Family counseling 

Landscapes of natural zones of savannas, variable-moist and humid forests of the subequatorial and equatorial belts of Eurasia. Moist equatorial forests Moist equatorial forests of Hylaea Eurasia

Geographical location, natural conditions

Moist equatorial forests (hylaea) occupies almost the entire Malay Archipelago, the southern half of the Philippine Islands, the southwest of Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula. It almost corresponds to the equatorial climatic zone with its characteristic values ​​of radiation balance and humidity.

Equatorial air masses dominate throughout the year. The average air temperature ranges from +25 to +28 degrees Celsius, high relative humidity of 70-90% is maintained. With large amounts of annual precipitation, evaporation is relatively low: from 500 to 750 millimeters in the mountains and from 750 to 1000 millimeters on the plains. High annual temperatures and excessive moisture with uniform annual precipitation determine uniform runoff and optimal conditions for the development of the organic world and a thick weathering crust on which leached and podzolized laterites are formed.

Soil formation is dominated by the processes of allitization and podzolization. The circulation of organic matter is very intense: annually 100-200 tons per hectare of leaf-stem litter and roots are humified and mineralized with the help of microorganisms.

Vegetable world

The predominant life form of plants are evergreen hygromorphic and megathermal crown-forming trees, in some places trees with a leafy crown are mixed, mainly palm trees with slender and straight smooth trunks of light green or white, not protected by a crust, branching only in the very upper part. Many trees are characterized by a superficial root system, which, when the trunks fall, takes a vertical position.

Among the important ecological and morphological features that characterize the trees of a humid tropical forest, the phenomenon of caulifloria should be noted - the development of flowers and inflorescences on the trunks and large branches of trees, especially those located in the lower tiers of the forest. A closed tree canopy transmits no more than 1% of outdoor sunlight, which is one of the most important indicators of rainforest phytoclimate.

The vertical structure of a tropical rainforest is characterized by the following features: taller trees are rare; there are many trees that form the basis of the canopy from its upper to lower boundaries, and therefore the canopy is continuous. In other words, layering in humid tropical forests is weakly expressed, and in some cases it is practically not expressed at all, and the allocation of layers in a polydominant forest structure is conditional.

In the Asian equatorial forests (Figure 1), numerous families of the most species-rich (over 45 thousand) floristic subregion of Malesia (Paleotropic region) dominate. In multi-tiered shady forests, among the many trees of different heights and shapes, gebang palms (Corypha umbracuhfera), sago, caryota (Caryota urens), sugar (Arenga saccharifera), areca, or betel nut (Areca catechu), rattan palm liana and others, ficuses , tree ferns, giant rasamals (up to 60 meters in height), dipterocarps endemic to Southeast Asia and many others. Undergrowth and herbaceous cover in these forests are not developed.

Figure 1 - Rain forest equatorial

Animal world

The wildlife of tropical rainforests is as rich and diverse as the plant communities. Under conditions of constantly high humidity, temperatures favorable for the development of organisms, and an abundance of green fodder, complex in terms of territorial and trophic structure, saturated polydominant animal communities are formed. Like plants, it is difficult to distinguish dominant species or groups among animals on all "floors" of the humid equatorial forest. In all seasons of the year, environmental conditions allow animals to breed, and although some species coincide with reproduction at any period of the year, in general this process occurs throughout the year, like the change of foliage in trees.

Termites are the leading group of saprophages in the tropical rainforest. The functions of processing and mineralization are also performed by other soil-litter invertebrates. Among them are free-living roundworms-nematodes. Various larvae of insects are also involved in the processing of plant litter - Diptera, beetles, aphids, adult forms (imagoes) of various small beetles, hay-eaters and aphids, larvae of herbivorous centipedes, and the nodule itself. Earthworms are also common in the litter.

A variety of cockroaches, crickets, earwigs also live in the litter layer. On the surface of leaf litter, one can see large gastropod mollusks - Achatina snails, eating dead plant mass. Many saprophages settle in deadwood and feed on dead wood. These are larvae of stag beetles, bronze beetles, as well as adult forms of sugar passalid beetles, large glossy black beetles.

In the tree layer, the consumers of green leaf mass are the most diverse. These are leaf beetles, butterfly caterpillars, stick insects, gnawing leaf tissues, as well as bugs, cicadas, sucking juices from leaves.

A variety of orthopterans also consume live plant matter: grasshoppers and locusts, especially many species of the Eumastashid family. The pollen and nectar of flowers, along with leaves, feed on adult forms of beetles, weevils, long-bodies, or brentids, barbels, or woodcutters.

A large group of consumers of green plant mass, as well as flowers and fruits of trees, is formed by monkeys living on trees - langurs, gibbons (Figure 2) and orangutans.

In the rain forests of New Guinea, where there are no real monkeys, their place is taken by tree marsupials - couscous and tree kangaroos.

Birds of the rainforest, consuming plant foods, are extremely diverse. They inhabit all tiers of the forest. Consumers of fruits and seeds clearly outnumber those who feed on tree foliage. In the ground layer, there are poorly flying francolins and black guinea fowls, weed chickens. Small bright birds feeding on the nectar of flowers are common - nectaries from the order of passerines. A variety of pigeons feed on the fruits and seeds of trees in the rainforests, which usually have a green color to match the color of the foliage. There are also ground pigeons, for example, a large crowned pigeon that lives in the forests of New Guinea.

Figure 2 - Gibbons

Amphibians in tropical rain forests inhabit not only the ground, but also the tree layers, go far from water bodies due to high air humidity. They even breed sometimes away from water. The most characteristic inhabitants of the arboreal layer are bright green and sometimes bright red or blue tree frogs; copepod frogs are widespread.

Large predators are represented by cats - leopard, clouded leopard. Numerous representatives of the viverrid family - genets, mongooses, civet. All of them lead an arboreal way of life in one way or another.

Ecological problems of the equatorial and subequatorial belts of Eurasia

Change of savannas under the influence of grazing

All savannahs, with the exception of arable land in their place, are used as pastures. Grazing is one of the powerful factors in the transformation of the vegetation cover of the subtropics. The intensity of the impact of grazing is such that, in a number of cases, habitats undergo irreversible changes, as a result of which it becomes impossible to restore the original communities.

The impact of grazing at a high pasture load causes the development of pasture digression processes, accompanied by a decrease in the productivity of communities, the loss of the most valuable forage species from the composition of the herbage, and their replacement by plants that are hardly edible or not eaten at all. One of the most notable effects of pasture overload is the replacement of perennial grasses by annuals, as well as the loss of other perennials and their replacement by annuals. This process has become widespread in various regions. It is typical not only for dry and prickly, but also for wet savannahs.

Studies of the pastures of the subtropical belt, carried out in different regions, have shown that on vast areas the basis of the vegetation cover is made up of annual species of cereals, sometimes with an admixture of other annual species. Communities dominated by annual species are more dependent on the current year's precipitation. In years with a minimum amount of precipitation in such communities, the yield falls catastrophically. With a large herbage density of annuals, the productivity of communities in years that do not deviate significantly from the average in terms of precipitation can be quite high. However, annual plants are weaker than perennials in holding the soil surface together, so it is subjected to more rapid disturbance during grazing.

Another important process of transformation of savannah communities associated with intensive grazing is the rampant growth of shrubs, which occurs on a huge scale in the arid tropical regions of the globe. In this direction of development of pasture digression, thorny shrubs are predominantly distributed. Due to the fact that when overgrazing there is a threat of overgrowing with shrubs, fire cleaning is widely used in savannah communities used as pastures, the same burnings, to which the herbaceous vegetation of the subtropics largely owes its distribution.

Deforestation of equatorial forests

Today, the problem of forest death is one of the first places on the global problems of mankind.

Forest is one of the main types of vegetation cover of the earth, the source of the most ancient material on earth - wood, a source of useful plant products, a habitat for animals. This is a multi-level biosocial system, where countless elements co-exist and influence each other. These elements are trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants and other flora, birds, animals, microorganisms, soil with its organic and inorganic constituents, water and microclimate.

The planet's forests are a powerful source of atmospheric oxygen (1 hectare of forest releases 5 tons of oxygen into the atmosphere per year). The oxygen produced by forests and other components of the Earth's vegetation cover is important not only in itself, but also in connection with the need to preserve the ozone screen in the Earth's stratosphere. Ozone is formed from oxygen under the influence of solar radiation. Its concentration in the stratosphere is steadily decreasing under the influence of chlorofluorohydrocarbons (refrigerants, plastic components, etc.).

Deforestation of equatorial forests is one of the most important global environmental problems of our time. The role of forest communities in the functioning of natural ecosystems is enormous. The forest absorbs atmospheric pollution of anthropogenic origin, protects the soil from erosion, regulates the runoff of surface water, prevents the decline in groundwater levels, etc. .

A decrease in the area of ​​forests causes a violation of the cycles of oxygen and carbon in the biosphere. While the catastrophic consequences of deforestation are widely known, deforestation continues. Forests on our planet cover an area of ​​about 42 million square kilometers, but their area is decreasing by 2% annually.

Deforestation is carried out because of the valuable wood of equatorial species. Scientists suggest that the decrease in forest area will lead to irreversible consequences in the planet's climate.

Due to deforestation, there is a real danger that thousands of animal species will be left without a home and it is possible that many species may disappear even before they are discovered.

Deforestation contributes to global warming and is often cited as one of the main causes of the increased greenhouse effect. Deforestation is responsible for about 20% of greenhouse gases. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, deforestation (mostly in the tropics) contributes up to a third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. During their lives, trees and other plants remove carbon dioxide from the Earth's atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. Rotting and burning wood releases stored carbon back into the atmosphere. To avoid this, wood must be processed into durable products and forests replanted.

Forests also absorb noise, soften seasonal temperature fluctuations, slow down strong winds, and contribute to precipitation.

The forest takes us to the world of beauty (it has a bio-aesthetic value), in it we are imbued with the grandeur of wildlife, we enjoy at least a landscape relatively unpolluted by civilization. Moreover, forest plantations artificially planted on the site of clearings (often park type), with all the diligence of their creators, are often completely dependent on human care likeness of natural, virgin forests.

Mankind needs to realize that the death of the forest is a deterioration in the state of the environment.

) a zone represented by more or less densely growing trees and shrubs of one or more species. The forest has the ability to constantly renew itself. Mosses, lichens, herbs, and shrubs play a secondary role in the forest. Plants here influence each other, interact with the environment, forming a commonwealth of plants.

A significant area of ​​forest with more or less clear boundaries is called a forest area. There are the following types of forests:

gallery forest. It is stretched out in a narrow strip along the river, flowing among treeless spaces (in Central Asia it is called the tugai forest, or tugai);

Tape bur. This is the name of pine forests growing in the form of a narrow and long strip on the sands. They are of great water conservation importance, their felling is prohibited;

park forest. This is an array of natural or artificial origin with rare, singly scattered trees (for example, a park forest of stone birch in Kamchatka);

copses. These are small forests connecting woodlands;

Grove- a piece of forest, usually isolated from the main massif.

The forest is characterized by layering - the vertical division of the forest massif, as it were, into separate floors. One or more upper tiers form the crowns of trees, then come the tiers of shrubs (undergrowth), herbaceous plants, and finally the tier of mosses and lichens. The lower the tier, the less demanding of light are the species that make it up. Plants of different tiers closely interact and are mutually dependent. The strong growth of the upper tiers reduces the density of the lower ones, up to their complete disappearance, and vice versa. There is also underground layering in the soil: the roots of plants are located here at different depths, so numerous plants coexist well in one area. Man, by regulating the density of crops, forces the development of those tiers of the community that are valuable for the economy.

Depending on climatic, soil and other natural conditions, various forests arise.

This is a natural (geographical) zone stretching along the equator with some shift to the south from 8° north latitude. up to 11°S The climate is hot and humid. All year round, average air temperatures are 24-28 C. The seasons are not expressed. At least 1500 mm of precipitation falls, since here is an area of ​​\u200b\u200blow pressure (see), and on the coast the amount of precipitation increases to 10,000 mm. Precipitation falls evenly throughout the year.

Such climatic conditions of this zone contribute to the development of a lush evergreen forest with a complex longline structure. The trees here have little branching. They have disc-shaped roots, large leathery leaves, tree trunks rise like columns and spread their thick crown only at the top. The shiny, as if varnished surface of the leaves saves them from excessive evaporation and burns from the scorching sun, from the impact of rain jets during heavy showers. In plants of the lower tier, the leaves, on the contrary, are thin and delicate.

The equatorial forests of South America are called selva (port. - forest). This zone here occupies much larger areas than in. The selva is wetter than the African equatorial forests, richer in plant and animal species.

The soils under the forest canopy are red-yellow, ferrolitic (containing aluminum and iron).

equatorial forest- the birthplace of many valuable plants, such as oil palm, from the fruits of which palm oil is obtained. The wood of many trees is used to make furniture and is exported in large quantities. These include ebony, the wood of which is black or dark green. Many plants of the equatorial forests provide not only valuable wood, but also fruits, juice, bark for use in technology and medicine.

Elements of equatorial forests penetrate into the tropics along the coast of Central America, on.

The main share of equatorial forests is located in Africa and South America, but they are also found in, mainly on the islands. As a result of significant deforestation, the area under them is sharply reduced.

hardwood forests

Hardwood forests are developed in Mediterranean climates. It is a moderately warm climate with hot (20-25°C) and relatively dry summers and cool and rainy winters. The average amount of precipitation is 400-600 mm per year with rare and short-lived snow cover.

Basically, hardwood forests grow in the south, on, in the southwest and southeast. Separate fragments of these forests are found in America (, Chile).

They, like the equatorial forests, have a tiered structure with lianas and epiphytes. In hard-leaved forests there are oaks (holm, cork), strawberry tree, wild olives, heather, myrtle. Hard-leaved are rich in eucalyptus. Here there are giant trees, more than 100 m high. Their roots go 30 m into the ground and, like powerful pumps, pump moisture out of it. There are stunted eucalyptus trees and shrub eucalyptus trees.

Plants of hardwood forests are very well adapted to the lack of moisture. Most have small gray-green leaves obliquely arranged in relation to the sun's rays, and the crown does not obscure the soil. In some plants, the leaves are modified, reduced to thorns. Such, for example, are scrubs - thickets of prickly bushes of acacias and eucalyptus trees. Scrubs are located in Australia, in areas almost devoid of and.

The fauna of the zone of hard-leaved forests is also peculiar. For example, in the eucalyptus forests of Australia, you can meet the koala marsupial bear. It lives in trees and leads a sedentary nocturnal lifestyle.

The climatic features of this zone are favorable for the growth of deciduous trees with a wide leaf plate. Moderately continental bring precipitation from the oceans (from 400 to 600 mm), mainly in the warm season. The average temperature in January is -8°-0°С, in July +20-24°С. Beech, hornbeam, elm, maple, linden, and ash grow in the forests. The deciduous forests of eastern America are dominated by trees similar to some of the East Asian and European species, but there are also species that are unique to this area. In terms of composition, these forests are among the richest in the world. Most of all in them are American species of oaks, along with them chestnut, linden, plane trees are common. Tall trees with a powerful, spreading crown predominate, often entwined with climbing plants - grapes or ivy. To the south, magnolias and a tulip tree can be found. For European broad-leaved forests, oak and beech are the most typical.

The fauna of the broad-leaved forests is close to the taiga, but there are some animals that are unknown in the forests. These are black bears, wolves, foxes, minks, raccoons. A characteristic hoofed animal of deciduous forests is the white-tailed deer. It is considered an undesirable neighbor for settlements, as it eats young crops. In the deciduous forests of Eurasia, many animals have become rare and are under human protection. The bison and the Ussuri tiger are listed in the Red Book.

Soils in deciduous forests are gray forest or brown forest.

This zone of forests is densely inhabited and largely reduced to nothing. It has survived only in heavily rugged, inconvenient areas for arable farming and in reserves.

Mixed temperate forests

These are forests with various tree species: coniferous-broad-leaved, small-leaved, small-leaved-pine. This zone is located in the north of North America (on the border with the USA), in Eurasia, forming a narrow strip lying between the taiga and the zone of broad-leaved forests, in the Far East. The climatic features of this zone differ from the zone of broad-leaved forests. The climate is temperate, with increasing continental towards the center of the mainland. This is evidenced by the annual amplitude of temperature fluctuations, as well as the annual amount of precipitation, which varies from oceanic regions to the center of the continent.

The diversity of vegetation in this zone is explained by differences in climate: temperature, amount of precipitation and the mode of precipitation. , where precipitation falls all year round due to westerly winds, European spruce, oak, linden, elm, fir, beech are common, that is, coniferous-deciduous forests are located here.

In the Far East, where precipitation is brought only in summer by monsoons, mixed forests have a southern appearance and are distinguished by a wide variety of species, many layers, an abundance of lianas, and mosses and epiphytes on trunks. In deciduous forests, pines, birches, aspens with an admixture of spruce, cedar, and fir predominate. In North America, the most common conifers are white pine, reaching a height of 50 m, and red pine. Of the hardwoods, birch with yellow hardwood, sugar maple, American ash, elm, beech, and linden are widespread.

The soils in the zone of mixed forests are gray forest and sod-podzolic, and in the Far East they are brown forest. The animal world is similar to the animal world of the taiga and the zone of deciduous forests. Elk, sable, brown bear live here.

Mixed forests have long been subjected to severe deforestation and fires. They are best preserved in the Far East, while in Eurasia they are used for field and pasture land.

Taiga

This forest zone is located within the temperate climate in the north of North America and in the north of Eurasia. There are two types of taiga: light coniferous and dark coniferous. Light coniferous taiga is the least demanding pine and larch forests in terms of soil and climatic conditions, the sparse crown of which transmits the sun's rays to the ground. Pine forests, having a branched root system, have acquired the ability to use nutrients from marginal soils, which is used to fix the soil. This feature of the root system of these forests allows them to grow in areas with. The shrub layer of the light coniferous taiga consists of alder, dwarf birch, polar willow, and berry bushes. Under this tier are mosses and lichens. It is the main food for reindeer. This type of taiga is common in.

Dark coniferous taiga are forests represented by species with dark, evergreen needles. These forests consist of numerous species of spruce, fir, Siberian pine (cedar). The dark coniferous taiga, unlike the light coniferous one, does not have undergrowth, since its trees are tightly closed by crowns, and it is gloomy in these forests. The lower tier is made up of shrubs with hard leaves (lingonberries) and dense ferns. This type of taiga is common in the European part of Russia and Western Siberia.

The peculiar flora of these types of taiga is explained by differences in territories: and quantity. The seasons are clearly distinguished.

The soils of the taiga forest zone are podzolic. They contain little humus, but when fertilized they can provide a high yield. In the taiga of the Far East - acidic soils.

The fauna of the taiga zone is rich. Numerous predators are found here - valuable game animals: otter, marten, sable, mink, weasel. Of the large predators, there are bears, wolves, lynxes, wolverines. In North America, bison and elk deer used to be found in the taiga zone. Now they live only in reserves. The taiga is rich in rodents. Of these, the most typical are beavers, muskrats, squirrels, hares, chipmunks, and mice. The taiga world of birds is also very diverse: nutcrackers, thrushes, bullfinches, capercaillie, black grouse, hazel grouses.

Tropical forests

They are located along the east of Central America, in the Caribbean islands, on the island, in the east of Australia and in the southeast. The existence of forests in this dry and hot climate is possible due to the heavy rainfall that is brought by the monsoons in summer from the oceans. Depending on the degree of moisture, tropical forests are divided into permanently humid and seasonally humid forests. In terms of their species diversity of flora and fauna, humid tropical forests are close to equatorial ones. These forests contain many palms, evergreen oaks, and tree ferns. Many vines and epiphytes from orchids and ferns. The tropical forests of Australia differ from others in the relative poverty of the species composition. There are few palms here, but eucalyptus, laurels, ficuses, legumes are often found.

The fauna of the equatorial forests is similar to the fauna of the forests of this belt. The soils are mostly lateritic (lat. later - brick). These are soils, which include oxides of iron, aluminum and titanium; they are usually reddish in color.

Forests of the subequatorial belt

These are deciduous evergreen forests that are located along the eastern outskirts of South America, along the coast, in northeastern Australia. Two seasons are clearly expressed here: dry and wet, the duration of which is about 200 days. In summer, equatorial humid air masses dominate here, and in winter - dry tropical air masses, which leads to the fall of leaves from trees. constantly high, +20-30°С. Atmospheric precipitation decreases from 2000 mm to 200 mm per year. This leads to a lengthening of the dry period and to the change of evergreen permanently wet forests by seasonally wet deciduous ones. During the dry season, most deciduous trees do not shed their entire foliage, but few species remain completely bare.

Mixed (monsoon) forests of the subtropical belt

They are located in the southeastern United States and eastern China. These are the wettest of all zones of the subtropical belt. Characterized by the absence of a dry period. Annual rainfall is greater than evaporation. The maximum amount of precipitation usually falls in the summer, as the monsoons bring moisture from the oceans, the winter is relatively dry and cool. Inland waters are quite rich, groundwater is mostly fresh, with a shallow occurrence.

Here, tall mixed forests grow on brown and gray forest soils. Their species composition may vary depending on soil conditions. In the forests you can find subtropical species of pines, magnolia, camphor laurel, camellia. On the flooded coasts of Florida (USA) and on the lowlands, cypress forests are common.

The zone of mixed forests of the subtropical zone has long been mastered by man. In the place of reduced forests in America, there are field and pasture lands, orchards, and plantations. In Eurasia - forestry lands with areas of field lands. Rice, tea, citrus fruits, wheat, corn and industrial crops are grown here.

Equatorial forests are considered one of the most ancient natural areas. They are common in the equatorial regions of Africa, from where they got their name. In addition to the African continent, the equatorial forest is found in the Indonesian islands, in the Amazon, in northern Australia and in the southern regions of the Malay Peninsula, and covers 6% of the entire surface of the Earth.

Moist equatorial forests on the map of the World.

Moist equatorial forests grow in peculiar "spots", most often in lowland areas. Their main feature is the lack of change of seasons, that is, the weather here is stable - hot, humid and rainy all year round. Because of this, the second name of the equatorial forests is rainforests.

The climate of the equatorial forests

The climate of the equatorial forests is characterized by high humidity, usually 85%, approximately the same air temperature and intense precipitation. The average daytime temperature is around 28ºC, at night the temperature can drop below 22ºC.

There are two main seasons in this natural area: dry season and heavy rainy season. The dry season lasts from July to September. For the year in the equatorial forest falls from 250 cm to 450 cm of precipitation. Strong gusts of wind in the equatorial forest are almost never observed.

Such climatic conditions of the equatorial forest led to the rapid growth of vegetation, due to the density of which the equatorial forests are still difficult to pass and little explored.

Answering the question of what contributes to the formation of such a climate, we can say that the main factor is the location. The equatorial forest is located in the intratropical convergence zone. This is a zone with relatively low atmospheric pressure and weak winds of variable directions.

In addition, the feedback between convection processes and high levels of soil moisture, along with the interception of precipitation from dense vegetation, leads to transpiration. This feedback results in a daily recurring climate pattern: hot, humid air, dry but foggy mornings, evening showers, and convective storms.

Plants of the equatorial forests

Life in the equatorial forests is distributed "vertically": plants inhabit the space in several levels, the number of so-called floors can reach four. Photosynthesis in the zone of humid equatorial forests occurs without interruption all year round.

The flora of the equatorial forest is mainly represented by trees that reach a height of 80 meters and have wide roots that serve not only to support, but also to maximize the absorption of nutrients from poor soil. Trees in rain forests, although deciduous, are mostly related to.

In addition to trees, the equatorial forests are home to many woody vines - climbing plants that can climb to any height in pursuit of sunlight. Creepers twist around trunks, hang on branches, spread from tree to tree, like snakes crawl along the ground in wide twists or lie on it in tangled balls. Some creepers of the equatorial forests have thin, smooth, aerial-like roots, others are rough and knotty. Often creepers are woven together like real ropes. Woody vines have a long lifespan and have an almost limitless ability to grow in length.

Being so varied in length, thickness, hardness and flexibility, the creepers of the equatorial forest are widely used by the natives in their daily life. Almost all rope products are woven from vines. Some vines do not rot in water for a long time and therefore are widely used in the manufacture of ropes, twine for attaching fishing lines and wooden anchors.

In addition to the many species of trees and lianas of which the equatorial forests are mainly composed, various types of palms are also widely found here. The middle and lower floors are represented by grasses, mushrooms and lichens, reeds appear in places. Rainforest plants have a lot of leaves, but the higher they are, the smaller the leaves become. Where forests are near the coast, you can find swamps covered with.

Below is a short list of the most famous plants of the equatorial forest:

  1. cocoa tree;
  2. Brazilian hevea - a source of rubber from which rubber is made;
  3. banana tree;
  4. a coffee tree;
  5. oil palm, which is the source of palm oil used in the manufacture of soaps, ointments, creams, as well as candles and margarine;
  6. fragrant zest, from the wood of which cigarette cases are made;
  7. ceiba. From the seeds of this plant, oil is extracted, which is necessary for soap making, and from the fruits - cotton, which serves as a filler for soft toys and furniture, and is also used for sound and heat insulation.

Animals of the equatorial forests

The fauna of the equatorial forest, like the flora, is located in several tiers. The lower floor is a habitat for insects, including butterflies, small rodents, small ungulates, as well as predators - reptiles and wild cats.

The humid equatorial forests of Africa are inhabited by leopards and African elephants, jaguars live in South America, and Indian elephants live in India, which are smaller and more mobile than their African counterparts. Rivers and lakes are home to crocodiles, hippos and water snakes, including the largest snake on our planet, the anaconda.

Among the diversity of the fauna of the equatorial forests, a large number of birds can be distinguished. These include toucans, sunbirds, banana-eaters, turacos, and hummingbirds. One of the most famous inhabitants of the rain forests is traditionally considered to be parrots of various species. All feathered equatorial forests are united by exotic beauty and bright plumage. Among all this beauty, birds of paradise stand out the most - their multi-colored tufts and tails reach a length of 60 cm.

In the neighborhood with birds on the crowns of trees, sloths and monkeys live: monkeys, howler monkeys, orangutans and others. The crowns of trees are their main place of residence, as there is a lot of food in this tier - nuts, berries and flowers. In addition, this longline provides protection from terrestrial predators and winds. The forest canopy is so dense that it serves as a "superhighway" for arboreal mammals. Large primates - chimpanzees and gorillas - inhabit the lower tier of equatorial forests, where they feed on fruits that have fallen from trees, as well as young shoots and roots of plants.

Soil of equatorial forests

Due to the high content of aluminum and iron, the soils of the equatorial forests have acquired a red-yellow color.

Despite the fact that the equatorial forest is the habitat of a myriad of plant species, the soils of this zone are relatively infertile and poor. The reason for this is the hot climate, due to which plants quickly decompose under the influence of bacteria, which in turn prevents the formation of a fertile (humus) layer. High precipitation in turn leads to leaching, the process of washing out soluble salts and minerals such as calcium and magnesium with water. For millions of years, weathering and heavy rains have led to the loss of soil nutrients. Also, the process of deforestation, which has worsened in the last few decades, has a negative impact on the rapid leaching of the elements necessary for plants.

What is the importance of equatorial forests?

The value of the equatorial forest, both for humanity and for nature in general, cannot be estimated. Equatorial forests are called the "lungs of our planet", as they absorb a large amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and in return they release a huge amount of oxygen, on which the survival of all living organisms depends.

While the problems of the equatorial forests may seem remote, these ecosystems are critical to our well-being. Equatorial forests stabilize the climate, provide habitat for countless plants and wildlife, and generate and influence precipitation across the planet.

The role of equatorial rainforests:

  • help stabilize the world's climate;
  • provide a home for many plants and animals;
  • maintain the water cycle, protect against floods, droughts and erosion;
  • are a source of medicines and food;
  • support for the population of the indigenous tribes of the equatorial forests;
  • and also they are an interesting place for tourists from all over the world to visit and relax.

TOPIC 2. EURASIA

LESSON 52 SEMI-DESERT AND DESERT. SUBTROPICAL FORESTS. SAVANNAH. SUBEQUATORIAL AND EQUATORIAL FORESTS. VERTICAL LUMINOSITY

Target:

· repeat, expand and systematize knowledge about the natural zones of Eurasia; to form knowledge about the features of the vertical zonality of the mainland; improve practical skills and abilities to characterize the natural areas of the mainland with thematic maps of the atlas;

· develop the ability to independently plan ways to achieve learning objectives, organize joint activities with peers, work in a group, find a common solution; develop competencies in the use of ICT technologies;

To cultivate tolerance and respect for the opinions of others.

Equipment: physical map of Eurasia, map of natural areas of the world, textbooks, atlases, computer, multimedia projector, student multimedia presentations, contour maps.

Lesson type: combined.

Expected results: students will be able to characterize the features of the natural zones of Eurasia; compare them with similar natural areas of North America; identify differences in natural complexes within the temperate zone of Eurasia.

DURING THE CLASSES

I. ORGANIZATIONAL MOMENT

II. UPDATING OF BASIC KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Work in pairs

Reception "Geographical workshop"

Tasks. Use the maps of the atlas to compare the location of the natural zones of North America and Eurasia. List the similarities and differences. (One of the students identifies the signs of similarity, the second - the differences.)

Reception "Problem question"

In contrast to North America, in Europe woody vegetation extends up to almost 70° mo. sh. How to explain its presence at such high latitudes?

III. MOTIVATION OF LEARNING AND COGNITIVE ACTIVITIES

Reception "Practicality of the theory"

A comparison of the natural zones of Eurasia with the natural zones of North America shows that in their location on both continents there are certain signs of similarity, but also many differences.

Thus, vast expanses in Eurasia are occupied by the natural zone of deserts and semi-deserts, which is second only to forests in terms of area. Deserts and semi-deserts were formed not even in one, but in three geographical zones of Asia!

Unlike other continents, in Eurasia, much larger areas are occupied by vertical zones. The variety of natural zones of Eurasia is also striking.

Today we will continue to work on the characteristics of the natural complexes of the mainland.

Groups of students who conducted a detailed study of the following natural zones of Eurasia will help us in this.

IV. STUDY NEW MATERIAL

1. Characteristics of natural areas

(Group performances. Sample.)

Semi-deserts and deserts

Semi-deserts and deserts formed in the arid regions of central, southwestern, and partly southern Asia in three climatic zones: temperate, subtropical, and tropical.

Deserts of the temperate zone occupy a significant part of Central Asia. These are the deserts of the Karakum, Kyzylkum, Gobi, Takla-Makan. In the semi-deserts, light chestnut and brown soils predominate, in the deserts - gray-brown with a very small amount of humus, there are many solonchaks. Vegetation is very poor, sometimes completely absent. There is a grass cover of wormwood, saltwort, hard prickly herbs in separate bushes. A typical plant of these deserts is a arborescent saxaul shrub. The deserts of the temperate zone are characterized by a sharp contrast of climatic conditions: exhausting heat in summer and severe frosts with winds in winter. The animal world is well adapted to temperature extremes and constant water shortages. There are many rodents - ground squirrels, jerboas, pikas; antelopes, kulans, bactrian camels are found among large herbivores. Especially a lot of reptiles - lizards, snakes, turtles and arachnids - scorpions and tarantulas.

In the subtropical zone, the zone of semi-deserts and deserts is located on plateaus and highlands fenced by mountains - Asia Minor, Iranian, and the like. Here, on infertile gray soils and gray-brown soils, ephemeral vegetation grows, which develops rapidly in the spring.

The Arabian Peninsula, the northern shores of the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Sea and the region of the lower reaches of the Indus River are occupied by the desert zone of the tropical belt. Vegetation is extremely sparse, and on quicksand it is completely absent. The date palm grows in the oases - the main crop of the oases of the Arabian Peninsula.

Various rodents, a wild donkey, a fennec fox, a striped hyena are found in tropical deserts. In general, the natural conditions of the tropical deserts of Eurasia are in many ways similar to those of Africa.

subtropical forests

The southwest and southeast of Eurasia within the subtropical zone are occupied by zones with evergreen vegetation.

The zone of hardwood evergreen forests and shrubs is located on the Mediterranean coast, protected by mountains from the cold northern winds. In a subtropical climate with mild, wet winters and hot dry summers, plants grow that have adapted to a long summer drought: holm and cork oak, strawberry tree, laurel, oleander, olive tree, cypress. They have thick bark, shiny waxy leaves, and a strong root system. In our time, there are few evergreen forests near the Mediterranean, but thickets of evergreen shrubs - maquis - are common. There are also few wild animals left. There are fallow deer, jackal, wild rabbit, in the west - monkey, white-tailed macaque. Lots of lizards, snakes and turtles. In southeast Asia, there is a zone of subtropical monsoon forests. It occupies the southern part of the Great Plain of China, the south of the Korean Peninsula and the southern half of the Japanese Islands. The climatic conditions here are different than near the Mediterranean: precipitation is predominantly in summer. they are brought by the summer monsoon from the ocean. Winters are cool and relatively dry. Evergreen trees grow in forests on yellow and red soils: magnolias, camphor laurel, camellias, tung trees, stunted palms, and bamboo. They are mixed with deciduous: oak, beech, hornbeam and southern conifers (special types of pine, cypress). Wild animals are preserved mainly in the mountains. There are black Himalayan bear, bamboo bear - panda, leopards, monkeys - macaques and gibbons. Many birds with bright plumage - pheasants, parrots, ducks.

Savannahs and woodlands

The plains of the peninsulas of Hindustan, Indochina and the island of Sri Lanka, where the dry period is well expressed, are occupied by savannas and light forests in the subequatorial zone. They are characterized by the predominance of grass cover, where scattered thickets of shrubs and separate areas of rare forests, under which red-brown and red soils have formed. During the dry period, some trees, in particular teak and sal, shed their leaves for 3-4 months. Teak gives valuable wood that does not rot in water; sal wood is used in construction. In rare forests, trees stand at a distance from each other, which contributes to the movement of large animals - wild boars, buffaloes, elephants.

Subequatorial and equatorial forests

The coasts of the seas and the slopes of the mountains of the Hindustan and Indochina peninsulas are occupied by subequatorial variable-humid forests. Here, palm trees, ferns, bamboo, and many tall grasses grow on red-yellow soils. The fauna of the savannas and subequatorial forests is rich and varied. Of the predators, the tiger, black panther, cheetah, and striped hyena are common. Deer and buffalo live in the forests, antelopes live in the savannahs, and wild boars live in the thickets of river valleys. There are monkeys everywhere. In some places, wild elephants have been preserved. Asian elephants are easily tamed and are happy to perform useful work, dragging logs, transporting people performing in the circus. There are many poisonous snakes in the forests, crocodiles live in the rivers.

The zone of humid equatorial forests of Eurasia covers the south of the Indochina peninsula, almost completely the Greater Sunda Islands and the southwest of the island of Sri Lanka. Like the equatorial forests on other continents, they are characterized by lush multi-tiered evergreen vegetation and a rich wildlife. The zone of the Eurasian equatorial forests is characterized by rhinos, wild bulls, tigers, Malay bears, tapirs. On the Greater Sunda Islands, great apes are common - orangutans and gibbons. There are huge lizards - monitor lizards and pythons, many birds, butterflies.

Conclusion 1. The remoteness of the internal regions of Eurasia from the oceans and the features of the relief favored the formation of large territories occupied by deserts and semi-deserts. Subtropical forests located in the west and east of Eurasia have been significantly changed as a result of human activities. Savannahs, in comparison with Africa and South America, occupy small areas on the Hindustan and Indochina peninsulas. Equatorial forests cover mainly the islands of southern and southeast Asia.

Vertical zonation

In Europe, the altitudinal zonality is most clearly manifested in the Alps: five altitudinal zones regularly replace each other.

The largest number of altitudinal belts is observed on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. There are only two altitudinal belts on the northern slopes of the mountains. This is due to the proximity to the Tibet highlands, which are characterized by harsh climatic conditions.

The composition of the altitudinal belts of the western (drier and cooler at the foot) and eastern (hot and humid) zones is different. In the western part, up to 1000 m, rare drought-resistant forests and shrubs grow. In the east, at similar heights, moist evergreen forests are common, which are gradually replaced by mixed and coniferous forests. The snow line is located higher than in the western part.

Conclusion 2. Eurasia is characterized by a variety of manifestations and a significant spread of altitudinal zonality. The composition and number of altitudinal belts depends on the geographical location and height of the mountains.

V. CONSOLIDATION OF THE STUDYED MATERIAL

Discussion of group performances(review and opposition)

Reception "Cartographic Workshop"

Tasks. Designate on the contour map the natural zones of semi-deserts and deserts, subtropical forests, savannahs and light forests, subequatorial and equatorial forests.

VI. SUMMARY OF THE LESSON, REFLECTION

Reception "Five proposals"

The teacher invites students to formulate conclusions about the landscapes of the mainland in five sentences.

VII. HOMEWORK

1. Work out the corresponding paragraph of the textbook.

2. Complete the scheme of altitudinal zonality in the Alps and the Himalayas in your notebook.

3. Conduct research. Carry out an imaginary journey along the 50th parallel. Identify natural patterns along the route, draw up maps of the route with the designation of countries, natural objects and natural complexes.

4. Leading (individual students): prepare a message about the most famous objects listed in the natural heritage of UNESCO.

I. Natural zone of savannas and light forests. In the subequatorial belt about cages fall mainly or almost exclusively in summer. Long droughts alternate with devastating floods. Total radiation 160–180 kcal/cm2 year, radiation balance 70–80 kcal/cm2 year. The temperature of the warmest month reaches 30–34°, the coldest month is mostly above 15–20° (up to 24–25°). The highest temperatures are observed at the end of the dry season, before the onset of rains (more often in May). These climate features give a certain commonality to all landscapes located between tropical deserts and humid equatorial hylaea. However, here there is a frequent change of different landscape types, depending on the general degree of moisture and the duration of the dry and wet periods. Suffice it to note that the average annual precipitation within the considered part of the mainland ranges from 200 mm to 3000 mm or more (in the mountains - up to 12000 mm), and the humidity coefficient is from 0.1 to 3 and more. Accordingly, several main types of landscapes can be distinguished: tropical desert savannahs, subequatorial savannahs, semi-arid woodlands (dry monsoon forests) and semi-humid monsoon forests. In Asia, we observe a complex picture of peninsulas and archipelagos with powerful mountain barriers that sharpen the contrast of moisture, with barrier-rain and barrier-shadow effects in relation to wet monsoon flows. Here, there is a tendency to change different types of landscapes in longitude, but against this general background, there is a "striped pattern" due to orography.

BUT.Arid landscapes of tropical desert savannas adjoining tropical deserts from the east, they serve as a transition from deserts to subequatorial savannahs. They occupy the northwest of Hindustan, as well as a strip in the west of the peninsula in the barrier shadow of the Western Ghats. In addition, the central part of the intermountain plain in the Irrawaddy basin should be attributed to this type. The annual rainfall is 200–600 mm. The dry season lasts 8–10 months. Zonal soils are reddish brown savannah . Significant areas are occupied by alluvial, predominantly cultivated, soils. Natural vegetation, where due to plowing, and where due to overgrazing, has almost not been preserved. It is characterized by hard grasses, thorny bushes and rare deciduous hard-leaved trees - acacias, prozopis, tamarix, jujube, etc. By the nature of the animal population, these landscapes are also close to desert ones.

B.Subequatorial monsoon forest-savannah (semiarid) landscapes. In the central part of Hindustan, deserted savannas turn into landscapes of typical savannahs. The annual precipitation here is 800–1200 mm, but evaporation exceeds 2000 mm. The number of dry months is 6–8, and wet months are only 2–4. On the eastern outskirts of Hindustan, up to 1200–1600 mm of precipitation falls annually. Although treeless landscapes predominate in the center of Hindustan, and landscapes with dry deciduous monsoon forests prevail on its eastern outskirts, it is advisable to consider them together, since they often alternate. Forests are usually confined to elevations . In addition to Hindustan, such landscapes are common in the interior of Indochina, in the southwest of the Philippine Islands, in the eastern part of the island of Java and in the Lesser Sunda Islands (in the southern hemisphere, the wet period occurs mainly in December - April).

Red-brown soils of the savannas formed on the weathering crust. Often with ferruginous-manganese nodules, low in humus, poor in bases, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Under the variable-moist forests are formed red ferritic (ferruginous) soils with a strong but weakly differentiated profile, with ferruginous concretions, sometimes with dense lateritic layers. There is also little humus in them. On volcanic rocks (basalts) are widespread black tropical (montmorillonite) soils, or regura , up to 1 m thick, clayey. These soils are characterized by high moisture capacity and swell strongly during rains. common alluvial soils, solonchaks are found.

Vegetation cover is severely disturbed. IN savanna landscapes proper dominated by a cover of tall (1–3 m) hard grasses - emperors, temedy, wild sugar cane and other species or shrubs and ferns. Often there are bamboo groves, single teak trees, palmyra palms. Variable-moist deciduous forests characteristic of elevated regions (especially mountains) and richer soils. In these forests, species with valuable wood predominate - teak and sal . In teak forests, the entire tree layer and 90% of the undergrowth are deciduous. Lard has a very short leafless period. Under typical conditions, teak forms the upper tier (35–45 m). In the middle tier, red and white sandalwood, satin tree, arborvitae, iron tree, several types of palm trees grow; in the lower - terminalia, mimosa, bamboo.

Teak forests are intensively cut down. On the plains, they are almost completely reduced and, as a result of repeated burning, they are replaced by shrubs and grass communities, which are difficult to distinguish from natural savannahs. Teak can regenerate under the shade of bamboo. The Deccan Plateau is characterized by multi-stemmed banyans , whose crowns reach 200–500 m in circumference.

Animal world diverse: some monkeys (including gibbon), three species of bear, panda, several species of deer, buffalo, wild bull, elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, peacocks, banker chickens, pheasants, hornbills, weavers, nectaries, etc.