only kings were poisoned with mercury, but also many scientists, including Isaac Newton (at one time he was interested in alchemy), and even today careless handling of mercury often leads to sad consequences.
Mercury poisoning is characterized by headache, redness and swelling of the gums, the appearance of a dark border of mercury sulfide on them, swelling of the lymphatic and salivary glands, and digestive disorders. With mild poisoning, after 2-3 weeks, impaired functions are restored as mercury is removed from the body. If mercury enters the body in small doses, but for a long time, chronic poisoning occurs. It is characterized, first of all, by increased fatigue, weakness, drowsiness, apathy, headaches and dizziness. These symptoms are very easy to confuse with manifestations of other diseases, or even with a lack of vitamins. Therefore, it is not easy to recognize such poisoning.
Currently, mercury is widely used in medicine. Despite the fact that mercury and its components are poisonous, it is added in the manufacture of medicines and disinfectants. Approximately one third of all mercury production goes to medicine.
Mercury is known to us for its use in thermometers. This is due to the fact that it quickly and evenly responds to temperature changes. Today, mercury is also used in thermometers, dentistry, the production of chlorine, caustic salt, and electrical equipment.
Arsenic. In acute arsenic poisoning, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, depression of the central nervous system are observed. The similarity of the symptoms of arsenic poisoning with the symptoms of cholera for a long time made it possible to successfully use arsenic compounds as a deadly poison.
IN THE COMMENT CONCLUSION
| Headings: | medicines and poisons 1 user |
Poisons of the ancients and ancient poisons
We shall see that, even if the cave-sickness was indeed the cause of the death of Lord Carnarvon and those around him, this fact alone does not remove the seal of the curse that marked the mysterious circumstances of their death, as well as the death of others. Researchers always have one more version in stock: this and other diseases, hidden in fungi for a time, could have been manufactured and conserved by the ancient Egyptians. Indeed, to this day, few can compare with them in terms of knowledge in the science of poisons.
The Greek physician Dioscorides, among his many observations, also left the following entry: “It is extremely difficult to protect yourself from poison here, because the Egyptians cook it so masterfully that even the best doctors most often make mistakes in their diagnoses.” And of course, if the ancient Egyptians knew how to grow poisonous fungi, they also knew how to poison the atmosphere of the tombs, thereby putting a reliable barrier to anyone who dares to disturb the peace of the pharaoh...
Have they applied their knowledge in practice? Howard Carter is the clearest evidence for those who do not believe in the curse of the pharaohs. He died on March 2, 1939, almost two decades after the opening of the tomb. But all this time, he complained more than once about bouts of weakness, frequent headaches, even hallucinations - a complete set of symptoms of the action of a poison of plant origin. It is generally accepted that Carter escaped the curse of the pharaoh due to the fact that he practically did not leave the Valley of the Kings from the first day of excavations. Day after day, he received his dose of poison, until in the end his body developed a stable immunity. Well, everything looks quite reasonable, but maybe it really was. However…
However, we will soon see that the curses of the pharaohs had qualities much more subtle than even the most sophisticated poisons.
Let's return to the topic of ancient Egyptian burials and try to find the killer, who, perhaps, is still so cleverly hiding in the dense veil of all these accidents, mysteries and omissions.
First of all, let us try once again to determine the general symptoms of the disease and the dynamics of the death of people whose fates were somehow connected with the curse. Philip Vandenberg opened this topic very deeply, raising case histories, eyewitness accounts, biographical notes from the life of not only contemporaries, but also scientists who in past centuries dealt with the tombs of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs.
Here they are, formidable signs of an inevitable tragic denouement: severe fever, obsessive delirium, premonition of imminent death, embolism, transient cancer. The same pathology, as is known, was noted among those who did not even see the tombs, but touched any objects from there.
For a scientist, the main thing is to find the real culprit of the death of archaeologists. If we are talking about a toxin, then it is natural that this infection can spread anywhere. In addition, our contemporaries, the heirs of the ancient experts in the preparation of poisons, could also use the toxin.
In addition, the fungus, which we wrote about above, was found not only in the organisms of bats that live in tombs, but also in the tissues of the mummies themselves.
From the book Chariots of the Gods author Daniken Erich vonAncient fantasies and legends or ancient facts? As I said, in antiquity there were things that could not exist at the level of knowledge of that period. And as the facts accumulated, I continued to experience the fervor of the researcher. Why? Yes, if only because
From the book The Bermuda Triangle and Other Mysteries of the Seas and Oceans the author Konev ViktorAncient Egyptians The first wooden ships appeared in Egypt at the turn of the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. The Egyptians already had several types of ships, such as, for example, flat-bottomed ships, 10–16 meters long, which were used for transporting people, sailed and oared. For movement
From the book From Cyrus the Great to Mao Zedong. South and East in questions and answers author Vyazemsky Yuri PavlovichAncient traditions Question 2.1According to the ancient Arab tradition, Adam was created from clay, geniuses from fire without smoke. Let me ask you: what are angels made of? Question 2.2 Why was Satan cast out of heaven? The Bible does not directly say this. But what does the Qur'an say? Question 2.3 Why
From the book Who's Who in the History of Russia author Sitnikov Vitaly Pavlovich From the book Mathematical Chronology of Biblical Events author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich2.2. Many "ancient astronomical observations" could be calculated by late medieval astronomers, and then entered by them as "observations" in ancient chronicles
From the book Way of the Phoenix [Secrets of a Forgotten Civilization] author Alford AlanThe ancients and their writing Apparently, the time will come when Egyptologists, who now ignore this scientific knowledge reflected in the Egyptian tradition, will nevertheless come to the conclusion that the Egyptians themselves made these amazing discoveries. But it will be on their side
author Enikeev Gali RashitovichChapter 1 "The ethnos of the ancient Mongols", the founders of the Mongol state, who were they? The name and self-name of the "ancient Mongols" ethnic group "The fact that a patriotic author is interested in the history of the Fatherland is natural, as well as the fact that his attitude to the traditional
From the book Crown of the Horde Empire, or there was no Tatar yoke author Enikeev Gali RashitovichChapter 3 Information about the anthropological features of the "ancient Mongols", or the ancient and medieval Tatars LN Gumilyov writes: "The most ancient Mongols had nothing in common with the blonds who inhabited Europe. European travelers of the 13th century. no resemblance between
From the book Crown of the Horde Empire, or there was no Tatar yoke author Enikeev Gali RashitovichChapter 4 Features of the place of development of the "ancient Mongols". Kimaks and Kypchaks. Some information about the material culture of the ethnos of the "ancient Mongols", or the Tatars of Chyngyz Khan "Eurasia is a steppe strip from Khingan to the Carpathians, bounded from the north by the" taiga
From the book of the Medici. Godfathers of the Renaissance author Strathern Paul1. ANCIENT ROOTS The Medici family is said to go back to a knight named Averardo who served under Charlemagne during the conquest of Lombardy in the 8th century. According to family tradition, while crossing Mugello, an abandoned valley near Florence, Averardo heard a story about
From the book History of the Persian Empire author Olmsted AlbertAncient religions The inhabitants of the highlands belonged to their own sub-group of the Mediterranean race. In terms of culture, they were closer to the peoples of Central Asia, especially in their religious thinking. Greek authors tell us something about culture
From the book Myths of the Ancient World author Becker Karl Friedrich3. Ancient Babylonians and ancient Assyrians At about the time when the priest Manef was compiling the "painting of the Egyptian kings" (280 ... 270 BC), in Babylon one of the priests of Baal - Beroz wrote in Greek the history of his people. Unfortunately, only fragments of this have come down to us.
From the book Ancient China. Volume 1. Prehistory, Shang-Yin, Western Zhou (before the 8th century BC) author Vasiliev Leonid SergeevichAncient inscriptions This group of texts stands apart and is represented mainly by inscriptions on fortune-telling bones and tortoiseshells of the Shang period and on bronzes of the Shang and Zhou periods. In practice, these are the oldest Chinese texts written in hieroglyphs, clearly preserving
From the book History of the Ancient World [East, Greece, Rome] author Nemirovsky Alexander ArkadievichAncient Aryans and their migrations to the south. Society and culture of the ancient Aryans From the end of the II millennium BC. e. to this day, the population of Iran and India, for the most part, is ethnically descended from a special branch of the Indo-Europeans - the speakers of the languages of the Indo-Iranian group of Indo-Europeans, dividing,
From the book Ghostly Pages of History author Chernyak Efim BorisovichAncient forgeries
From the book Numbers Against Lies. [Mathematical investigation of the past. Criticism of Scaliger's chronology. Shifting dates and shortening history.] author Fomenko Anatoly Timofeevich4.3. Many "ancient" astronomical observations could be theoretically calculated by late medieval astronomers, and then entered by them as supposedly "real observations" in the supposedly "ancient" chronicles. We must not forget that when writing the "correct Scaligerian history"