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Lexical groups in terms of origin. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of origin. Studying at school

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively recently.
Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

1. New words were created from word-forming elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.

2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.

Vocabulary in terms of its use.

Common vocabulary- this is the common vocabulary of all Russian speakers. These words are used in any style of speech.

Limited vocabulary- words, the use of which is limited in accordance with the territorial and social division of the national language.

Dialectisms are expressions or modes of speech used by people in a particular locality. Differ phonetic, grammatical, derivational, lexical dialectisms.

Phonetic dialectisms are characterized by certain sound features, reflect the features of the sound system of speech.

Grammar And derivational dialectisms reflect the features of form formation and word formation.

Lexical dialectisms- these are words that are dialectal not in some part (sound, suffix), but in general. Lexical dialectisms are divided into proper lexical, ethnographic, semantic.

Proper lexical dialectisms are local names of nationwide concepts, phenomena, objects. These words, being non-literary, have synonyms in the literary language.

Ethnographic dialectisms- words that name objects, phenomena that are not included in public use. These words reflect the peculiarities of local life, the specifics of the work of people living in a certain territory.

Semantic dialectisms are local meanings of common words. In relation to them, the words of the literary language act as homonyms.

Special vocabulary- these are words and expressions that are used in special areas of human activity. Special vocabulary is divided into 2 groups: terms And professionalism.

Term(from lat. terminus - border, limit) - a word or phrase that is the exact name of any concept used in science, technology or art. Professionalism- a semi-official word, common (more often in colloquial speech) among people of one or another professional group and not being a strict, scientific designation of concepts.

11 Active and passive vocabulary. Russian proverbs and sayings. Phraseologisms. Aphorisms

Active vocabulary

The active stock includes familiar, everyday words that do not have a shade of obsolescence or novelty.

Passive vocabulary

Passive stock includes obsolete words and neologisms. Obsolete are divided into historicisms and archaisms.

historicisms- words naming non-occurring objects, phenomena, beings.

Example: Tsar, verst, gusli, hussar.

Archaisms- words that are obsolete names of objects, phenomena, creatures that still exist.

Example: Usta-mouth, very green.

Neologisms- Words that appear in the language to designate new, previously non-existing concepts, phenomena, objects. They remain new as long as the speaker feels his novelty, unusualness.

"Proverb" and "Proverb"- this is figuratively and briefly expressed folk wisdom.
For example: "To be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest", "What cover, such is autumn", "There is no truth at the feet."

If we open a brief dictionary of literary terms, we will find that "by saying" called one of the types of folk oral art, an expression that defines one of the phenomena of life.
"Proverb" It is also a short saying about various life situations, as well as one of the types of oral folk art.

Examples of proverbs:

· "Your shirt is closer to your body"

· "Tears of sorrow will not help"

Saying examples:

· "Found a scythe on a stone"

· "Gruzdev called himself get in the body"

Phraseologism- this is a combination of two or more words that is stable in composition and structure and holistic in meaning.

Types of phraseological units

There are several types of phraseological units: phraseological unions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations.

Phraseological fusion (idiom)- this is a stable turnover, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words.

Example:after the rain on Thursday- Never or not sure when. If you do not know what this phraseological unit means, it is almost impossible to guess its meaning.

Phraseological unity- this is a stable turnover, the meaning of which can be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words. Phraseological unity is characterized by figurativeness: all words of such a turn, united, acquire a figurative meaning.

Example : go with the flow - obey the circumstances, do not take active actions.

Phraseological combination- a turn in which there are words both with a free meaning and with a phraseologically related meaning. The meaning of a phraseological combination can be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words.

As a rule, one of the words in the phraseological combination is permanent, and the rest of the words can be replaced.

Example: For example, you can say glow with joy, glow with happiness, glow with love. These are all phrases.

Phraseological features:

  • Contains at least two words.
  • Has a stable composition.
  • Is not a title.

Aphorism- an original complete thought, uttered and written down in a concise, memorable textual form and subsequently repeatedly reproduced by other people.

Examples: "Everyone hears only what he understands";
"Knowledge is power"

Seven times - try it, and it's no use.

12. Phonetics. The sound of speech. Open and closed syllable. Phonetic analysis of the word. The emphasis is verbal and logical. The role of stress in poetry.

phonetics is the science of sound.

Example:Skiing- skiing- 4 b., 4 stars.

Speech sounds are the smallest sound units from which words are formed. We hear and pronounce sounds.

Sounds as material signs of language - perform two functions:

but) perceptual - the function of bringing speech to perception

b) significative - the function of distinguishing between significant units of the language of morphemes and words.

They can be described in three aspects:

Ø with acoustic(physical) aspect, in which sound is considered as oscillatory movements of the air environment caused by the organs of speech;

Ø with articulatory(physiological) aspect in which the sound acts as a product of the work of the human pronunciation organs (articulatory apparatus);

Ø from the functional (semantic) side(linguistic) aspect, where the sound is considered as one of the possible options for the implementation of the phoneme (sound type) in the process of functioning, performing a meaningful and constructive function.

Words are divided into syllables. Syllable- this is one sound or several sounds pronounced by one expiratory push of air

. Syllables are open and closed.

· open syllable ends in a vowel sound.

Yes, country.

· Closed syllable ends in a consonant.

Sleep, liner.

· There are more open syllables in Russian. Closed syllables are usually seen at the end of a word.

Wed: night-timer(the first syllable is open, the second is closed), oh-bo-doc(the first two syllables are open, the third is closed).

· In the middle of a word, a syllable usually ends in a vowel, and a consonant or a group of consonants after a vowel usually goes to the next syllable!

Night-timer, tell me, announcer.

In the middle of a word, closed syllables can form only unpaired voiced consonants: [j], [p], [p '], [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n ' ]. (example)Math -ka, Sony -ka, co-lom -ka.

Phonetic parsing- this is a characteristic of the structure of syllables and the composition of a word from sounds.

Phonetic analysis of the word is carried out according to the following plan:

1. Write the word spelling correctly.

2. Divide the word into syllables and find the place of stress.

3. Note the possibility of transferring words by syllables.

4. Phonetic transcription of the word.

5. In order to characterize all the sounds: a. consonant - voiced - deaf (paired or unpaired), hard or soft, what letter it is designated by; b. vowel: stressed or unstressed.

7. Mark cases when the sound does not match the letter.

Phonetic analysis of the word carrot:

1. Carrot

2.Mor-kov (stress falls on the second syllable, 2 syllables).

3. Transfer: carrot

4. [markoff"]

5.M - [m] - consonant, solid, voiced and unpaired.

O - [a] - vowel and unstressed.

Р - [р] - consonant, solid, voiced and unpaired.

K - [k] - consonant, solid, deaf and double.

Oh - [o] - vowel and stress.

V - [f "] - consonant, soft, deaf and double.

6. There are 7 letters and 6 sounds in a word.

7.o - a, c - a dull sound f, b softens c.

Accetology- the science that studies word stress.

stressed is called the selection of a group of words, a single word or a syllable in a word.

this is the selection of a word or group of words that are important in terms of meaning in a given phrase. For example, in A. Akhmatova's poem "Courage" (1942), the lines We know what is now on the scales And what is happening now ... pronounced with logical stress on allied words - pronouns what, which must necessarily be highlighted by the power of the voice, since it is they who determine the content of this entire phrase. is the emphasis of a syllable in a word. If the word consists of two or more syllables, then one of them is pronounced with greater force, with greater duration and more distinctly. A syllable that is pronounced with greater force and duration is called a stressed syllable. The vowel sound of a stressed syllable is called a stressed vowel. The remaining syllables (and vowels) in the word are unstressed. The stress mark "́" is placed above the vowel of the stressed syllable: wall, field.

13 Morphemics. The concept of a morpheme as a meaningful part of a word. Morphemic analysis of the word. Word formation. Ways of word formation.

Morphemics is the significant part of the word. (prefix, root, suffix, ending, stem)

Root- this is a significant part of the word, which contains the lexical meaning of all words with the same root. There are no words without a root, but there are complex words with several words. (Power plant-root1 (electro), root1 (station))

To find the root in a word you need to pick up words with the same root and highlight the same part in them.

Example: Water, water, water, water supply. All these words have a root - water -.

Prefix is a significant part of the word, which serves to form new words. There may or may not be prefixes in a word, and there may be several.

Example: Great-great-grandmother - two prefixes - great-.

Example: Grandma - there is no prefix.

Some consoles give the word additional lexical meanings.

Sufix - this is a significant part that serves to form new words and comes after the root sign.

Example: House-house (suffix –ik-)

Some suffixes give the word an additional lexical connotation.

Ending- this is a significant part of the word, which is located at the end of the changed parts of speech and serves to form the grammatical forms of the word.

Example: grandmothers (ending -i-), great-great-grandmother (ending -a-).

The foundation- it is a part of a word without an ending and an interfix. In order to highlight the stem in a word, it is necessary to change the grammatical form in order to determine the ending. The stem can be interrupted, for example, in reflexive verbs.

Example: Pedestrian

Highlight the base necessary to determine the way the word is formed.

Example: Winter (ending -a-, root -winter-, base -winter-) -winter (ending -iy -, suffix -n-, root -winter-, base -winter-).

Postfix- this is a significant part of the word, formed by the reflexive form of verbs, participles, gerunds and is located at the end of the word (after the end).

Example: The verb is to learn, the participle is a student, the participle is learning.

Interfix (connective verbs) - this is a significant part of compound words, which serves to form new words by narrowing the wasps.

Example:

Order of morpheme parsing

1. Determine the part of speech.

2. Find the ending for the changed parts of speech. To do this, change the form of the word.

3. Find words. Choose at least 2 single-root words.

4. Prefix.

5. Suffix.

6. Ending.

7. The foundation.

Example: Premonition.

Noun

Word formation- This is a branch of the science of language that studies the ways in which new words are formed.

1. Attached-

Example:

2. Suffixal- it is a way of forming a new word by adding a prefix to the original one.

Example: House - houses. Cat is a cat.

3. Attachment-suffix- it is a way of forming new words by adding a suffix.

If we consider vocabulary from the point of view of the breadth of its use, then we can distinguish two unequal layers. The first of them is made up of nationwide lexical units, the second includes units associated in their use with a certain territory or social environment.

Vocabulary units used by all layers of native speakers of the Russian language belong to the national vocabulary. Without them, the national language simply could not take place. They are not only commonly used, but in most cases the most common, although according to the frequency of use, as already mentioned, they are divided into active and passive. Common words can be used in all functional styles, have the most varied stylistic coloring, and contain any emotional assessment, but still, their bulk is made up of neutral lexical units. Here are examples of popular words, moreover, related to the most common: new, most, human, people, first, hand, a life, necessary, very, day, to want, see, now, here, must, Job, think, eye, the country, Earth, peace, light, go, our, strength, people, a place, give, to stand, water, question.

In terms of the breadth of use, national words are opposed primarily to dialect words. A dialect is a variety of a national language that has a national basis and at the same time some phonetic, lexical and grammatical features and is used by some of the native speakers living in a certain territory or forming a certain social group. Dialects are divided into territorial and social, and by tradition the former are usually called dialects (without adding the definition of territorial), and the latter - jargons. In domestic literature, the term dialect often used as a synonym for the terms adverb And dialect The fact is that the dialectal division of the Russian language is quite complex and it is precisely the latter terms that are used in its description, which more accurately convey the picture of the territorial differentiation of dialects. According to the modern view, the main units of the territorial division of the Russian language are the North Great Russian and South Great Russian dialects, between which they include several groups of dialects - the minimum units of dialect division of the language.

Most of the linguistic features of dialects of any level are nationwide, i.e. has a public basis. However, to one degree or another, they also have local features - phonetic, grammatical and lexical. Here is an example of a ditty recorded on the territory of the Pskov region:

Tsainik change, fragrant tsai,

Boiling vada.

Who mavo loving the flower,

Tamu is a badass.

Here you can notice, first of all, the features of local pronunciation: yakanye - pronunciation in the 1st pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants [ʌ] in place of [ uh] (flower, byada); clatter - pronunciation [ c] in place of [ h] (tsainik, cai, boiled, cystaya); grammatical features: reduced form 3 l. units h. verb ( falling in love instead of love); lexical - word flower in meaning beloved. Such words, the use of which is limited to a certain territory, characteristic of a certain dialect, are called dialectisms. Composite names may include: running horse, flying squirrel, brother and sister, marsh vanka(the last two are plant names).

Lexical dialectisms are inherent in the Russian language from time immemorial due to the complex paths of its development, the foreign-language environment of the Russian population, spread over a vast territory, individual regions of which, due to the feudal fragmentation of Ancient Russia, were weakly interconnected. For example, a study of the Pskov Chronicle revealed three groups of lexical dialectisms according to the breadth of their distribution:

  • 1) Pskovisms: zavoroniti- close, kill- scold goitre- unit, Lavitsa- street, district, nonma- now, stump- county, crossbar- contradiction rub- disturb, disturb chhota- dirty trick, Sherupa- shell;
  • 2) Pskov-Novgorod (northwestern): buoy, buoy- tract, lip- county, stir up- fence off be sealed- lock up nobility- sign, knowby- containing an omen and garden- fishing village, fishing ground, accumulate, accumulate- get together ottuga- relief, twist- equip, curl up- equip, half-summer- mid summer, cattail- argument, cut, chop, cut yourself, gardener- household plot, wedding girls- wedding time quarter- measure of loose bodies;
  • 3) northwestern, western and southern: moisture- close to midnight work out- promise take away- to fence graze- be afraid brotherhood- property.

These data, gleaned from just one written source, testify to the complexity of the genesis of the vocabulary of Old Russian dialects, the relatively large number of local words in them, and the varying degree of distribution of the latter in neighboring and non-neighboring groups of dialects.

In the XIX-XX centuries. through the efforts of numerous researchers of Russian folk dialects, a huge number (hundreds of thousands) of lexical dialectisms has been collected. Already in the middle of the XIX century. the fundamental collections of local words were published: "The Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary" (1852), "Additions" to it (1858) and "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dahl (1863-1866).

The materials collected by generations of scientists have made it possible to draw interesting conclusions about the types, form, structure, composition, distribution and use of lexical dialectisms.

According to their type, first of all, dictionary dialectisms proper are distinguished, which, taking into account their morphemic composition and phonemic differences, are divided into the following subgroups:

■ words whose roots are absent in the literary language: barkan- carrot, clan- piece of log onki- corridor, zen- floor, punya- barn, pyatry- flooring, locker- porch, ray- sheep, gantai- lace, chuni- bast shoes from ropes, ferezi- skirt;

■ words that have a common root with literary words, but differ in affixes and meaning: kubach- sheaf of straw scree- grain waste, wound- land plowed in spring for winter crops, harrow- a horse in its second year, gray hair- mother hen, zalobok- pediment;

■ words that have common roots, the same meanings as literary synonyms, but different affixes: out of town- fence, Valenets- boots, month- month, zhikhar- a citizen, kid- boy, buy- buy, hesitate- doubt, hurts- painfully, vidko- it is seen, long time ago- recently;

■ words that have differences in sound design compared to literary synonyms, and these differences are not associated with systemic violations of orthoepic norms such as elm, vyadu; cai, tsainik, affecting almost endless rows of words in which there are corresponding positional or historical alternations. We are talking about the differences that have arisen as a result of the action of various phonetic processes, which are reflected in the external appearance of words, but only single ones. For example, under the influence of the falling away or addition of initial vowels and consonants, words such as cucumber, garden; linen, Tuesday, and dialectisms appeared cucumber, garot; alpine, author. Due to the rearrangement of sounds in words brownie, unless appeared fashionable at equally. As a result of development on the site of the ancient [ b] sound [" uh], but not [ And] in the word whirlwind arose vehor. dialect words sing- five, daydream- dirt, pedigree- nephew differ from the corresponding literary by one phoneme, etc. Such a process of changing the sound image of a word under the influence of any phonetic phenomena not related to the violation of orthoepic norms is called lexicalization. Lexicalization refers to irregular phonetic phenomena.

In addition to dictionary dialectisms, semantic ones are also distinguished - common words that have acquired a special meaning in dialects. For example: grandmother- type of mop, wing- blade in the plow, ceiling- attic, mushrooms- lips, coward- rabbit, cockerel - butter mushroom, team- part of the working day simple- open, plow- sweep, yell- plow suffer- laugh, have fun.

Another type of dialectisms is phraseological. For example: Aldyr to drink, slurp- greedily, in big sips; androns are coming, go- about something absurd, about a fable; give a blemba- hit hard on the ear; faded grass is the generic name of a cruciferous plant.

Thematically dialect words are very diverse.

So, the dialectisms most commonly used in modern Pskov dialects can be divided into the following groups:

  • - names associated with field cultivation: arzhanishche- field after harvest, baburka- sheaf, Rob- rake (about hay), zhito- barley, kilosa- type of mop, roe- plow, clothing- stack, scree- grain waste, pely- chaff, redel- device for drying clover;
  • - names related to cattle breeding and poultry farming: harrow-horse in the second year, killun- boar, deposit- wether, longshina- one-year-old horse, petun- rooster, porosis- ram-producer, gray hair- mother hen, today- perch, yarushka- not lambing sheep;
  • - names associated with horticulture: barkan- carrot, bulba- potato, vedille- tops, Kalika- swede, mint- potato tops, shamok- a weak head of cabbage;
  • - terms of fishing: flyby- baubles, sacristy- type of fishing tackle, sikusha- a device for catching fish under the ice, teneto- net for fishing;
  • - terms of various crafts: gimlet- drill, matter- roll boots, fight- comb, brush for combing flax, karzat- comb flax karzy- a device for combing flax, kevetsa- a shuttle in a loom, slander- a hammer for breaking millstones, kuzhel- flax prepared for yarn, tesla- an ax for gouging gutters, accurately- canvas;
  • - names of buildings and their parts: baburka- a place in a Russian stove where ash is raked, fence- partition, obstruction- an embankment around a residential building for its insulation, backyard- an extension to the barn, zalobok- pediment spotted- close, zen- floor, istyopka- basement, rabbit- roof, oblipok- windowsill, onki- corridor;
  • - names of clothes and shoes: Valenets- boots, chickenpox- jacket, blouse, gantai- lace, damper- belt, gunka- diaper, donitsa- mitten, underneath- mitten, Kamashi- boots, wire rod- boots, fender- skirt, poultice- stockings without heels, solpa- pant, ferezi- women's dress, skirt;
  • - names of dishes: gorlan- jug, swotting- trough, fermenter- a barrel of kvass, loin- bucket, patchwork- a bowl, ant- clay cup, ryashka- tub, shabayka- bath ladle;
  • - names of foodstuffs: broads- flour products, barkannik- carrot cake drachena- casserole, rubbish- lean meat cocora- cake, full- sweetened water;
  • - names of household utensils: Bobka- toy, gilyok- wash basin, stick- poker, stove-maker- pan, bed-clothes- sheet, bubble- lamp glass seryanka- match, sharok- bell;
  • - vehicle names: firewood- sled, pebbles- a special device raft, boat, lemega- cart, back- double sled with a back, rogulya- two-wheeled cart;
  • - names of natural phenomena: swamp- cloud, cloud vir- pool, one hundred- sand from fine-grained granite, sweet clover- settled ice layer, hall- dawn, dawn, qipun- spring, twisting- ravine, frog- young shrub, forest, omshara- mossy swamp padara- storm, Khalipa- rain with snow;
  • - names of wild plants: blitz- mushroom, nonsense- small willow shrub, veres- juniper, ironing- cloudberry, gonobol- blueberry, crane- cranberry, kiselka- sorrel milkman- dandelion, companion- plantain, rubbish- club moss;
  • - names of animals, birds, fishes: veksha- squirrel, dergach- crake, ca-leaf- stork, koshnyak-Martin, less- burbot, pekel- butterfly, siklakh- ant, rubble-bream, yurlak- male pike;
  • - nicknames, nicknames: big woman- mistress of the house drolya- boyfriend, obloed- glutton, beggar- beggar, twinned- lover, posak- mischievous, hooligan, sister- mistress, priyatka- beloved, -th, tovarka- girlfriend;
  • - names of signs, qualities: good- bad, gayany- confused hookah- hard, rough kutny- root (about the tooth), Lena- lazy, simple- open, rachmanny- quiet, meek slimy- slippery clean- sober;
  • - names of actions and states: bait- talk, glare- go around doing nothing trust- tear up dream- foul, turn up- get used to, get lost- spoil;
  • - names of signs of action, qualities: vgul- loud, garage- stronger, long time ago- recently, oak- standing upright hefty- very, explicitly- dark, hot nagdys- recently;
  • - words expressing relationships between concepts: Vesta- maybe, gly- about, place- instead of, pocul- till, potul- until, between- between, etc.

These groups of words and names do not exhaust the local vocabulary actively used by the rural population of the Pskov region. This is only a small fraction of the vocabulary of Pskov dialects, recorded in the 2nd half of the 19th century. But the material presented also shows that dialectisms are mainly names associated with agricultural production, the surrounding nature and peasant life, meaning objects and phenomena, signs and processes that play the most significant role in the life of the local population.

Of course, in the speech of speakers of folk dialects there are quite a lot of lexical dialectisms, and not only among the elderly, but also among young people, even schoolchildren. The very conditions of rural life, the peculiarities of rural work and life predetermine the often excessive use of dialectisms in the speech of the villagers. And yet, future school teachers and other intellectuals working in the countryside should, if possible, refrain from using local words themselves, and warn, at least the youth, against their use, especially when there are literary words with the same meaning.

Literature is another matter. There is no writer who tells about the village who would not use lexical dialectisms to characterize his rural heroes or to describe the features of their work and life. From the classics of the XIX century. these are I. Turgenev, N. Nekrasov, L. Tolstoy, from the writers of the 20th century. - I. Bunin, S. Yesenin, M. Sholokhov, F. Abramov, V. Soloukhin, V. Shukshin and many others, whose works, if they were to discard folk words and expressions, would lose to a large extent the flavor of national identity. So, in S. Yesenin's poem, to sketch a picture of a fading day in central Russia, dialectisms are used among the means of artistic representation:

Black, then smelly howl

How can I not caress you, not love you!

I'll go out to the lake in blue walk,

Evening grace pours to the heart.

Gray rope huts are standing

The reeds squelch dully.

Red carpet bloody tagans,

In the brushwood are the white eyelids of the moon.

Quietly, squatting, in the patches of dawn

They listen to the tale of the old mower.

Somewhere far away, kukane rivers

A sleepy song is sung by the fishermen.

The word glows puddle naked...

Sad song, you are Russian pain.

In the "Dictionary of Russian folk dialects" you can find that in the Ryazan region rope means an elevated dry place in a lowland: among swamps and damp places in a forest, on a river bank, etc.; howl-share, plot of land, especially when dividing fields and meadows; walk- part of the water area of ​​the river adjacent to the mill; kukan- a small island; puddle- meadow. Trivet in Dahl's Dictionary it is noted in the meaning of "a round or long iron hoop with legs, under which a fire is made, putting a brew on it."

Lexical dialectisms have always served as a source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language, being, as it were, internal borrowings in comparison with external borrowings from foreign languages. By dialect in origin belong, for example, the words: beam, headwaters, vobla, plowing, doha, strawberries, Strawberry, foliage, importunate, roadside, Spider, plowman, fishing, taiga, ushanka and etc.

The largest dialect dictionary of the Russian language is the "Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects", the development of which began on the project of Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences F. P. Filin in the 1960s; since 1982, the work has been continued under the guidance of Professor F. P. Sorokoletov. To date, 35 issues have been published (letters A - F). As indicated in the "Inversion Index to the Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects" of 2000 (compiled by F. P. Sorokoletov and R. V. Odekov; edited by F. Gledny), about 240,000 words were included in the dictionary. For comparison, we note that the largest dictionary containing dialect vocabulary has so far been V. I. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, containing approximately 200,000 words. However, this dictionary is not purely dialectal, because it also includes common folk, literary vocabulary.

§ 10 . RUSSIAN VOCABULARY FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE SPHERE OF ITS USE

The main part of the vocabulary of the Russian language is commonly used words, not limited to the scope of use. They are used in all styles, create a national identity, the originality of the language. Such vocabulary is understandable to all speakers of Russian: earth, sky, mother, father, brother, daughter, red, white, blue, long, me, you, he, she, talk, walk, write, breathe, watch.

TO words restricted in use, applies dialect vocabulary, slang and slang, special.

Dialect vocabulary – These are words whose use is territorially limited. It is mainly spoken by villagers - representatives of Russian folk dialects: hush up - a blizzard, tues - a vessel made of birch bark, greenery - shoots of rye, on the side - on the side.

Slang and slang vocabulary- these are words that are used by certain social groups of people due to their social status, the specifics of the environment. Terms jargon, slang, slang sometimes used as full synonyms, but more often they are distinguished.

Jargon ( French jargon) – it is a kind of speech of a group of people united by a profession(jargon of pilots, sailors, programmers),common interests, activities (sports jargon, philatelists), age(youth jargon). It is youth jargon that is often called slang(from English. slang). The main thing in this linguistic phenomenon is a game, a departure from everyday life. So, uninhibited, laid-back youth jargon seeks to get away from the boring world of adults. Adults say: Good! Young people: Cool! Great! awesome! Adults: It's too hard! Young people : Don't load me! Jargon is also a signal that distinguishes between "one's own" and "alien".

Argo(from the French argot- closed, indivisible) - conditional words and expressions used by declassed groups. For example: a pen is a knife, an urka is a thief, to split is to betray. Thus, slang is a means of conspiracy, hiding the subject of speech.

Part of the slang and slang vocabulary belongs to not one, but several social groups. Moving from one group to another, such words can change their form and meaning: darken in argo - "hide booty" Then - "cunning during interrogation", in modern youth jargon - "talk unclear", "dodge the answer". The vocabulary of jargon is replenished due to borrowings from other languages ​​and dialects (from English, for example, - shoes "shoes", bag "bag"; from German - kopf "head", from dialects - hut "apartment"), by rethinking commonly used words ( wheelbarrow - "machine", ancestors - "parents"), creation of words according to the word-formation models available in the language from native and foreign language forms ( basketball - “basketball”, video recorder - “video recorder”).

Jargon and slang are one of the most mobile parts of the vocabulary: jargon and slang are quickly replaced by new ones. No one remembers the ratings today: Iron! -"Okay", Millet!- "poorly". Tugriks and rupees 50s of the twentieth century replaced in the 70s mani, and in 80-90 - money. Slang and slang vocabulary usually penetrates the literary language through vernacular and the language of fiction. However, among the linguistic changes of the last decades, researchers note the intensive penetration into all genres of jargon, stylistically reduced and coarse vocabulary, which is associated with the intensive democratization of public life, and, consequently, the language, with the abolition of censorship. Words like: lawlessness, crap, disassembly, download rights, hang noodles. Many of these words are no longer perceived as lowered, they have become commonly used.

Special vocabulary – these are words whose use is limited to special areas of human activity: science, technology, art, manufacturing, agriculture, medicine. For example: gamma, nocturne(music), compass, pilot(maritime), hypertension, anesthesia(honey.). Such words are used mainly by people of the same profession, and therefore they are usually called professionalism. Special vocabulary also includes terms - words that are used to logically accurately define special concepts: morph, phoneme(lingu.), hypotenuse, chord(math.), dialysis ( chemical). Terms are the most regulated part of the vocabulary. Since science is largely international, terms are created on purpose, their exact content and place in the system of certain designations are agreed upon. However, terms are also words, therefore they resist regulation, lose their narrowly specialized character - they become determinologized and become commonly used: BUT argument 1. An independent variable, on the change of which the change of another quantity depends (Math.) 2. argument, proof; concept 1. A logically formulated general thought about an object, an idea of ​​something (scientific) 2. Representation, information about something . Sum 1. Total, the result of addition (math.) 2. The total amount of something Horizon 1. The visible boundary of the sky and the earth or water surface, as well as the space of the sky above this surface (geographic) 2. Circle of knowledge, ideas.

LECTURE 10. RUSSIAN VOCABULARY AND ITS DESCRIPTION

Study questions:

    Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its origin.

    Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of its active and passive stock.

    Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of the scope of its use.

    Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of its stylistic differentiation.

1. Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of its origin. The vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language has been formed over many centuries, and the main source of its replenishment has always been its own resources - native Russian words, of which there are more than 90% in the vocabulary of the SRL. From the point of view of the formation of native Russian vocabulary, several historical layers can be found in it:

    The words of the common Indo-European fund (the most ancient layer) are those words that passed from the common Indo-European language to Proto-Slavic, from Proto-Slavic to Old Russian, and from Old Russian to Russian in its modern sense - terms of kinship, names of animals, trees, substances, minerals, natural phenomena (mother, brother, daughter, sheep, bull, willow, meat, bone, command, see, barefoot, decrepit);

    The words of the Proto-Slavic (common Slavic) language (until the 6th century AD) are words now known to all Slavic peoples (oak, pine, pea, branch, violent, forge);

    Words of the Old Russian language (common Eastern Slavic) (from the 6th to the 14th-15th centuries AD) (uncle, nephew, blond, selfless, while away);

    Words of the modern Russian language (after 14-15 centuries AD)

In the formation and development of the Russian literary language, an important role was played by Old Church Slavonic - the language of Slavic translations of Greek books, translations made by Cyril and Methodius and their students in the 2nd half of the 9th century.

Old Church Slavonicisms have their signs:

1) phonetic:

    dissonant combinations ra, la, re, le (in relation to the Russian full-tone oro, olo, ere);

    initial combinations of ra, la (with Russian ro, lo);

    consonant u (usually alternating with st) (with Russian h);

    initial e with Russian o (esen);

    sound e under stress before hard consonants in Russian e (o);

    a combination of railway in the root (with Russian railway);

2) derivational:

    prefixes: pre-, through- (with Russian re-, through);

    suffixes: -action, -s, -zn, -yn (ya), -tv (a), -esn (th);

    parts of compound words: good (o) -, good (o) -, victims (o) -, evil (o) -;

3) morphological:

    superlative suffixes -eysh-, -aysh-;

    participial suffixes -ash- (-yash-), -usch- (-yusch-)

(with Russians -ach- (-yach-), --uch- (-yuch-)).

The fate of Old Church Slavonicisms in the Russian language developed in different ways: in some cases they completely replaced the original Russian words, while in others Old Slavonicisms are used along with Russian words.

With direct contact between peoples, borrowing took place orally. It was these ways that words from the Scandinavian, Finnish and Turkic languages ​​​​came into the Russian language. In writing, words were borrowed from the Latin language. Grecisms were borrowed both orally and in writing.

The earliest borrowings go back to the Scandinavian (Swedish and Norwegian) languages, to Finnish, Turkic, etc.

In the 11th-17th centuries from Turkic languages the names of household items, clothes, fabrics, animals, plants, words related to military affairs, trade, etc. are borrowed. These include such as a shoe, chest, ataman, infidel, etc.

Greek words (borrowed at the end of the 10th century) through liturgical books: the altar, the bible.

Latinisms (borrowed in the 15th-17th centuries through the Polish and Ukrainian languages ​​after the adoption of Christianity by Russia). Currently widely used in international terminology (quorum, colloquium, accommodation).

Borrowings from Western European languages

Germanic languages ​​Romance languages

German Goll. English Fr. It. Use

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

    The emergence of this layer of vocabulary is associated with the reforms of Peter I (bridgehead, soldier);

    The emergence of this layer of vocabulary is associated with the development of maritime affairs under Peter I (shipyard, pilot, flag, fleet);

    The emergence of this layer of vocabulary is associated with the development of shipbuilding under Peter I (barge, brig, schooner, midshipman);

    These words have final stressed vowels in invariable nouns, combinations -ue-, -ua- in the middle of the word, final -azha, etc. (luggage, stained-glass window, blinds, muffler);

    First of all, art history terms (aria, bravo, solfeggio) passed from Italian into Russian;

    There are few words in Russian that have passed from Spanish (corrida, torero, guitar, castanets).

The words that have passed into the Russian language differ in the degree of development:

    Words that have firmly entered the lexical system of the Russian language and are perceived as originally belonging to it;

    Exoticisms - words that are felt by the borrowing language as foreign and for the most part untranslatable (spaghetti, sir, blinds);

    Barbarisms are foreign words. not fully mastered by the borrowing language, most often due to the difficulties of grammatical development.

Tracing paper - a word built on the model of the corresponding foreign word by transferring its constituent parts with the help of Russian word-building elements (spelling and spelling).

Word-building tracing paper - words that borrowed from their foreign language equivalents the semantics of certain word-forming parts.

Semantic calques - words that have borrowed from their foreign language equivalents one of the lexical meanings - usually figurative (nail, touch).

Half-calki - words consisting of borrowed and original elements, but according to the word-formation structure corresponding to the foreign word-prototype (humanity, radio broadcast, television).

2. Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of its active and passive stock. The central part of the vocabulary is made up of words that are relevant for modern speakers of a particular language. These include, first of all, common vocabulary. Such words define the composition active vocabulary of the language .

However, active vocabulary includes not only commonly used words: it also includes special terms and professionalisms that are limited in their use, book words, emotionally expressive vocabulary, etc. The words of the active vocabulary have neither a shade of obsolete nor a shade of novelty.

Passive vocabulary is a part of the vocabulary, which includes words that are rarely used in everyday communication and are not always clear to native speakers. They either ceased to be relevant, necessary in the process of communication, became outdated (obsolete words), or vice versa, appeared relatively recently and have not yet become familiar, relevant, have not finally come into common use (neologisms).

Obsolete - words that have gone out of active use, but have been preserved in passive vocabulary. They are divided into two groups: historicisms (words that have fallen into disuse due to the fact that the objects or phenomena they designate have gone out of life) and archaisms (obsolete names of modern objects, phenomena, replaced by synonyms from the composition of the active vocabulary).

Types of archaisms : phonetic, accentological, morphological, derivational, lexical proper, semantic.

Neologisms - new words created to designate new objects, phenomena, to express new concepts. At the moment of their appearance, they enter the passive vocabulary and remain neologisms until now, until they lose their shade of novelty and freshness. Then they become common and enter the active vocabulary, ceasing to be neologisms.

Lexical neologisms are newly created and borrowed words.

Semantic neologisms - words that have acquired new meanings in a certain historical period.

Occasionalisms - words formed "in case" and used once. They are also called individual-author's neologisms, created with some kind of violation, deviation from the word-formation norm.

Potential - words created according to the laws of systemic word formation and opposed to real words. Occasional words are opposed to the usual ones accepted in a given society.

3. Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of the scope of its use. In the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, from the point of view of its use, two main layers are distinguished: common words and words limited in their use (functioning) by the dialect and social environment.

Common vocabulary - this is a common vocabulary for all speakers of Russian. It is a necessary material for the expression of concepts, thoughts and feelings. The bulk of these words are stable and common in all styles of the language.

Dialect vocabulary is characterized by limited use. It is not included in the lexical system of the national language. This or that dialect word belongs to one or several dialects of the national language.

Dialect - a variety of a language that functions in a certain territory and is characterized by specific dialect features (in addition to the features inherent in the whole language).

Dialect vocabulary - these are words characteristic of any one dialect / several dialects. By the nature of the differences in the dialect vocabulary, opposed and non-opposed words are distinguished (words that exist in some dialects and are not used in others due to the lack of corresponding objects, concepts, etc.).

Terminology - a set of special words (terms) of various fields of science and technology, functioning in the field of professional communication.

Term is a word or phrase that is the name of a scientific or technical concept.

Term functions : 1) nominative (nominative); 2) definitive (determinative).

Methods of term formation :

    Semantic: metaphorical transfer of the meanings of ordinary words to name special concepts - in this case, one of the meanings of a polysemantic word is terminologized;

    Morphological: methods of suffixation, prefixation, suffix-prefix, addition, abbreviation;

    Syntactic: the formation of terms-phrases, which can consist of two, three or more words.

Nomenclature - this is a set of special terms-names used in a given scientific field, the names of typical objects of a given science (as opposed to terminology, which includes the designations of abstract concepts and categories).

Professionalisms - words or expressions characteristic of the speech of the team, united by any profession.

Jargon - words or expressions characteristic of the speech of a social or other group of people, united by a commonality of interests, occupations. Jargonisms are devoid of structural and linguistic initiative and differ from common vocabulary primarily in vocabulary and phraseology.

Argotic vocabulary - this is the vocabulary of groups of people who want to make their language "secret", incomprehensible to others. The main purpose of slang is to classify the content of speech, the desire to use specially invented or artificially deformed words that are completely incomprehensible to others. This "language" served as one of the ways to protect professional interests or a means of self-defense in the conditions of a wandering life, for example, among itinerant artisans and merchants, impoverished musicians. Argotic vocabulary also includes words from the speech usage of declassed groups (thieves, vagabonds, card cheats).

4. Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of its stylistic differentiation. The language exists as a system of styles, i.e. its functional varieties, each of which is characterized by a certain choice and use of language means corresponding to a particular area of ​​communication.

In the style of the Russian language, the following functional styles are usually distinguished: journalistic, official business, scientific and colloquial everyday.

The vocabulary is divided into interstyle (neutral usage in all styles) and stylistically painted (peculiar to the use of a well-defined style and not capable, due to its attachment to it, to be used in another).

The starting point in the stylistic differentiation of the vocabulary is neutral vocabulary , which is the main array of words, against which other lexical units are perceived as stylistically colored, fixed in their use for a certain style, one or another functional type of written or oral speech.

Written vocabulary bears a pronounced imprint of bookishness and belongs exclusively or predominantly to written speech.

High vocabulary used in the field of journalism and public speaking. It is an integral part of the expressive means of fiction, where it implements special aesthetic functions. Such words are characterized by evaluative meaning, which explains their expressive effect.

Official business vocabulary - is a characteristic affiliation of the language of official documents and clerical and administrative speech. Official business vocabulary is limited to a certain area of ​​communication and usually does not go beyond it.

Vocabulary is stylistically marked. It is not used in special forms of written speech and has a colloquial flavor.

colloquial vocabulary - these are words that are used in informal, relaxed communication. Being a stylistically colored layer of vocabulary, colloquial vocabulary does not go beyond the vocabulary of the literary language.

colloquial vocabulary - stylistically reduced words, which, unlike colloquial vocabulary, are outside the strictly standardized literary language.

Colloquial and colloquial vocabulary serve as an important constructive element in the organization of colloquial and everyday style.

Common vocabulary includes words that, as a rule, are used in various styles of speech by all speakers of a given language, are well known: day, go, two, write, he, person, etc.

Common vocabulary is used in various spheres of human activity and creates a national identity, flavor of the language.

Special, dialect, slang vocabulary has a limited scope of use, while dialect and slang vocabulary is outside the Russian literary language.

Special vocabulary - words used mainly by people of a certain profession, specialty. Among special words, terms and professionalisms stand out.

Terms are words that are officially accepted names of any concepts in science, art, technology, agriculture, etc. The system of terms for a certain area of ​​human activity is called terminology.

Professionalisms are semi-official names for the concepts of any profession. They are distributed mainly in oral speech and are reflected in dictionaries with pom. specialist.

Special vocabulary is used in all styles of speech, but with varying degrees of intensity.

Dialect vocabulary is words that are used mainly by people living in the same area. Dialect vocabulary is outside the literary language. Dialectic words (dialectisms) are often used in works of art to convey the peculiarities of the speech of the inhabitants of a certain area, to create local color.

Slang vocabulary - words that are outside the literary language, belonging to some kind of jargon - a social type of speech characteristic of people united by a common interest, knowledge, social status, etc. For example: "spur" - cheat sheet, "pair" - deuce, etc.

There is also the jargon of the so-called declassed elements - thieves, swindlers, smugglers, etc. This kind of jargon is called slang and is created in order to classify certain actions and concepts. Slang vocabulary arises by rethinking common words (cabbage - “currency”, six - “sneak”), creating new words (cool - “very good”), using dialect words (khata - “apartment”), borrowing words, etc. .

Slang vocabulary is outside the literary language, but jargon is sometimes used in fiction to characterize characters.

More on the topic RUSSIAN VOCABULARY FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE SPHERE OF ITS USE:

  1. THE ORIGIN OF A NEW TYPE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE. DEVELOPMENT OF WAYS TO NORMALIZE THE LITERARY LANGUAGE AND CONSTRUCTION OF ITS STYLISTIC SYSTEM (XVIII - BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURIES)