Materially expressed inflection. Examples of words with zero endings? Morphological categories of gerunds

Postfixes(lat. post – after + fixus– attached) is an affixal morpheme that is found after endings or suffixes and serves to form new words or different forms of the same word.

Like other affixal morphemes, postfixes are optional for a word; they occur in rare cases.

Postfixes include reflexive particles - Xia And - sya, as well as parts of words - this, -either, -something, which form indefinite pronouns and pronominal adverbs. For example: someone, -or, -someone; someone's, -anyone's; somewhere, -or, -somewhere. Thus, postfixes are strictly assigned to a specific part of speech. However, in modern Russian there are cases when verbal postfixes are observed in nouns, for example: students, workers. This occurred as a result of the transition of a word from one part of speech and is more an exception to the rule than a pattern.

Like prefixes, postfixes are attached to the entire word, and therefore are not accompanied by conversion.

The main function of postfixal morphemes is word formation. Postfix -sya used to form new words. Using postfix -sya from transitive and intransitive verbs a large group of reflexive verbs is formed: ride- ride; turn white– turn white etc. (Children skiing).

Postfix -sya is also used when forming the passive form of verbs: read- read, build- under construction etc. (The lecture is given by the teacher). Postfix -xia used in participle structure (returned, smiling), as well as in other verb forms where it is preceded by a consonant sound (will return, returned, smile). In all verb forms, except participles, after vowel sounds it is used -sya (I'll be back, come back, smiling).

Verb suffixes are regular and productive, adverb postfixes are characterized by low regularity.

Complex derivational formants (confixes),

Their varieties and features.

Confixes- these are word-forming formants that consist of two or more non-adjacent affixes. For example: scream - races scream Xia (no verbs<раскричать>or<кричаться>}, speak - With speak Xia, call - with call Xia , window - under windows Nick etc.

According to E.A. Zemskaya, isolating confixes as special morphemes when studying the structure of a Russian word is inappropriate. The presence of intermittent morphemes is not typical for the structure of the Russian language. In addition, the postfixal parts of confixes usually coincide in meaning with the corresponding prefixes and suffixes, i.e. with- included in the confix co-...-nick. (For example, dining companion, companion), identical in meaning to the prefix with- (cf. co-author); -Nick, included in the same confix, is identical in meaning to the suffix - Nick(cf.: schoolboy). When studying how affixes function when creating such words, it should be noted that in such cases the suffix and prefix participate as two morphemes in a single act of word formation, joining the generating stem simultaneously, and not sequentially, that is, they are used as a single word-formation device. This method of word formation is called prefix-suffixal . “Calling this method of word formation confixation, and the corresponding morphemes confixes, does not deepen our understanding of this phenomenon, but only replaces some terms with others,” writes E.A. Zemskaya.

It is impossible to agree with all the arguments voiced. Indeed, it is inappropriate to single out a confix as a morpheme, but as a word-forming formant, the existence of a confix is completely justified. In addition, confixation should be understood not only as a prefix-suffix method of word formation; it is only one of the types of confixation. Let's name other varieties:

- prefix-postfixal method : characteristic of verbs, excludes conversion, for example: fast - once fast Xia, speak - once speak Xia, play - for play Xia etc.;

- prefixal-suffixal-postfixal : generous - races generous And t Xia ;

Suffixal-postfixal (may entail conversion): brother - Brother A t Xia, hunting - hunting And t Xia .

A type of prefix-suffixal method is confixation with null suffix : hair – without hair-#-th, gray – about seven-#, leaf – without leaf-#-th, hand – without hands etc.

There are no unique confixes, but it may contain a unique component (prefix): chickens nose-#-th, lopo wow.

Inflections as complex morphemes, their features.

Flexion(lat. flexio- bending), or ending is an affixal morpheme, located after the root and suffixes, which expresses various grammatical meanings and serves to connect words in a sentence. For example: new s books And, new them books am. Inflection is always a complex unit; it can be identified only in variable parts of speech and only if there are at least two comparable endings.

With the help of endings, not new words are formed, but only forms of the same word that are necessary to connect this word with others: -birches, birches; white, white; white birch, white birch. By linking words as part of a phrase or sentence, inflection can be a means of agreement (forest path) or management (guests appear) as well as grammatical coordination of the main members of the sentence (it's raining).

Endings contribute to the formation of different forms of the same word ( country, country, country, countries). In this case, the ending acts as a syncretic affix. The same ending conveys several meanings at once. For example, in the word Sun inflection -e indicates that the word refers to a noun in the nominative case, singular, neuter. Verb ending -ut (go) indicates the 3rd person and plural form of the present indicative mood.

Usually, as already mentioned, the ending is the final part of the word. However, if the word has a postfix, the ending comes before it (smiled). In compound grammatical forms (newest) and in some compound nouns (exhibition-sale) and numerals with a broken stem (two hundred) Several distantly located endings are observed.

In the Russian language, along with suffixes and interfixes, inflections are of two types: a) materially expressed: rainbow, coming, beautiful, so-oh, first; b) zero, i.e. not having material, sound expression: wind-ø , walked-ø , one-ø. Zero endings are recognized against the background of other materially expressed endings of a given word, for example: wind-ø , wind-a, wind-y; walked-ø, Shl-a, shl-i. In a word wind-øin relation to other case forms that have materially expressed endings, a zero ending is distinguished, indicating the nominative singular case and the grammatical meaning of the masculine gender inherent in this noun. In a word walked- In relation to other verbal forms of the past tense that have materially expressed inflections, a zero ending is distinguished, which contains an indication of the masculine singular of this verbal form of the past tense.

Not all words in Russian have endings. The following do not have endings: a) words forming a group of indeclinable nouns – coat, cinema, foyer etc.; b) verbs in the indefinite form – think, carry, bake; c) participles – hearing, having heard, having read, humming; d) adverbs – quickly, melodiously, rashly, brotherly; e) adjectives in the comparative form - larger, lighter; e) interjections – oh, alas, out; g) prepositions – in, on, for; h) unions – and, but, yes, since; i) particles – would, whether, same.

13. Isolation of the zero morpheme in the sphere of form and word formation.

Zero morpheme

Word-forming affixes may not be expressed by any sound or complex of sounds. Such affixes are called zero. Zero morpheme is the absence of an affix in any form, contrasted with positively expressed affixes in other forms of the same paradigm. So, in the form of the imperative mood put the null suffix is highlighted.

The meaning of zero affixes can be different, i.e. there are homonymous zero affixes. For example, in morphology in word forms thought-ø, brother-ø we highlight the following zero affixes: in the first word - ø indicator of the masculine gender and singular (cf. forms with materially expressed affixes feminine and middle gender - thought-o, thought-o and plural affix. – thought-and); in the second -ø – indicator of the nominative singular.

The existence of zero morphemes was substantiated by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. To identify a zero suffix, you need to follow a number of rules. They are:

1. The null suffix must be synonymous with the material suffix. For example: run# – run stv o (objectified action), sin# – blue (objectified attribute), bezlist#y – leafless n y. Thus, when identifying zero word-formation affixes, it is necessary to take into account the structure of the entire word-formation system of a given language, as the background for isolating words with zero affixes.

2. Only the motivated word has a zero suffix. Wed: noise# (to make noise) And hubbub(unmotivated). Along with the word under consideration, there must necessarily be a cognate word, simpler in meaning, which could be productive for the analyzed word if the derivational meaning of the latter were expressed by a non-zero affix. Conversion can suggest that a word has a zero suffix: if the derived word refers to a different speech than the motivating word, and nothing has been added to the motivating word, we should talk about a zero suffix. For example: gold → gold#oh.

The absence of at least one of these conditions is sufficient to make it impossible to identify a zero derivational affix. Let us explain this with examples.

1. Word hubbub denotes a process. The procedural meaning of nouns is usually expressed in Russian using affixes, for example suffixes -enij(e): singing, looking at, embroidering: k(a): hanging, breaking, carrying, subscribing; -b(a): wrestling, shooting, threshing, mowing etc. However, there is no zero derivational affix in the word gam. The basis for such a statement is the failure to fulfill the second of the two conditions mentioned above. In the Russian language there is no such cognate word (and it should be a verb) that could become a din-producing word.

2. The zero suffix is in those nouns with the meaning of process, along with which there are also generating verbs, cf.: rinsing-# – rinse, tearing-# – tearing. Such nouns are included in the series of words that express procedural meaning using “ordinary” (non-zero) suffixes: wash, wash, wash. Thus, the presence of a zero suffix in a word rinsing reflects its greater formal and semantic complexity compared to a word containing a generating stem: rinse.

3. In words like cockatoo, hummingbird there is no reason to identify a zero derivational affix, since we cannot attribute a derivational meaning to it (for example, “bird”, “living creature”). The first condition is missing. The second condition is also absent - there are no bases that would be productive for these words.

Zero word-forming affixes in the Russian language are often suffixes. This is explained by the fact that words with zero affixes, in their meaning and in relation to their derivatives, are included in the paradigmatic series with derivatives having non-zero suffixes.

In the field of formative suffixes, there are difficult cases where it is difficult to identify a null suffix. This refers to the zero suffix with the meaning of the imperative mood of verbs. The material suffix is observed in many cases: go, remember, tell me etc. But: read, tell, save, lie down. Here there are no longer forms of one word, but different words. Wed: read - read.

Zero suffixes operate primarily in the word formation of nouns. In addition to the meaning of an abstract action, zero suffixes can denote a person by action or by attribute ( bully, stutterer, suck-up; intellectual, generalist), abstract signs ( dregs, dark, blue, smooth) and some other meanings.

There are no zero prefixes in the Russian language, since there are no words in it that would express the meaning characteristic of prefixes, and at the same time could be interpreted as derivatives from cognate non-prefixed words. The absence of zero prefixes reveals a sharp difference between suffixes and prefixes.

They include -ov-, -en-, -in-, -och-, -ich-, -nich-, -l-. However, -j-, used between the vowels of neighboring morphemes, in its origin is a so-called intervocalic consonant, which since ancient times has developed from the confluence of two vowel sounds. From the point of view of word formation and morphemic analysis, it is very important to determine the relationship of interfixes to morphemes. A characteristic feature of interfixes is their lack of meaning. Classifying them as morphemes would contradict the generally accepted understanding of the morpheme as a significant unit of language. Affixoids The term “affixoid” denotes such word-forming parts of words that occupy an intermediate position between root and affixal morphemes. Affixoids are morphemes of a transitive type. They are affix-like, but are not identical to either affixes or roots. These, for example, include: water- (reindeer breeder, livestock breeder, vegetable breeder, horse breeder); Ved - (linguist, local historian, bibliologist); res- (stone cutter, bread cutter, glass cutter), etc. Each such affixoid forms a completely independent, fairly large and very productive word-formation type. In this sense, affixoids are very close to affixes. This is confirmed by the synonymous use of affixoids and affixes in the Russian language, for example: Slavic scholar and Slavist, gardener and gardener, wavy and wavy. Performing the function of affixes, affixoids do not lose their semantic connections with cognate words. For comparison, the following examples can be given: the affixoid -hod- in the words motor ship, all-terrain vehicle, snowmobile and the words walk, walk, walk, enter, etc., -nose- in the words honey plant, flower stalk and the words wear, sock, bring. Affixoids are divided into two groups: suffixoids and prefixoids. Suffixoids include root morphemes used as suffixes: -shaped- (bowl-shaped, gaseous, needle-shaped); -love- (heat-lover, water-lover, dry-lover): -car- (diesel locomotive, steam locomotive, heavy locomotive). Prefixoids are root morphemes that use prefixes as functions. For example, semi- (half measure, crescent, short fur coat, low shoes); against- (gas mask, illegal). The ability/inability of a particular morpheme to act in the modern Russian language both as a service and as a root is the main indicator of the distinction between affixoids and affixes. Materially expressed and zero morphemes (inflections, suffixes) Morphemes, according to the method of their transmission, are divided into two groups: 1) materially expressed and 2) zero. The prefix and root are always expressed materially. Inflections and suffixes can be either materially expressed or null. 22 Materially expressed inflections exist in the Russian language in the form of a phoneme or phonemic combinations: stola, frosty, write. The words day, notebook, nes have zero inflection, which can be identified by comparison with other forms of the same word (cf. dn’a, tetrad’i, nes). Foreign language nouns ending in a vowel sound, such as cafe, menu, stew; adverbs, words of the category of state, adjectives in the simple form of the comparative degree (more beautiful), gerunds, adverbs and words of the category of state in the simple form of the comparative degree (faster, colder) are unchangeable parts of speech, unchangeable forms of words, therefore they have There are no endings and there cannot be. Zero suffixes are available in the form of the imperative mood of the verb: throw, read (cf. write, knit). The zero suffix is found in the masculine singular form of the past tense of some verbs: frozen^ – ٱfrozen, carried^– ٱ carried, wet^ – ٱwet. Homonymy and synonymy of morphemes Morphemes, like words, can be related to each other in terms of homonymy and synonymy. Synonymous morphemes have the same meaning, but different phonetic design. In the Russian language, synonymous suffixes are often found (cf.: й – еск (enemy – enemy); at – ast (nosy – nose-nosed). These are single-root parallel formations that differ stylistically. Suffixes much more often function in different correlatives. Thus, among the nouns there are synonymous suffixes with the meaning “name of a male person by occupation or profession”: shchik (chik), -ar, -ant, -ator, -ist, -er (mason, innovator). , figurant, guitarist, prompter, goalkeeper). Inflections can also be synonymous, for example: -a, -i (islands, inhabitants). Formative prefixes that serve to form aspectual forms of verbs also enter into synonymy relations, for example: with). , by, on (make, build, draw). Homonymous morphemes sound and are written the same, but have different semantics. Thus, the suffixes are homonymous: -in1- (denotes animal meat - lamb) subject – straw); -in3- (has an increasing meaning – domina). Homonymous prefixes function among verbs, for example: po1- (denotes the beginning of an action - fly), po2- (species prefix - build), po3- (action is performed over a period of time - fly). Homonymy is widely represented among the roots: water - to drive, drawing - rice grower. 23 Word-forming, form-forming and syncretic affixes Word-forming affixes are prefixes, suffixes and postfixes that serve to form new words: language - proto-language; soup - soup; to achieve - to achieve. Formative affixes are those that serve to form the form of a word: smart - smarter, smarter (with the help of -ee-, -eysh- simple forms of the comparative and superlative degrees of the adjective are formed); throw – throw, brew – brew (suffixes -a-, -i-, -iva- form aspectual forms of verbs); run – ran (with the help of the suffix -т- the infinitive form is formed, -л- is the past tense form of the verb); chitjut – reading, read – reading (the suffixes -уш-, -вш- form the forms of active participles). In some cases, it is difficult to draw the line between these two types of affixes, for example: in which cases is the postfix -xia formative, and in which is it word-forming. In order not to be mistaken about the function of such affixes, you need to consult an explanatory dictionary. Syncretic affixes are those morphemes that simultaneously perform formative and word-forming functions, for example: write - rewrite, sign (when prefixes are added, the lexical meaning of the word and its form also change: write - nons. aspect, rewrite - owl. aspect ). Inflections can also be syncretic, cf.: spouse - spouse. Spouse. 1. Same as husband. 2. pl. Husband and wife. Spouse (obsolete, now official and simple). The same as wife (in 1 digit). (Quoted from: Ozhegov, S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language / S.I. Ozhegov. - M., 1972 - P. 717.). With the help of inflection -a, not only a new word is formed, its form also changes. This morpheme indicates that this is a feminine noun and is in the nominative singular case. Affixes are regular and irregular, productive and unproductive. Regular affixes are constantly reproduced in words and form certain word-forming or formative models, for example: suffixes -tel-, -n-(-y) (teacher, lecturer; frosty, cold) ; prefixes not-, from- (ugly, not bad, state); inflections -y, -eat, -ish (read, read). Irregular affixes in the composition of words are rare, for example: the suffix -k- with the meaning of action, standing out only in the word fight, inflection -m, found only in the words dam, eat, create. So, when we talk about the regularity/irregularity of affixes, we mean how often or rarely they currently appear in words. When determining the productivity/unproductivity of affixes, we pay attention to their different productivity in the formation of new words or forms. 24 Productive are those affixes that serve to form numerous groups of words in the modern Russian language, for example, the suffixes -ist-, -nik-, denoting a male person by occupation (machinist, defender); suffixes -sk-, -n- when forming relative and qualitative adjectives (Gorno-Altai, harmful); prefixes without-, non- (safe, timid). There is a close connection between the concepts regular/irregular, productive/unproductive affixes: all irregular affixes are unproductive, and regular ones can be both productive and unproductive. The question of the degree of segmentation of Russian words All words used in the modern Russian language are divided into two large classes: indivisible and segmentable. Indivisible ones include, for example, highway, coat, khaki, where, but, above, let, only, ay, ha-ha, etc. These are unchangeable, non-derivative words. All derived unchangeable words belong to divisible words: twice, cold, scary, incredible, etc. All modifiable words (both non-derivatives and derivatives) belong to the segmented ones: a) non-derivatives: -steppe-, hot-iy, pis-a-t, tr-i; b) derivatives: nad-pi-a-t, highway-j-n-y. Among dichotomous words, 3 classes can be distinguished: 1) words that include free roots and repeating affixes; 2) words including associated roots (radixoids) and repeating affixes; 3) words containing associated unique roots (uniradixoids). 1. Class I words are best divided - chair - chair-chik, youth - youth-n-y. Also, series of correlations are called word-formation squares. According to the terminology of the famous linguist Yanko-Trinovskaya, such words have complete free articulation. 2. Words with related roots included in double rows of relationships also form a word-formation square. to agitate | agitation | to agitate | agitator These words are divided worse than words with associated roots. According to the terminology of N.A. Yanko-Trinitskaya, they have complete connected articulation. 3. Words that have unifixes or uniradixoids are included in one series of relationships - words with the same stem or words with the same affix - and have residual articulation, since one of the parts of such words is distinguished not by its 25 relationship with the same partly in other words, but as a remainder from the selection of the neighboring morph. 1) pop-adya: pop = general-sha: general 2) bel’-os(y) : white(y) 3) buzhen-in(a) – cf. horse - kon-in(a) Words that have residual division do not form a word-forming square. So, the division of words depends on the following factors: 1) the stem is used free or bound; 2) the affix is repeatable or unique; 3) the affix is similar or dissimilar in meaning to other affixes of the given language; 4) the associated root is repeatable or unique; 5) the affix is used or not used with free roots. It is necessary to distinguish between the concept of articulation of a word and articulation of the base of a word. Like words, stems can be articulated or indivisible. Unsegmented stems include stems containing only the root morph: woof, salt. Articulate stems are those that, in addition to the root, also have an affixal morph or affixal morphs: frost-n(y), za-moroz-i(t), za-moroz-k(i). The boundaries between articulated and indivisible bases are very fluid. Articulated bases can turn into inarticulate ones. And vice versa, indivisible bases can become divisible. Thus, at first the basis of the foreign language word “hippodrome” was not defined. In this stem, the suffix -drome was not distinguished. In modern Russian, this suffix is full-fledged and actively participates in the formation of new words, cf. autodrome, tankodrom, airfield, velodrome, hippodrome. This can be said about the suffix -tek: library, card index, film library. Changes in the composition and structure of words. Simplification, re-decomposition and complication of the base, decorrelation of morphemes. The morphemic composition of a word is not unchanged. In the process of historical development of the Russian language, the structure of some words has changed. There are several types of changes in the morphemic composition of a word; the most important and most common are simplification and re-decomposition. Simplification is the transformation of a derived stem into a non-derivative one due to the merging of a suffix and a prefix with a root. Thus, the words rylo, soap (cf. dig, wash) included the suffix -l, which was used to form substantive nouns with the meaning of an instrument of action; in the words fir, gift, the suffix -r was distinguished (cf. drink, give); the words pin, tent, brisk had the suffix k (cf.: mace, chamber, battle); in the words bag, top, the suffix -ok was isolated (cf.: fur, top). These suffixes merged with the roots, and derived stems turned into non-derivative ones. 26 Some words contain prefixes that merged with the roots to form non-derivative stems. For example, the prefix about - in the words shell, image, fainting (cf.: delay, strike, fool); prefix v- in the word taste (cf. : bite, piece); for- in words protection (cf: shield). The process of simplification occurs for two reasons: 1) due to the loss of correlative generating stems or related words from the dictionary; 2) due to the discrepancy in the meaning of the derivative and the generating base. For example, the stems in the words valor, greedy, hummock, horror, slob have become non-derivative. In the derivative stem, a completely new meaning can develop (cf.: porch and wing, belly and life, happiness and part). Another important historical process is re-decomposition. Re-decomposition is the departure of the sound element of one morpheme to the neighboring morpheme. As a result of re-decomposition, the boundaries between morphemes move, while the derived stem retains its segmentation. Re-decomposition can occur at the junction of the generating base and the suffix (cf.: dwelling-e - historically dwelling-isch-e, from obsolete lived). The process of re-decomposition is also observed between the formative base and the prefix: in it, to it, where n was part of the preposition-prefix vn. Complication is the selection of affixes in a previously non-derivative stem. This process is often characteristic of words of foreign language origin (cf.: the word umbrella came into Russian from the Dutch language. By analogy with Russian words (house - little house, key - key), the diminutive suffix -ik began to be distinguished in this word Decorrelation of morphemes is a change in the nature or meaning of morphemes and their relationship in a word while maintaining the division of the word, the number and order of morphemes. For example, in the verb scold the suffix -a- has turned from a word-forming one into a simple indicator of the verb class. Diffusion is interpenetration. morphemes while maintaining their clear independence. This process is observed at the junction of a prefix and a root or a root and a suffix (for example, bathroom, porcupine). Substitution is the result of replacing one morpheme with another, and this process is observed. in the word “pugach” (from frighten in the meaning of “scream”, about the cry of an eagle owl), is currently associated with the verb “scare” in the meaning of “instill fear”. WORD FORMATION Methods of word formation The concept of “word formation method” has different content in synchronous and diachronic terms. In diachronic word formation, this concept serves to answer the question by what means, in what way, a derivative word is formed; in synchronous - to the question by what means the derivational meaning is expressed. In synchronous word formation there are two main methods of word formation: affixal and non-affixal, in diachronic there are four: morphological, morphological-syntactic, lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic. The essence of the lexical-semantic method is that words are not created anew, but their semantics changes. In this method, three main types are distinguished: 1) the formation of homonyms by breaking up polysemantic words (language 1, language 2); 2) rethinking the semantics of words already existing in the Russian language (MTS - machine and tractor station and MTS - mobile telephone network); 3) the transition of borrowed proper names into common nouns (Mackintosh, X-ray). The lexical-syntactic method is the formation of a derivative word from a whole combination: today - today. The morphological-syntactic method means the formation of new words as a result of the transition of words from one part to another (the adverb around turned into the preposition around; the adjective military into the noun military). The most productive way of word formation is morphological with its various varieties: suffixal, prefixal, prefix-suffixal, zero suffixation, various types of abbreviation. For example, the suffix type is to have breakfast, the prefix type is ultrasound. Word-formation semantics in the Russian language Word-formation motivation is the relationship between two words that have the following characteristics: 1) both words have the same root; 2) the meaning of one of the words is either completely included in the meaning of the other (house - house, “small house”) or identical to the lexical meaning of the other, but either the syntactic positions of these words are different (this includes pairs like run - run, bystry - quickly, formed by words different parts of speech; the second member of these pairs is a syntactic derivative), or these words differ stylistically (with identical syntactic positions): book - book, book; thief - thief; hostel - hostel. In this case, there are suffixes of stylistic modification. In the case of multiple meanings of words, motivational relationships are established between their individual meanings, for example: to rule - to become right (politically reactionary). Motivation relations are established between members of the same word-formation nest - a set of words with the same root. Not all relationships between nest members are relationships of word-formation motivation. The relations between words with the same root, each of which has both something in common with another word and different components of meaning, are not, according to the above definition, relations of motivation. Thus, the words domik (“small house”) and domishche (“big house”) are not related to motivation, because each of them has meaning components (“big”, “small”) that are absent in the other word. A word-forming formant is the smallest, in formal and semantic terms, word-forming means (means) among those means by which a word differs from the words that are in a motivating relationship with it. Thus, the verb starch is connected by motivational relations both with the verb starch and with the noun starch. It differs from the first word by the presence of the prefix po-, from the second by the prefix po- and the suffix -i-. The formant of the word starch is the prefix po- - the smallest word-forming device in formal and semantic terms from among those means (po- and po- + -i-) by which the verb starch differs from the words starch and starch, which are in a motivational relationship with it . The most common word-forming devices that form formants are affixes or combinations of affixes in various types of affix word formation. In addition, in Russian word formation, the following word-formation devices are used as formants: when substantivizing an adjective and participle - a system of inflections and a motivated word (noun), which is part of the system of inflections of a motivating (adjective or participle) - a system of inflections one - th grammatical gender or only plural; when adding: 1) a fixed order of components; 2) a single main emphasis, mainly on the supporting component; with the abbreviation type of word formation: a) arbitrary (indifferent to morphemic division) truncation of stems included in the motivating word combination, the last of which may not be abbreviated; b) single stress; c) a certain system of inflections in accordance with the assignment of an abbreviation to one of the types of noun declension. The meaning expressed using a derivational formant is called derivational meaning. One of the central concepts is the concept of word-formation type. “Word-formation type is a diagram (formula) of the structure of derived words, characterized by the commonality of three elements: 1) the part of speech of the generating stem; 2) the semantic relationship between derivatives and generators; 3) the formal relationship between derivatives and generators, namely: the commonality of the method of word formation, and for affixal methods, the identity of the affix” [cit. by: Zemskaya, E. A. Modern Russian language. Word formation / E.A. Zemskaya. – M.: Education, 1973. – P. 182]. Types of word-formation motivation 29 The relationship in the word-formation nest between motivating and motivated words can differ in a number of features, on the basis of which several types of motivation can be distinguished. Direct - indirect motivation Direct motivation is a motivational relationship between two words, one of which differs from the other in only one formant. Indirect motivation is a motivational relationship between two words, one of which differs from the other by a set of formants. Of two motivations: 1) to starch - to starch; 2) starch - the first is direct, and the second is indirect. The description of the structure of words was usually carried out on the basis of direct motivations, but it is also necessary to study indirect motivations. The existence of synchronous relationships between motivated words and indirectly motivating words (the so-called “inter-step connections of words”) is evidenced by a number of important phenomena of a diachronic nature – the emergence of new affixes and even new types of word formation. It is known that the verbal suffixes -nicha- and -stva- arose due to indirect motivation in verbs such as fashionable, stubborn, formed with the help of the suffixes -a-, -ova- from nouns with the suffixes -nik- and -stv-: fashionable – to be fashionable, stubbornness - to be stubborn. Similar processes were accompanied by the emergence of mixed types of word formation: prefix-suffix, prefix-suffix-postfix. So, not earlier than the 18th century. A prefix-suffix-postfixal type arose in the Russian language, which in modern Russian includes the formation of a number of denominal verbs with various prefixes, the suffix -i- and the postfix -sya (to say goodbye). There are indirect motivations that have no analogue among direct motivations. They are not included in the system of word-formation types and are called unplanned indirect motivations. Members of such motivations differ from each other by a set of formants, which never functions as a single formant: for example, along with pairs like moisture - moisten, there are no pairs in the language in which the motivated and the directly motivating would differ from each other by the segment -not- ( t): all motivated verbs starting with -net are directly motivated by adjectives starting with -n- (y): wet - to moisten, dirty - to get dirty, therefore they contain the suffix -e-, and not -not-. The segment -not-, which distinguishes words like moisture - to moisten, is not a word-formation affix, does not function as a word-formation formant capable of participating in one act of word formation. Initial - non-initial motivations Initial motivation is motivation with an unmotivated word, non-initial motivation is motivation with a motivated word. So, of the two motivations of the word 30, purify: 1) pure - to purify, 2) to clean - to purify - the first motivation is the original one, the second one is non-original. Initial and non-initial motivations can be both direct and indirect. Of particular interest is the initial indirect motivation: it is on its basis that new affixes and types of word formation most often arise, since the entire part of the basis of the motivated word, different from the root, begins to be perceived as a single word-formation formant, and the motivating basis of the word becomes equal to its root (fashionable, stubborn). Unmotivated words that act as motivating words are the beginning of a word-formation nest. Unique - non-unique motivations Non-unique motivations are motivations of the same word in several words that differ from the unmotivated by an equal number of formants: unequal inequality equality All other motivations are unique, for example: table - table. Words that have more than one motivation can be interpreted synchronically as simultaneously belonging to different types of word formation. Thus, the word gloomy can be considered both as a prefixal formation, motivated by the word cheerfully, and as a suffixal formation, motivated by the word gloomy. Currently, in the modern Russian language there are a large number of groups of words of a certain morphemic composition that have more than one direct motivation. These include: 1) words that simultaneously relate to several types of word formation: a) prefixal / suffixal (insensitive – sensitive and insensitive); b) compounding / prefixal (down - to the bottom and to - down); 2) words belonging to the same type of word formation. These include verbs of the imperfect form such as discard, push out, motivated by two prefixed verbs of the perfect form, each of which, in turn, is motivated by unprefixed verbs that are in the following relationships with each other: a) correlation by form (a verb of the perfect form often has the meaning of one-time occurrence: throw - throw away throw throw - throw away b) correlation by frequency and direction of action (these include verbs with the semantics “movement in space”): roll - roll 31

1) The grammatical method is the material expression of grammatical meanings (both relational and derivational).

Grammatical meanings are expressed not directly by phonemes (or even more so by speech sounds), but by well-known technical combinations of phonetic material, which are grammatical methods.

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings - ways of forming word forms. There are a limited number of grammatical methods used in a language.

SYNTHETIC METHOD– expression of meanings in the word itself:

Affixation(from Latin affixus - attached) - the formation of word forms using endings, prefixes, formative suffixes, infixes, postfixes (table, table, table, etc.; do - do, write - write, etc.; justify – justify, exchange – exchange, etc. Flexion(Latin flexio - bending, transition) - the same as ending; an inflectional morpheme that expresses the meaning of gender, number, case and person in word forms of the Russian language, and also serves to express morpho-syntactic relations.

For example, inflection -a in the word form water expresses the meanings of the feminine, singular, nominative case, inflection -i in the word form green expresses plural meanings. numbers and creativity case.

Internal inflection (inflection of the base)– a change in the sound composition of the root, expressing the difference in grammatical meanings (alternation of sounds): remove - remove, send - send (alternation of the root vowel with a zero sound serves to distinguish between imperfect and perfect forms), vez - voz (alternation of the root vowel serves to distinguish between different lexicons -grammatical classes: verb and noun); lock - lock, die - die, dial - dial, etc.

Zero flexion- an ending that is not materially expressed and is distinguished in a word by composition with the correlative forms in which it is materially represented.

For example, in the combination pair of boots, the second word, in relation to other forms of its paradigm (boot, boot, etc., boots, boots, etc.) distinguishes in its composition the zero ending of the genitive plural.

Agglutination and fusion.

Agglutination (Latin agglūtinātio – gluing; the term was introduced by Fr. Bopp)- a method of forming word forms and derivative words by mechanically attaching standard affixes to unchangeable, devoid of internal inflection, stems or roots (note that each affix has only one grammatical meaning, just as each meaning is always expressed by the same affix): in Turkish ode means “room”, lar is a plural suffix, yes is a locative suffix (for the question where?); when these elements are combined, the result is odalarda with the meaning “in the rooms”; ara (Kazakh “saw”) + ha (D.p. 71 units) + lar (I.p. plural) = ara-lar-ga (D.p. plural); bala (Tat. “child”) + ha (D.p. singular) + lar (I.p. plural) = bala-lar-ga (D.p. plural).

Fusion (Latin fūsio – alloy; the term was introduced by E. Sapir)– fusion of morphemes, accompanied by a change in their phonemic composition. Most often, a close morphological connection of the modified root with polysemantic non-standard affixes occurs, leading to the blurring of boundaries between morphemes.

These include:

1) interweaving of a prefix and a root, as a result of which the same sound belongs to both morphemes: I will come (at + I go), to open (time + yawn), etc.;

2) merging the final sound of the root with the initial sound of the suffix: grow (rast + ti);

3) the dual role of the suffix: Sverdlovsk region (Sverdlov + -sk + -sk + -aya, where the first -sk is included in the basis of the noun, the second -sk was supposed to serve as a suffix of the relative adjective);

4) interweaving of parts in a complex word as a result of the loss of one of two identical syllables immediately following each other (haplology): porcupine (dick + o + image), mineralogy (mineral + o + logy), morphonology (mor + pho + phonology).

Agglutination is characteristic of most languages of Asia, Africa and Oceania (which have affixes), fusion is mainly a property of Indo-European languages, although they also have elements of agglutination.

For example, in Russian language cases of agglutination appear in prefixation, because prefixes in Russian language are unambiguous, standard for different parts of speech, and their connection to the roots does not have the character of close fusion: run, run across, run out, run out, run out, run out.

Prefixation – ("pre" comes from the Latin prae, meaning "before", "ahead") a way of forming word forms and derived words by adding prefixes to the roots/stems of words.

For example: go And over-to-go – you-to-go – to-go – to move as a way of expressing NSV and SV verb

Suffixation - (from lat.suffixus"attached") a way of forming word forms and derived words by adding suffixes to the roots/stems of words.

For example: teacher - teacher prostrate a (male and female), fly – years chick(verb and noun), German Arbeiter "worker" – Arbeiter in“worker” (male and female), Feier “holiday” – feier lich“festive, solemn” (noun and adjective).

Stress - reversal of stress (accentuation (from Latin accentus - emphasis))

For example: pour - pour, cut - cut, lock - lock, etc.

Suppletivism (from Late Latin suppletivus - complementary)– formation of forms of the same word from different roots. The root morphs of such word forms lack formal (phonemic) proximity and therefore cannot be combined into one morpheme.

In the Russian language there are S. forms of singular and plural nouns (person - people, child - children), case forms of personal pronouns - forms of the nominative case, on the one hand, and indirect cases - on the other (I - me, me; we - us, us; he, she, it - his, him, her, her, etc.), comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs (good - better, bad - worse, many - more, little - less), short form of the adjective. (big - great), past tense forms of the verb (go, go, going - walked, walked, walked), aspectual pairs of the verb (take - take, put - put, talk - say, catch - catch). Reduplication (lat. reduplicatio – doubling)- a way of expressing grammatical meaning, consisting in complete or partial doubling (repetition) of the stem: barely, honor with honor, glad-glad, hand in hand, white-white, a little, blue-blue, once upon a time, long- long, etc.

II. ANALYTICAL METHOD– expression of meanings outside the word: I am writing – I will write, beautiful – more beautiful, etc.

Function words(prepositions, conjunctions, particles, connectives, articles, auxiliary verbs) - a combination of a significant word with an auxiliary word.

For example: I am writing - will write – wrote would(expression of the category of everyday tense, subjunctive of the verb),

Beautiful - more Beautiful(expression of comparative degree adj.), etc.

Word order in a sentence - the location of words to express the relationships between them in a speech chain.

Whale. Wo kan ni (I'm looking at you) and

Ni kan wo (you are looking at me);

Rus. The outbuilding blocks the house and

The house is blocked by an outbuilding

(expression of syntactic functions)

III. MIXED METHOD– a combination of elements of synthetic and analytical methods in the formation of word forms: in the book (preposition and case ending); I read (personal pronoun and verb ending to express 1st person meaning). Depending on the GC and the method of its expression, the structure of the language itself differs: analytical and synthetic languages.

V books e (preposition and case ending to express prepositional case noun);

I chita yu (personal pronoun and verb ending to express the meaning of the 1st person, singular verb).

2) ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETIC LANGUAGES.

Analytical languages– languages in which grammatical meanings (relationships between words in a sentence) are expressed not by the forms of the words themselves, but by function words for significant words, the order of significant words, and the intonation of the sentence.

Analytical languages include, for example, the languages of most modern Europe. languages English, Romance (French, Spanish, Italian), Bulgarian, Modern Greek, Modern Indian. (Pali, Pehveli), Afghan., New Persian. and New Armenians. dialects, Danish, Vietnamese, Sino-Tibetan. family.

Synthetic languages– languages in which grammatical meanings are expressed within the word itself (affixation, internal inflection, stress, suppletivism, etc., i.e. 72 forms of the words themselves). To express the relationships between words in a sentence, elements of the analytical structure (function words, order of significant words, intonation) can also be used.

Synthetic languages include, for example, ancient I.-E. languages (Ancient Greek, Latin, Scythian, Old Slavic, Sanskrit), Russian, German, Lithuanian, Latvian, Turkic, Mongolian, Finno-Ugric, Tungusic-Manchu, Semitic-Hamitic ( most), Caucasian, Paleo-Asian, Bantu, languages. America Indians

There are many words with a zero ending; they have a zero ending in the nominative case, but change when declined.

For example:

fear (zero ending) - fear (ending -a-), wolf - wolf, steppe - steppe,

pain-pain

brother - brother, in order to understand that there is a zero ending, it is enough to change the word by number or cases.

Examples of null endings:

secretary;
help;
calculator;
magazine;
life;
groom;
batteries;
lazy;
curtain;
great-grandfather;
came;
firefly;
carried out;
volt;
composer;
water supply;
nightingale;
thistle;
ant.

Examples of words with a zero ending can be the following: move, union, watermelon, year, city, fruit, bridge, mouse, wounded, order, husband, table, matchmaker, brother, nose, meadow, leaf, toddler, sock, slipper, elk , elephant, hero, night, handsome and so on.
Examples of nouns with a zero ending, usually these are words of the 2nd or 3rd declension, for example:
lilac, execution, compote, chair, telephone, engine, backpack, stove.
It is worth noting that the zero ending in other case forms becomes materially expressed. Compare:
lilac - zero ending,
lilac - ending I;
compote - zero ending,

compote - ending OM.
Examples of verbs with zero endings, a large layer of such words are words of the masculine past tense of the indicative mood, for example:
came in, finished, ran across, poured out, ran, looked in, jumped over, drank, finished, etc.
Examples - fox, tasks, walked, oven.
There are certain rules that govern the definition of a null ending. This rule is taught already in the third grade and it sounds like this
We remember the declension gender, number, case, what influence they have on the formation of the ending.
Examples of words with a zero ending: table, cat, fur, sin, axe, pie, forest, demon, light, answer, husband, throne, magician, world, shutter, sunset, answer, haystack, stable, Cossack, warrior, blacksmith, armor, ocean, dinosaur, space. In other forms, all these words have endings. For example: blacksmith-a, blacksmith-om, blacksmith-y. Therefore, all the words given as an example also have an ending that is considered zero.
Null-ending words should not be confused with immutable words, since they do not have endings in any form.
Inflections are called zero(endings in the school curriculum) that we do not pronounce or hear sounds They not expressed, and also we don’t write and don’t see letters They not marked. Such inflections occur only in significant inflected words declined or conjugated.
Zero inflection is revealed by simply comparing the form given to us with other word forms of the same lexeme, where inflections are expressed.
Let's take a small sentence as an example: Brother did his homework. There are two lexemes with zero inflections in nm: BRATIK, PERFORMED. The lexeme BRATIK is in the initial form, there is no EXPRESS inflection behind the stem, but any word forms from the paradigm of its inflection help to understand that it exists: BRATIKA, BRATIKOM (inflections -A, -OM). The same is true in the verb PERFORMED: as soon as we put it in a different gender or another number (PERFORMED, PERFORMED, PERFORMED) it will become clear: in the word form given as an example sentence, the inflection is zero.
There are zero inflections:
FOR IMN OF NOUNS
singular number:
- 2nd class husband. kind in them. pad.: ghost, interruption, internationalism, baboon, brother;
- inanimate 2nd class. husband. kind in wine fall: I recognize the locker, telephone, elevator, alarm clock;
- 3rd class in the fall them. and wine: degree, mouse, target, false;
- raznoskl. PATH in the same cases;
plural:
- 2nd class husband. and average kind (not for everyone) and 1st class. kind of wives and husband in the fall family: no towns, schools, lands, sisters, steeples, grandfathers;
- raznoskl. on -MYA in pad. genus. pl. numbers (except for the lexemes TEMYA, FLAME, BURDEN, they do not have a plural number): imn, vremn, plemn, znamn, vymn (unusual, but the lexeme UDDER is used in the plural), seeds, stirrups;
FOR IMN ADJECTIVES:
- Possessives with -IY, -OV (-EV), -IN- (-UN-) are all suffixes, in pad. them. and wine husband. kind: whose? Mashin, papa, Tsaritsyn, grandfathers, Dalev (about the dictionary), raven, wolf, bear;
- short qualitative ones in number of units. masculine gender: handsome, interesting, magnificent, attractive, powerful;
AT PRONOUNS
- demonstrative and possessive in the number of units. kind of husband (cases im. and, if they distribute an inanimate noun, wine): this, that, yours, mine, ours, yours, yours;
- demonstrative SO and interrogative-relative WHAT in the number of units. kind of male;
- personal I, YOU and HE (in other inflections expressed in the words WE, YOU inflection -Y);
FOR IMN NUMERALS:
- quantitative with the value of a) units (5 9), b) whole tens (10 80) and c) whole hundreds (200 900) in pad. them. and wine Moreover, in complex numbers. in these cases there are two zero inflections: at the end of the word and in the middle, as well as two expressed in other cases, with the exception of the two indicated above;
- quantitative, denoting whole hundreds (200,900) in gender. pad. at the end of words: two hundred, four hundred, eight hundred, five hundred;
- ONE (male) in pad. them. and, when combined with noun. inanimate, in wine;
IN VERBS:
- indicative mood in husband. kind of past tense: translated, tested, illustrated, scattered;
- conditional mood in gender husband. numbers of units: would translate, test, illustrate, scatter;
- imperative moods in the singular: reconsider, make you laugh, add, mark;
AT PARTICIPLES passive short units masculine gender: carrying (from carried), deciding (from being solved), completed, built.
Besides, one should distinguish between words with zero inflections and words with no inflections.
The zero ending is quite a common case in the Russian language and there are quite a lot of words that have such an ending not expressed by sounds or letters. For example, many nouns have zero endings in the nominative case: Wolf, Hare, Elephant, Thrush, Mouse, Rabbit. When the form of the word changes, the ending in these words appears - Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf.
Another case of the presence of a zero ending may be the disappearance of the ending expressed by a sound during declination, for example in the plural. So in the word Owl the ending is A, but in the plural and genitive case we get the word (no one?) OW, also with a zero ending.
Zero ending not expressed materially. That is, it is there, but we don’t see it. There is no sound after the root, which expresses the grammatical meaning. For example, the word house. When changing, the ending appears - home, home, home, etc.
Son, Georgian, soldier, pomegranate, move, year, city, fruit, bridge, order, matchmaker, brother, husband, table, nose, meadow, leaf, union, watermelon, toddler, sock, slipper, elk, elephant, hero, night, mouse, wounded, handsome, etc.

In the Russian language, along with suffixes and interfixes, inflections are of two types: a) materially expressed: rainbow, coming, beautiful, so-oh, first; b) zero, i.e. not having material, sound expression: wind-ø , walked-ø , one-ø. Zero endings are recognized against the background of other materially expressed endings of a given word, for example: wind-ø , wind-a, wind-y; walked-ø, Shl-a, shl-i. In a word wind-ø in relation to other case forms that have materially expressed endings, a zero ending is distinguished, indicating the nominative case of the singular and the grammatical meaning of the masculine gender inherent in this noun. In a word walked-ø in relation to other verbal forms of the past tense that have materially expressed inflections, a zero ending is distinguished, which contains an indication of the masculine singular of this verbal form of the past tense.