International economic organizations that are not members of the UN. UN: system of organs, functions, powers. United Nations specialized agencies. United Nations
UNITED NATIONS \(UN\)
Created in 1945 at a conference in San Francisco(cm.). Its charter came into force on October 24, 1945. The UN included all 50 countries participating in the San Francisco conference and Poland. In addition, in November - December 1946 Afghanistan, Iceland, Siam and Sweden were accepted, in September - October 1947 - Yemen and Pakistan, in April 1948 - Burma, in May 1949 - Israel.
The UN was created to maintain and strengthen international peace and security, develop friendly relations between states, and implement international cooperation in the economic, social, cultural and other fields.
The UN is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its members, who have undertaken to resolve their international disputes by peaceful means, to refrain "in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or any other in a manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations" (Article 2, Clause 4 of the Charter).
The Charter does not, however, give the UN "the right to intervene in matters that are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state, and does not require members of the United Nations to submit such cases for resolution in accordance with the present Charter" (Article 2, paragraph 7 of the Charter ).
In addition to the countries that have signed the charter, admission to membership in the UN "is open to all other peace-loving states that will accept the obligations contained ... in the charter and which, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to fulfill these obligations" (Article 4, para. one).
Admission to the UN membership "is carried out by a decision of the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council" (Article 4, paragraph 2). For such recommendations to be approved by the Security Council, the unanimity of all the permanent members of the Security Council is required.
I. Structure of the United Nations
The main organs of the UN are: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat.
1. The GENERAL ASSEMBLY consists of all members of the UN. It may discuss all matters within the limits of the UN Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any of the organs of the UN, except for matters on the agenda of the Security Council. It may make recommendations on matters under consideration to UN Member States or UN bodies.
The General Assembly meets annually in ordinary session, which opens on the third Tuesday of September, and also in special sessions, if circumstances so require. Each member of the General Assembly has one vote. Decisions on important political issues "are taken by a two-thirds majority of the members of the Assembly present and voting" (Article 18 of the Charter). These issues include: recommendations regarding the maintenance of international peace and security, election of non-permanent members of the Security Council, members of the Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, admission of new members to the UN, exclusion from the UN, suspension of the rights and privileges of UN members, issues related to the functioning of the guardianship system, and budgetary matters (art. 18). Other questions are adopted by a simple majority of votes.
The General Assembly has 6 main committees: 1) Political and Security Committee (including arms regulation); 2) Committee on Economic and Financial Affairs; 3) Committee on social, humanitarian and cultural issues; 4) Guardianship Committee; 5) Administration and Budget Committee; and 6) Legal Affairs Committee. All delegations are members of these six Main Committees.
The General Assembly establishes, in addition, a General Committee of 14 members, consisting of the President of the General Assembly, 7 Vice-Chairmen and 6 Chairmen of the Main Committees, and a Credentials Committee of 9 members.
The Chairman of the General Assembly and his deputies are elected at the plenary meeting of the Assembly, and the chairmen of the main committees are elected at the meetings of the committees themselves.
2. The Security Council consists of I members, including 5 permanent members (USSR, USA, England, France and China) and 6 non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for 2 years.
States whose term of office on the Council has expired cannot be immediately re-elected for a new term.
During the first elections in January 1946, Australia, Brazil, Poland, Egypt, Mexico, and Holland were elected non-permanent members of the Security Council. At the second session of the Assembly in 1947, the Ukrainian SSR, Canada, and Argentina were elected instead of Australia, Brazil, and Poland.
The election of the Ukrainian SSR was preceded by fierce resistance from the United States of America, which, however, suffered defeat. Opposing the election of the Ukrainian SSR to replace Poland, whose term of office in the Council had expired, the United States acted contrary to the provisions of Art. 23 of the Charter, which provides that, in the selection of non-permanent members of the Council, consideration should be given "in the first place to the degree of participation of the Members of the Organization in the maintenance of international peace and security ... as well as to equitable geographical distribution".
The term of office of non-permanent members of the Security Council, as well as members of the Economic and Social Council and the Council of Trustees, begins on 1. I of the year following their election and ends on 31. XII of the year when their successors are elected.
In addition, if the Security Council is considering the use of military forces placed at its disposal by a state that is not a member of the Council, that state may take part in the meetings of the Council with the right to vote when the Council considers the question of the use of these forces.
The Security Council is in continuous session. It is chaired monthly by all its members in turn.
The Security Council is the main political organ of the United Nations, which, according to the charter, bears "primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security.
The decisions of the Security Council fall into two categories: decisions and recommendations. Decisions taken by the Security Council on the basis of Chapter VII of the Charter are binding on all members of the UN.
Organs of the Security Council. The Security Council has the following bodies: the Military Staff Committee, the Atomic Energy Control Commission and the Conventional Arms Commission.
1. The Military Staff Committee consists of the chiefs of staff or representatives of the chiefs of staff of states that are permanent members of the Security Council, that is, the USSR, the USA, Britain, France and China. It shall assist the Security Council "in all matters relating to the military needs of the Security Council in the maintenance of international peace and security, in the use and command of the troops placed at its disposal, and in the regulation of armaments and possible disarmament" (art. 47 of the charter).
2. The Commission for the Control of Atomic Energy was established on January 24, 1946 by a decision of the General Assembly at the proposal of the delegations of the USSR, the USA, Britain, France, China and Canada, agreed upon at the Moscow Conference of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, the USA and England in December 1945. The commission consists of representatives of all states that are represented on the Security Council, and the representative of Canada.
3. The Commission on Conventional Arms, established by a resolution of the Security Council of 13.II.1947, consists of representatives of all states that are members of the Security Council. The Commission should prepare proposals: a) for the general regulation and reduction of armaments and armed forces, and b) for practical and effective guarantees in connection with the general regulation and reduction of armaments.
3. The ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL consists of 18 members elected by the General Assembly for three years. States whose term of office on the Council has expired may be immediately re-elected for a new term of three years.
The Economic and Social Council should study international issues in the areas of economic, social, culture, education, health, etc., draw up reports on them and make recommendations to the General Assembly, UN members and interested specialized agencies, provide the Security Council with the necessary information and assistance . According to the rules of procedure, the Economic and Social Council has at least three sessions per year.
The Economic and Social Council has the following permanent commissions: 1) for the economy and employment, 2) for transport and communications, 3) for statistics, 4) social, 5) for human rights, 6) for the protection of women's rights, 7) tax, 8) demographic (by population), and four temporary commissions: an economic commission for Europe, an economic commission for Asia and the Far East, an economic commission for Latin America, and a drug commission.
4. A TRUSTEE COUNCIL is established to administer the territories that are included in the trusteeship system by subsequent agreements. The goals of this system are defined in Ch. XII of the UN Charter (cf. Guardianship international).
5. INTERNATIONAL COURT. The main judicial body of the UN is the International Court of Justice, consisting of 15 judges elected in parallel by the General Assembly and the Security Council for 9 years; Judges may be re-elected after this period.
During the first elections (6 February 1946), representatives of the USSR, Canada, Poland, Egypt, China, Mexico, Yugoslavia, Norway, Belgium, the USA, France, El Salvador, Brazil, England, and Chile were elected as international judges.
All UN members are parties to the statute of the International Court of Justice.
6. The UN SECRETARIAT is headed by the Secretary General, elected by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a term of 5 years. After this period, he may be re-elected. When the Security Council decides on the nomination of a candidate for the post of Secretary General, the unanimity of all its permanent members is required. Trygve elected first UN Secretary General Lee(see), former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Norway.
The staff of the Secretariat is appointed by the General Secretary.
The Secretariat has 8 departments: 1) for the affairs of the Security Council; 2) economic; 3) social; 4) on guardianship and collection of information on non-self-governing territories; 5) public information; 6) on legal matters; 7) Conference and General Services; and 8) Administration and Finance. These departments are headed by assistant secretaries general.
7. OTHER PERMANENT BODIES OF THE UN. In addition to the above main UN bodies, the following are also established:
1) The International Law Commission was established by decision of the 2nd session of the General Assembly. It consists of 15 members - experts in the field of international law, elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The Commission should deal with the progressive development of international law and its codification.
2) The Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions consists of 9 members elected by the General Assembly for 3 years.
3) The Committee on Contributions consists of representatives of ten countries elected by the General Assembly for 3 years. Committee in accordance with paragraph 2 of Art. 17 of the charter prepares a scale of contributions for members of the UN, i.e., establishes what proportion of the costs of the UN should be borne by each member state of the UN.
4) The Auditing Board consists of representatives of three UN member countries, elected by the General Assembly for 3 years.
8. AD HOC BODIES. In addition to permanent bodies, ad hoc bodies can also be created.
At the second session of the General Assembly (IX-XI 1947), the Anglo-American bloc achieved, contrary to the provisions of the UN Charter, the establishment of the so-called. intersessional committee, as well as the ad hoc committee on the Greek question and the temporary commission on Korea.
a) The Intersessional Committee of the General Assembly (the "Small Assembly") was established for the period between the second and third sessions of the Assembly from representatives of all UN member countries. At the third session of the Assembly, the existence of this illegal body was extended for another year. The creation of this body is in direct contradiction to the provisions of the charter and is an attempt by the Anglo-American bloc to belittle the significance and role of the Security Council. Since the creation of an intersessional committee is a violation of the principles of the charter, the USSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia refused to participate in its work.
b) A special committee on the Greek question has been set up consisting of Australia, Brazil, China, France, Mexico, Holland, Pakistan, England, the USA, the USSR and Poland. The delegations of the USSR and Poland declared that they would not participate in the work of this body, since the creation of such a committee violates the sovereignty of Bulgaria, Albania and Yugoslavia and is a flagrant violation of UN principles.
c) The Provisional Commission for Korea has been set up as part of Australia, Canada, Chile, El Salvador, France, India, the Philippines, Syria, and the Ukrainian SSR. Since the proposal of the USSR delegation to invite representatives of the Korean people to participate in the discussion of the issue of Korea was rejected, the USSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the BSSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia refused to participate in the voting on this issue. The Ukrainian SSR, elected to the temporary commission on Korea, refused to participate in the work of this commission.
9. UN SPECIALIZED AGENCIES.
Specialized institutions are organizations "created by Intergovernmental Agreements and endowed with broad international, defined in their constituent acts, responsibility in the field of economic, social, culture, education, health and similar areas" (Article 57 of the charter). These specialized agencies are: 1) World Health Organization, 2) International Labor Organization (or Bureau), 3) Food and Agriculture Organization, 4) Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 5) International Civil Aviation Organization, 6 ) International Monetary Fund, 7) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 8) International Telecommunication Union, 9) Universal Postal Union, 10) International Refugee Organization, I) Intergovernmental Advisory Organization for Maritime Transport. The USSR is a member of the International Telecommunication Union and the Universal Postal Union.
II. UN activities
During their existence, the UN bodies have dealt with many major political, economic and other issues in the field of international relations. The most important of these issues are: 1) the establishment of control over atomic energy, 2) the regulation and reduction of armaments and armed forces, 3) the fight against propaganda for a new war, 4) the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council, 5) the Greek question, 6) the Spanish question, 7) Indonesian question, 8) Corfu incident, 9) Palestinian question.
I. Control of atomic energy. 24. I 1946 The General Assembly established a commission "to consider the problems that have arisen in connection with the discovery of atomic energy, and other related questions."
The first meeting of the Commission for the Control of Atomic Energy took place on June 14, 1946. At this meeting, the representative of the United States, Baruch, proposed the establishment of an international authority (Authority), with broad powers and almost unlimited right to interfere in the economy of any country, in the work of any industries, and even the right to make laws binding on all countries of the world. At the next meeting of the commission, on June 19, 1946, the representative of the USSR, on behalf of the Soviet government, proposed to conclude a convention on the prohibition of the production and use of weapons based on the use of atomic energy for the mass destruction of people.
II. VI 1947 The Soviet government, in addition to and in development of its proposal for the conclusion of a convention on the prohibition of atomic weapons, submitted to the commission for consideration the main provisions that should form the basis of an international agreement on the control of atomic energy. These provisions provided for the establishment within the framework of the Security Council of the International Control Commission for the implementation of measures to control nuclear enterprises. The conditions and organizational principles of international control over atomic energy, the composition, rights and obligations of the International Commission must be determined by a special convention concluded in accordance with the convention for the prohibition of atomic weapons. The International Control Commission should consist of representatives of the member countries of the Atomic Commission, established on January 24, 1946.
On June 17, 1947, the Atomic Energy Control Commission, the majority of which supported the US representative, decided not to consider the Soviet proposal, but to discuss this proposal in passing with the questions in the commission's plan of work, drawn up at the behest of the USA.
Six so-called. "working groups" in which the representative of the USSR did not participate. These groups produced six "working papers" on the functions of an international monitoring body.
These documents provided for the granting of broad rights to the international control body, including the right to own all nuclear enterprises throughout the world and the right to operate them; ownership of all stocks of atomic raw materials (uranium, thorium, etc.), all chemical and metallurgical enterprises processing atomic raw materials, all enterprises capable of using "nuclear fuel" (this is how uranium, thorium and other fissile materials are called) for the production of power energy (eg electricity); the right to issue licenses for the construction and operation of nuclear enterprises and the right to withdraw these licenses; the right to carry out geological surveys of stocks of atomic raw materials in any part of the world, including military and restricted areas, etc.
The granting of such rights to the control body is incompatible with the principles of the sovereignty of states and the principles of the UN Charter, and is also contrary to the General Assembly resolution of 24 January 1946 on the prohibition of atomic weapons.
The USSR representative in the Atomic Commission objected to these unacceptable proposals. However, US representatives, relying on the majority of the commission, managed to get them adopted and included in the second report of the Atomic Commission to the Security Council.
On 10. IX 1947 this second report was approved by the majority of the commission and sent to the Security Council.
18. In 1948, the US government, having rejected for two years all proposals of the Soviet Union to ban atomic weapons, relying on the obedient majority of the members of the Atomic Commission, achieved a decision to suspend its work for an indefinite period, allegedly because the Soviet Union did not agree to the establishment of t n. "international control".
At the third session of the Assembly, the USSR proposed to recommend that the Security Council and the Atomic Commission continue their work and prepare draft conventions for the prohibition of atomic weapons and a convention for the establishment of effective international control over atomic energy so that these conventions would be signed and put into effect simultaneously. This proposal, aimed at finding an agreed solution to such an important problem, was rejected by the majority of the Assembly, following in the footsteps of US policy, seeking to retain freedom of action in the production of atomic weapons. The United States and Britain achieved the adoption by the Assembly of a resolution that pleased them, authorizing the actual disruption of the work of the Atomic Commission.
2. General reduction and regulation of armaments. On October 29, 1946, at a plenary session of the General Assembly, the head of the USSR delegation, V. M. Molotov, submitted a proposal for a general reduction in armaments.
Despite the resistance offered by representatives of the United States, Great Britain and a number of other states, the discussion of the issue of arms reduction was crowned with a victory for Soviet diplomacy.
14. XII 1946 The General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution on "Principles governing the general regulation and reduction of armaments", in which it recommended that the Security Council begin to develop practical measures essential for establishing a general regulation and reduction of armaments and armed forces; The Atomic Commission is to fulfill the duties entrusted to it by the resolution of the General Assembly of 24. I 1946 "as an essential step towards achieving the urgent goal of prohibiting and withdrawing atomic weapons from national armaments." "In order to ensure that the general prohibition, regulation and reduction of armaments affect the main types of weapons of modern warfare," an international system will be established within the framework of the Security Council, operating through special bodies.
28. XP 1946, the representative of the USSR in the Security Council, through the Secretary General on behalf of the government of the USSR, proposed that the Security Council "begin to develop practical measures to implement the decision of the General Assembly ... on the general regulation and reduction of armaments and armed forces ..." and establish a commission, which "to instruct within one or two months, but not later than within three months, to prepare and submit to the Security Council their proposals ..." related to atomic weapons.
Due to the sabotage of the delegations of the countries of the Anglo-American bloc, the commission did not plan any practical measures during the year.
To prevent the resolution of the General Assembly on the reduction of armaments and the prohibition of atomic weapons from remaining only on paper, the government of the USSR submitted in September 1948 at the third session of the Assembly a proposal to reduce by one third within one year the armaments and armed forces of all five permanent members of the Security Council and to prohibit nuclear weapons as weapons of aggression. To monitor the implementation of these measures, the USSR proposed the establishment of an international monitoring body within the framework of the Security Council.
This proposal of the USSR met the aspirations and hopes of all the peace-loving peoples of the world. However, representatives of the United States and Britain took a completely opposite position. They sought to drag out and frustrate the solution of the question of banning atomic weapons and reducing armaments and armed forces. Relying on the majority of the Assembly obedient to him, the Anglo-American bloc succeeded in rejecting the Soviet proposal.
3. The fight against the instigators of a new war. 18. IX 1947 the head of the USSR delegation at the second session of the General Assembly, A. Ya. Vyshinsky, on behalf of the government of the USSR, made a proposal to combat the instigators of a new war. It was proposed to condemn "the criminal propaganda of a new war carried out by reactionary circles in a number of countries, and especially in the United States of America, Turkey, Greece", to point out that the admission and even more support of this kind of propaganda of a new war is a violation of the duty assumed by the members of the UN , and "call on the governments of all countries to prohibit, under pain of criminal punishment, any form of war propaganda ... as a socially dangerous activity that threatens the vital interests and well-being of peace-loving peoples." Further, it was proposed to reaffirm the need for the speediest implementation of the decisions of the Assembly of 14 October 1946 on the reduction of armaments and of 24 January 1946 on the exclusion from national armaments of atomic weapons and all other main types of weapons.
The proposal of the USSR was discussed for 6 days (22-27 October).
The US and British delegations opposed this proposal. US representative Austin called for "killing the Soviet proposal" because it allegedly contradicts freedom of speech and information. However, under the pressure of public opinion, the US delegation was forced to vote for a resolution condemning the warmongers. The adoption of this resolution was a major political victory for the Soviet Union.
4. The principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council. provided by Art. 27 of the Charter, the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council in resolving political issues by the latter, or the provision of the so-called permanent members of the Security Council. "veto rights" means that a decision on any issue other than procedural can only be taken if at least 7 votes are cast for this decision, including the concurring votes of all the permanent members of the Council. It depends on the observance of this principle whether the UN will cope with the tasks entrusted to it. “Can one count on that,” said I. V. Stalin in his report on 6. XI 1944, “that the actions of this international organization will be effective enough? They will be effective if the great powers that bear the brunt of the war against Nazi Germany on their shoulders "will continue to act in the spirit of unanimity and concord. They will not be effective if this necessary condition is violated."
The need to observe the principle of the unity of the great powers was recognized during the war by politicians in other countries as well.
At the San Francisco conference, the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council was approved and set forth in Art. 27 of the statute. This principle was guaranteed further in Art. 108 and 109 of the statutes, which indicate that amendments to the statutes adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Assembly or the General Conference convened on the basis of Art. 109 for charter revision, and ratified by two-thirds of the members of the UN, cannot enter into force unless all permanent members of the Security Council have ratified these amendments.
Soon, however, after the entry into force of the UN charter, the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Council began to be subjected to fierce attacks from a number of powers that were co-sponsors of the charter. England and the USA sought to undermine the principle of unanimity with the help of small countries subordinate to them.
At the second part of the first session of the Assembly, Cuba proposed to include in the agenda the issue of convening on the basis of Art. 109 of the Charter of the General Conference of UN Members with the aim of "amending paragraph 3 of Article 27 of the Charter in order to eliminate the provision known as the right of veto." Australia also proposed that the issue of the application of Art. 27 of the statute.
The Soviet delegation resolutely opposed the restriction of the rights of the permanent members of the Council. The head of the USSR delegation, V. M. Molotov, in his speech at the plenary meeting of the Assembly on 29.X.1946, pointed out that "the rejection of the principle of unanimity of the great powers - which, in essence, is hidden behind the proposal to cancel the" veto "- would mean liquidation of the United Nations, since this principle is the foundation of this organization." Those "people and entire influential groups ... who do not want to put up with less than the obedience of all peoples to their dictate, their gold bag" are striving to eliminate the principle of unanimity of the great powers.
A proposal by Australia to indicate in an Assembly Resolution that "in a number of cases the use and threat of use of the veto" was inconsistent with the purposes and principles of the charter was rejected. The delegations of all five Great Powers voted against this clause.
The proposal to convene a General Conference was also rejected. The Assembly adopted a resolution in which it recommended that the permanent members of the Council consult among themselves, and the Council "to adopt a procedure and procedure that does not violate the provisions of the Charter", but contributes to the rapid performance of the Council's functions, and in adopting this procedure and procedure, take into account the views expressed by UN members . The USSR delegation voted against this resolution, the US and British delegations voted in favor of the resolution, the French and Chinese delegations abstained.
At the second session of the Assembly, Argentina and Australia again proposed that a General Conference be convened to revise the statutes. In his speech at the plenary session of the Assembly on 18. IX 1947, the head of the USSR delegation, A. Ya. consistent and unconditional observance of one of the most important principles of the organization of the United Nations - the principle of coordination and unanimity of the great powers in solving the most important issues of maintaining international peace and security.This is in full accordance with the special responsibility of these powers for the preservation of world peace and is a guarantee of protecting the interests of all countries - Members of the United Nations, large and small.
The Soviet Union considers it its duty to resolutely fight against any attempt to shake this principle, no matter what motives these attempts may be covered with.
The US delegation proposed that the question of the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council be referred to an intersessional committee, the very creation of which is contrary to the provisions of the charter. The delegations of England, France and China supported this proposal, and it was adopted by the Assembly.
The USSR delegation voted against this resolution. The head of the Soviet delegation declared at the plenary session of the Assembly on 21.XI.1947 that this resolution "is a direct attack on the rule of unanimity, which in turn is one of the most important and basic principles of the UN, one of the powerful and real means of ensuring the unity of the great powers, the basis of cooperation peace-loving peoples. This resolution completes a certain stage of the campaign against the principle of unanimity, a campaign led by the government of the United States of America, which should bear full responsibility for the consequences that the adoption and implementation of this resolution will inevitably entail.
At the third session of the Assembly, the United States, Britain, France and China introduced and secured the Assembly's approval of a resolution recommending that the Security Council resolve a number of important political issues by procedural vote. The approval of this project is a direct violation of the UN Charter.
5. Greek question. In February 1946, the government of the USSR proposed to discuss the need for the withdrawal of British troops from Greece. The representative of the USSR A. Ya. Vyshinsky, in his letter, noting the extremely tense situation in Greece, pointed out that the presence of British troops in Greece was not necessary, that it had actually turned into a means of pressure on the internal political situation in the country and was used by reactionary elements in Greece against democratic forces of the country. The Soviet government demanded the withdrawal of British troops from Greece.
In view of the opposition rendered by Great Britain, the USA, China, Australia and a number of other members of the Security Council to the proposal of the USSR, the Council did not take any decision.
On 4.XII 1946 the Greek government filed a complaint with the Security Council against its northern neighbors (Albania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria), accusing them of helping the Greek partisans. The Security Council considered this issue for almost 8 months. A special commission was sent to the Balkans, in which all members of the Security Council were represented, to study the situation on the ground.
Having failed to achieve its goals in the Security Council, the US government decided to take the issue to the General Assembly.
At the second session of the Assembly, the US delegation introduced a draft resolution in which Albania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria were responsible for the situation in Greece. The US proposal further provided for the establishment of an ad hoc committee on the Balkans to oversee the implementation of the Assembly resolution and to recommend, if it considered necessary, the convening of a special session of the Assembly.
The USSR delegation objected to the US delegation's proposal, since it only worsened the situation in the Balkans and violated the sovereignty of Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Albania. The USSR delegation submitted a draft resolution, which proposed: a) the Greek government should put an end to border incidents on the northern borders of Greece; b) withdraw from Greece foreign troops and foreign military missions; c) set up a special committee to oversee that the foreign economic aid provided to Greece is used only in the interests of the Greek people, etc.
The US Delegation, relying on a mechanical majority, achieved acceptance of its proposal. The head of the USSR delegation, A. Ya. Vyshinsky, declared that the functions and powers of the committee being created were incompatible with the sovereignty of UN members and contradicted the UN charter, that the USSR would therefore not participate either in the elections of the committee on the Balkans, or in the work of this committee. Similar statements were made by the delegates of Poland, the BSSR, the Ukrainian SSR, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
The internal situation in Greece, due to the increased interference of the United States and England in its affairs, worsened. The activities of the Special Committee, aimed at facilitating the suppression of the people's liberation struggle in Greece and reinforcing the artificial accusations leveled by the Greek monarcho-fascists against Greece's northern neighbors, only aggravated the situation in the Balkans.
At the third session of the Assembly, the USSR delegation proposed to withdraw foreign troops and military personnel from Greece and to abolish the Balkan Commission. Under pressure from the Anglo-American bloc, this proposal was rejected by the Assembly. The Anglo-American majority thereby demonstrated its unwillingness to ensure a normal situation in Greece and to achieve the establishment of good neighborly relations between Greece and its northern neighbors.
6. Spanish question. On April 9, 1946, the Polish government asked the Secretary General to include the question of Spain on the agenda of the Security Council. The letter stated that the activities of the Franco regime had already caused international friction and posed a threat to international peace and security.
The Security Council discussed the Spanish question from 17. IV to 26. VI 1946. The representative of Poland proposed to the Security Council to adopt a resolution obliging all members of the UN to immediately break off diplomatic relations with Franco. The representative of the USSR supported this proposal, but under pressure from the United States, the majority of the members of the Security Council rejected the proposal of Wormwood.
In October 1946, at the suggestion of the delegations of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Norway, and Venezuela, the Spanish question was put before the Assembly. The General Assembly adopted a resolution stating that "the fascist government of Franco in Spain, forcibly imposed on the Spanish people with the help of the Axis powers and having provided significant assistance to the Axis powers in the war, does not represent the Spanish people", and recommended "to deprive the Franco government of the right to enter international institutions created by the United Nations or put in connection with them", and all UN members "to immediately recall their ambassadors and envoys from Madrid".
In implementation of this resolution, the UN members who had their ambassadors and envoys in Spain recalled them. Only Argentina, contrary to the decision of the Assembly, appointed its ambassador to Spain.
At the second session of the Assembly, the Spanish question was again discussed. The delegations of the United States, Argentina and a number of other countries, primarily Latin American, achieved that the 2nd paragraph of the resolution of the first session of the Assembly on depriving the Franco government of the right to join international institutions created by the UN, and on the recall of ambassadors and envoys of member states from Madrid UN - was excluded from the resolution. By this, the United States and the countries following in the wake of American policy have shown their interest in preserving the hotbed of fascism in Europe.
7. The question of Indonesia. On January 21, 1946, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Ukrainian SSR, D. Z. Manuilsky, addressed a letter to the Chairman of the Security Council, in which, pointing out that in Indonesia "for a number of months, military operations have been carried out against the local population, in which they take part as regular British troops and enemy Japanese military forces" and that "this situation creates a state of threat to the maintenance of international peace and security," requested the Security Council to investigate the situation and take appropriate action.
Representatives of England (Bevin) and Holland (Van Kleffens), without denying the existence of hostilities in Indonesia, blamed the Indonesians for this and declared that hostilities were being waged against "terrorists".
The representative of the USSR A. Ya. Vyshinsky, demonstrating the groundlessness of the arguments of Bevin and Van Cleffens, pointed out that the events in Indonesia were not an internal affair of Holland, since they threatened international peace and security, and proposed the creation of a commission to investigate the situation in Indonesia from representatives of the USSR, USA, England, China and Holland.
U.S. Representative Stettinius objected to this proposal; he was supported by the representative of Brazil. During the voting, the proposal of the USSR was rejected.
In July 1947 the Indonesian question again arose in the Security Council, but in a different context. Military operations in Indonesia carried out by Holland against the Indonesian Republic, despite Lingajat Agreement(see), did not stop. Australia and India have asked the Security Council to look into the matter and recommend an immediate cessation of hostilities. The representative of the USSR supported this proposal and recommended that a representative of the Indonesian Republic be invited to the meeting of the Soviet. 31 . VII 1947 The Security Council began to consider the Indonesian question.
1. VIII 1947 The Security Council decided to invite Holland and Indonesia to immediately cease hostilities.
This decision of the Security Council was brought to the attention of the Dutch Government and the Government of the Republic of Indonesia. But it didn't give any results. The committee elected by the Security Council, consisting of Australia, Belgium and the United States, did not help the cause either.
At the end of September 1947, the Council received from Batavia a report from the consuls on the situation in Indonesia. This report was discussed by the Council throughout October. The proposal of the USSR delegation to withdraw the Dutch and Indonesian troops to their original positions was rejected.
1. The XI Security Council adopted by 7 votes to 1 (Poland) with 3 abstentions (USSR, Syria, Colombia) the proposal of the representative of the United States, according to which the Netherlands and Indonesia were called for immediate consultations between themselves on the question of the implementation of the Security Council resolution of 1. VIII 1947 This decision essentially only encouraged the aggressive actions of Holland in Indonesia.
17. I 1948 was signed Renville Agreement(see), which legitimized the capture by the Dutch of areas of great economic and military importance. But this agreement, too, was systematically violated by the Dutch. They shied away from negotiations with the Republicans, increased their armed forces in Indonesia and were preparing to create the so-called. United States of Indonesia, subject to the Dutch crown. The violations of the Renville Agreement by the Dutch were so obvious that even the impartial "Committee of Good Offices" in its report to the Security Council of 12.XII 1948 was forced to admit that the actions of the Dutch "may create serious anxiety in Indonesia", which could lead to an armed conflict on a large scale .
On December 14, 1948, the government of the Indonesian Republic addressed the Security Council with a statement in which it indicated that the situation in Indonesia posed a threat to peace, and asked the Security Council to take measures to ensure, firstly, that the situation did not worsen and, secondly, secondly, to resume negotiations between the Netherlands and the Indonesian Republic on the basis of the Renville Agreement. On 17.XII 1948, the Dutch government presented an ultimatum to the Indonesian Republic, in which it demanded that the government of the Republic declare its unconditional consent to the decree on the inclusion of the Indonesian Republic in the so-called. United States of Indonesia.
The answer to this ultimatum was to be given by the republican government by 10 a.m. on the morning of December 18, 1948. On the night of December 19, 1948, Dutch troops began hostilities and, taking advantage of their military superiority, captured all the important centers of the republic within a few days. At the same time, the Dutch authorities deprived the members and employees of the "Committee of Good Offices" of communications in Batavia. Only on December 21, 1948, the committee was able to inform the Security Council about the outbreak of hostilities.
On December 22, 1948, at a meeting of the Security Council, the representative of the USSR proposed condemning the Dutch aggressors, demanding an immediate cessation of hostilities and the withdrawal of Dutch troops to their original positions. To monitor the implementation of this decision, the representative of the USSR suggested establishing a commission of representatives of all members of the Security Council. The proposal of the USSR was rejected by the Council on the grounds that this issue was supposedly an internal affair of Holland. The Council limited itself to calling on both sides to stop hostilities. The Dutch government ignored this call.
On December 27, 1948, the representative of the Ukrainian SSR in the Security Council proposed that the Dutch troops be withdrawn to the borders established by the Renville Agreement. On the same day, the representative of the USSR proposed that hostilities be stopped within 24 hours. The US and other patrons of the Dutch aggressors in the Security Council rejected these proposals.
Despite the occupation by the Dutch troops of almost the entire territory of Indonesia, the Indonesian people did not lay down their arms. Most of the armed forces of Indonesia went into the forests and mountains. A guerrilla war broke out.
28. I 1949 The Security Council, at the proposal of the United States, Norway and Cuba, adopted a resolution on the Indonesian question, in which, in particular, it “calls on the government of the Netherlands to ensure the immediate cessation of all military operations, calls on the government of the republic to order its armed adherents to stop the guerrilla war and calls on both sides cooperate in restoring peace..." The Soviet proposal to withdraw the Dutch troops in Indonesia to their original positions was again rejected by the Soviet. The Council's resolution does not contain a single word of condemnation of the Dutch aggressors.
The Dutch government did not respond to this appeal of the Council either and continued the war.
One of the reasons for such a policy of the Dutch colonialists and their unleashing an aggressive war in Indonesia is the fact that the Security Council, which is entrusted with the main responsibility for maintaining international peace and security, did not fulfill its duties due to the policy of the USA, England, France and other patrons of the Dutch colonialists. . The creation by the Soviet of a "Committee of Good Offices" only made it easier for the ruling circles of Holland to prepare for a new aggression against the peoples of Indonesia.
8. Incident in the Strait of Corfu (Albanian issue). 10.1.1947 England raised before the Security Council the question of the incident that occurred on 22.X.1946 in the Corfu Strait, when two British destroyers, passing in the territorial waters of Albania, were blown up by wandering mines. The British blamed Albania for laying the mines. The Security Council discussed this question from 28. I to 9. IV. Representatives of the United States, China, France, Belgium, Colombia and Brazil supported the British accusations against Albania. The representatives of Poland and Syria pointed out that the Security Council had no direct evidence of Albania's guilt and recommended that the issue be referred to the International Court of Justice.
The representative of the USSR came out in defense of Albania, demonstrating the groundlessness of the British accusation. The majority of votes were cast for the English draft resolution of the Security Council. Representatives of the USSR and Poland voted against. The resolution was rejected because the unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council was not reached.
9. IV The Security Council adopted a resolution recommending that England and Albania refer the dispute to the International Court of Justice. Representatives of the USSR and Poland abstained from voting.
9. Palestinian question. After the Second World War, England, taking into account the military-strategic importance of Palestine, its position on world sea and air routes, as well as at the outlet of Middle Eastern oil to the Mediterranean Sea, tried at all costs to maintain its dominance over this country. At the same time, the United States sought to oust England from its dominant positions and establish its control over Palestine. At the same time, England relied, starting in 1939, mainly on Arab feudal circles, and the United States, on Jewish bourgeois nationalists - Zionists.
On April 30, 1946, the report of the Anglo-American Commission on the Palestine Question was published, which was set up without the knowledge of the UN. The Commission recommended that the English mandate be maintained indefinitely. On this basis, it was developed in July 1946, the so-called. "Morrison plan" (cf. on the Palestinian question>>), which, however, was rejected not only by Arabs and Jews, but also by the US government, which disavowed its experts. Truman's refusal to accept the "Morrison Plan" led to a sharp controversy between the statesmen of England and the United States. After the failure of this plan, British policy in Palestine reached a dead end. Britain was forced to refer the Palestinian question to the UN for discussion. For this purpose, a special session of the UN General Assembly was convened, which took place in New York from 28. IV to 15. V 1947.
Under pressure from the United States and Britain, the agenda of the session was limited to a procedural question: the creation and instructions of a special UN commission to prepare for consideration of the Palestinian question during the next session of the General Assembly. An instruction was adopted defining the functions and powers of this commission, and the United States succeeded in rejecting the proposal of the Soviet delegation to include in the instruction a clause that would oblige the commission to prepare proposals for the immediate creation of an independent state in Palestine.
The Soviet delegate A. A. Gromyko, in his speech at the extraordinary session of the UN (May 14, 1947), stated the bankruptcy of the mandate system, the impossibility of resolving the Palestinian question on the basis of a mandate, and the need to cancel the mandate and declare the independence of Palestine. He pointed out that the legitimate interests of the Arab and Jewish peoples of Palestine could be properly protected by the establishment in Palestine of an independent dual democratic Arab-Jewish state. However, in case of impossibility - due to the deteriorated relations between Jews and Arabs - to implement this decision, A. A. Gromyko suggested considering the second option: the project of dividing Palestine into two independent democratic states - Jewish and Arab.
The UN Commission, which completed its work on 1. IX 1947, came to the unanimous conclusion that the Mandate for Palestine should cease to be valid as soon as possible. Palestine, after a transitional period, should gain independence and preserve its economic integrity.
In addition to these unanimously adopted recommendations, the majority of the UN commission spoke in favor of dividing Palestine into two independent states - Arab and Jewish, with the allocation of Jerusalem and some of the surrounding areas to a special district under the tutelage and control of the UN. The minority of the commission spoke in favor of the creation in Palestine of a federal state (republic) consisting of the Arab and Jewish states.
The Soviet Union and the people's democracies pointed out that the recommendations of the minority had a number of advantages and advantages, but in the current situation, in view of the soured relations between Arabs and Jews, they were practically impossible to implement. Therefore, the delegations of these countries supported as the only feasible decision in the given situation the decision of the majority of the UN Commission, pointing out that the creation in Palestine of two democratic independent states, along with the abolition of the mandate and the withdrawal of British troops from the country, would provide the peoples of Palestine with the possibility of self-determination, national equality and peaceful coexistence.
The United States and a number of states dependent on them supported the recommendations of the majority and advocated the division of Palestine into two states, but by no means insisted on the elimination of the colonial regime.
The Arab states categorically objected to the report of the UN commission and insisted on the formation of a "unitary state" in Palestine.
As for England, its representatives at the 2nd session of the UN verbally declared their readiness to cancel the mandate, but these statements were accompanied by numerous reservations, indicating the actual unwillingness of England to cooperate with the UN and comply with its decisions.
29. XI 1947 The UN General Assembly adopted a resolution based on the recommendations of the majority of the UN Commission.
After the second session, England began to seek to disrupt the decisions of the Assembly, provoking for this purpose a series of new armed clashes between Arabs and Jews. British diplomats put forward a secret plan for the annexation of Palestine to Transjordan (or the division of Palestine between the Arab states).
In turn, the United States changed its position and put forward a proposal to transfer Palestine under the trusteeship of the UN. To consider this proposal, a special session of the UN General Assembly was convened, which took place in New York from April 16 to May 14, 1948. At the session, representatives of the USSR showed that the United States wanted to preserve the colonial regime in Palestine under the guise of guardianship.
Trying to save the American plan, the representative of England made a proposal to establish a so-called. "temporary regime", or "neutral authority". The Soviet delegation showed that the new British proposal did not essentially differ from the American one.
The proclamation of the Jewish State of Israel in Palestine (14 May 1948) showed that the plans of England and the United States were unrealistic. While the American delegate to the UN was still trying to defend the British proposal, it became known that Truman had taken a new turn in US Palestinian policy and recognized the de facto state of Israel.
The session adopted only one decision: to appoint Count Folke Bernadotte, who was connected with the Anglo-American ruling circles, to Palestine as a UN mediator.
After the formation of the State of Israel, it was recognized by the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Finland, Uruguay, Nicaragua, Venezuela and the Union of South Africa. England and under its influence France and the Benelux countries refused to recognize the state of Israel.
The question of the war that broke out in Palestine between the Arab states and the State of Israel was brought up for discussion by the Security Council. Under British pressure, the Security Council adopted on 22.V an ineffective resolution containing only a call for a truce, without reference to Art. 39 of the UN Charter (which provides for the application of sanctions in case of a threat to the peace and violation of the peace).
The Arab states rejected the call of the Security Council, and on May 26 a British proposal was accepted to call on the belligerents to establish a four-week truce on the terms proposed by the Arab states. After lengthy negotiations, this truce came into force (11. VI 1948).
To monitor the implementation of the terms of the truce, the UN mediator Bernadotte invited American, French and Belgian military observers to Palestine. The demand of the Soviet Union for the appointment of military observers also from other member states of the Security Council was rejected by the Security Council.
In May-June 1948, secret negotiations were held between the United States and Britain, as a result of which a common Anglo-American policy on the Palestinian question was again outlined.
On the basis of the Anglo-American conspiracy, Bernadotte handed the following proposals to the governments of the Arab states and the state of Israel on June 28, 1948: an alliance is created as part of the Arab (including the Arab part of Palestine and Transjordan) and the Jewish states; the union should coordinate not only economic activities, but also foreign policy and defense issues. In addition, significant territorial changes were envisaged.
On July 6, 1948, Bernadotte's proposals were rejected by both the State of Israel and the Arab states.
The representative of the USSR in the Security Council A. A. Gromyko and the representative of Ukraine D. Z. Manuilsky sharply criticized Bernadotte’s proposals, pointing out that he exceeded his authority by developing a plan that contradicted the UN resolution on Palestine of 29. XI 1947.
9. VII 1943, after the expiration of the truce, the Arab states resumed hostilities, but under the threat of sanctions, agreed to extend the truce for an indefinite period. 19. VII military operations were formally painted over. Nevertheless, in the future there were repeated cases of violation of the truce, as a result of which in August - December 1948 the Security Council more than once returned to discussing the situation in Palestine.
17. IX 1948, on the eve of the opening of the third session of the UN, Bernadotte was assassinated in Jerusalem. His new proposals on the Palestinian question were published after his death. This time the question of a "union" of Israel and Transjordan was not raised, but, as in the previous draft, it was proposed to annex the Arab part of Palestine and the Negev to Transjordan, i.e., in essence, to place these regions under the actual control of England. The United States, while agreeing to the annexation of the Arab part of Palestine to Transjordan and supporting England in this matter, at the same time insisted on keeping the Negev within the state of Israel. In December 1948, the third session of the UN General Assembly rejected Britain's proposal to annex the Arab part of Palestine and the Negev to Transjordan.
In order to achieve the implementation of the Bernadotte plan and the disruption of those that began on 13. I 1949 on about. Rhodes peace talks between Egypt and Israel, England transferred large military reinforcements to the Aqaba region (Transjordan) and tried to provoke a military clash with Israel in January 1949.
The Anglo-American contradictions that aggravated as a result of this were partially settled by an agreement under which England (January 29, 1949) and other states of the "Western bloc" recognized the state of Israel de facto, and the United States recognized Israel and Transjordan de jure, and the state of Israel received an American loan in $100 million on terms that make him dependent on the United States. In February - April 1949, Israel concluded agreements on the cessation of hostilities with Egypt, Transjordan, Lebanon and Syria.
On April 26, 1949, a conference was opened in Lausanne with the participation of Israel, the four indicated Arab states and members of the Conciliation Commission, formed by decision of the third session of the UN. The conference was unable to resolve issues connected with a peaceful settlement and which were the object of contradictions between Britain and the USA (territorial issues, the problem of refugees, etc.). These issues are referred to the discussion of the fourth session of the UN General Assembly. 11. V 1949 Israel is admitted to membership in the United Nations.
III. Evaluation of the activities of the UN
There are serious shortcomings in the work of the UN. “These shortcomings,” said the head of the Soviet delegation, A. Ya. Vyshinsky, in his speech at the plenary session of the Assembly on 18. IX. basis of the organization, and in some cases in direct violation of a number of important decisions of the General Assembly.
These shortcomings are largely the result of the desire of such influential member states of the United Nations as the United States, as well as Great Britain, to use the organization in their narrow group interests, neglecting the interests of international cooperation on the basis of the principles expressed in the charter. The policy of using the organization by individual states in their selfish, narrowly understood interests leads to the undermining of its authority, just as it happened with the sad memory of the League of Nations.
On the other hand, the unsatisfactory state of affairs in the United Nations organization, which negatively affects its authority, was the result of ignoring the organization on the part of the above-mentioned states, which are trying to implement a number of practical measures outside and bypassing the United Nations organization.
The most important shortcomings are the unsatisfactory progress in the implementation of the decision of the Assembly of December 14, 1946 on the general reduction of armaments and the unsatisfactory state of affairs with the prohibition of atomic weapons and other basic means of mass destruction. Vivid examples of violations of the principles of the UN and ignoring it are the so-called. Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan. It is abnormal that foreign armed forces continue to be present on the territories of UN member states, being a means of political interference in their internal affairs. The events in Indonesia cannot be qualified otherwise than as an act of aggression committed against the Indonesian people by Holland, a UN member state. Not showing due attention to eliminating the unsatisfactory state of affairs in resolving these issues, some influential powers (the United States, Britain) are showing particular interest in the Iranian issue, which continued to be on the agenda of the Security Council long after it was completely settled, and also after the appeal of the Iran with a request to remove this item from the agenda of the Council.
The unsatisfactory position in the United Nations is not accidental, but is a consequence of the attitude towards the organization on the part of a number of countries - members of this organization - and primarily the United States and Great Britain. Such an attitude does not contribute to the strengthening of the United Nations and does not serve the cause of international cooperation. On the contrary, it leads to the weakening and loosening of the United Nations organization, which undoubtedly corresponds to the plans and intentions of the reactionary circles in the above countries, under whose influence the corresponding policy is being pursued.
Diplomatic Dictionary. - M.: State publishing house of political literature. A. Ya. Vyshinsky, S. A. Lozovsky. 1948 .
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The UN as the most universal international organization includes a number of bodies and international organizations.
Economic issues occupy a prominent place in the activities of the UN General Assembly, the most representative body of this most authoritative international organization. The main UN body coordinating all economic, social and cultural activities is the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Its competence also includes humanitarian problems.
The Council consists of 54 members who are elected by the UN General Assembly for a period of three years. One third of the members are elected each year. The following representation norms are established in the Council: Asia - 11, Africa - 14, Eastern Europe - 6, Western Europe - 13, Latin America - 10. Council meetings are held alternately in New York and Geneva. Decisions in ECOSOC are made by a simple majority vote, each council member has one vote, and no country has a veto. ECOSOC consists of three sessional committees: First (economic), Second (social), Third (on programs and cooperation). All members of the Council sit on each of these committees.
The council has 5 UN regional commissions: Economic Commission for Europe (Geneva, Switzerland), Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok, Thailand), Economic Commission for Africa (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia), Economic Commission for Latin America and Caribbean (Santiago, Chile), Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (Beirut, Lebanon). Regional economic organizations study the economic and social problems of the respective regions and develop recommendations, and also carry out the functions of a research, advisory, information and analytical nature.
In 1964 The UN General Assembly established the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The headquarters of UNCTAD is located in Geneva. The number of members of the organization exceeds 190. This organization is called upon to consider the whole range of issues related to international trade and development, including the principles of exchange and trade in raw materials and manufactured goods, financing of development projects, issues of external debt, technology transfer to developing countries. UNCTAD devotes considerable attention to the situation of the least developed countries.
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP), established in 1965, is headquartered in New York, in 166 countries. The main task of this organization is defined as assistance to countries in familiarizing themselves with the knowledge and world experience in development in order to improve their socio-economic situation. UNDP compiles and publishes the Human Development Report annually. One of the main indicators of these reports is the “Human Development Index”, which summarizes data on three main indicators:
- a) the life expectancy of a healthy person
- b) level of education
- c) standard of living
Table 1. UN Special Agencies Grechnikova I.N. International economic organizations: regulation of world economic relations and entrepreneurial activity - Consultbanker, 2000. - p.50.
|
Title in Russian |
Year of creation or establishment |
Location |
|
International Labor Organization, ILO |
||
|
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO |
||
|
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO |
||
|
World Health Organization, WHO |
||
|
World Bank Group International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, IBRD International Development Association, IDA International Finance Corporation, IFC Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, MIGA International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes, ICSID |
Washington Washington Washington Washington Washington |
|
|
International Monetary Fund, IMF |
Washington |
|
|
International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO |
Montreal |
|
|
Universal Postal Union, UPU |
||
|
International Telecommunication Union, ITU |
||
|
World Meteorological Organization, WMO |
||
|
International Maritime Organization, IMO |
||
|
World Intellectual Property Organization, WIPO |
||
|
International Fund for Agricultural Development, IFAD |
||
|
United Nations Industrial Development Organization, UNIDO |
As can be seen from the table, some international organizations appeared much earlier than the UN and only later received the status of specialized agencies. For example, the ILO, which became the first specialized agency of the UN, 1946.
The ILO develops international policies and programs in the field of labor relations, adopts international labor standards, promotes their adoption by member countries, and assists in the organization of vocational education and training.
The ILO has a unique character: representatives of governments, workers and employers participate on equal terms in the preparation of decisions. The main body of the ILO - the International Labor Conference, where each country is represented by four delegates, is convened at least once a year. Each delegate votes individually.
UNIDO acquired the status of a specialized agency of the United Nations in 1985. The main efforts of UNIDO are aimed at mobilizing knowledge, skills, information and technologies to create new jobs, competitiveness of the economy and environmentally sound and sustainable economic development. All this should contribute to the reduction of poverty in the world.
UNIDO activities are carried out in the form of:
- a) integrated programs
- b) individual projects.
The main sources of funds for the implementation of UNIDO projects are the United Nations Development Program.
In the financial and banking sector, a prominent place is occupied by specialized UN agencies - the IMF and organizations that are members of the World Bank Group.
The United Nations system comprises the United Nations itself and its specialized agencies, funds and programmes. Organizations of the World Bank Group - IMF belong to the specialized agencies of the UN, but they are not included in the general system. Most of these structures have agreed to standardize civil service conditions and participate in the work of the International Civil Service Commission (ICSC). This means that they agreed to build a civil service on the principles of science, consistency, functionality, international legal order, and high moral stability.
The structure of the UN civil service naturally corresponds to the structure of the UN itself.
| Year of creation | ORGANIZATION | Headquarters location |
| UN - United Nations | ||
| UNITED NATIONS FUNDS AND PROGRAMS | ||
| UNICEF - United Nations Children's Fund | New York | |
| UNRWA - United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East | strip | |
| UNHCR - Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees | Geneva | |
| WFP - World Food Program | Rome | |
| UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development | Geneva | |
| UNDP - United Nations Development Program | New York | |
| UNITAR - United Nations Institute for Training and Research | Geneva | |
| UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund | New York | |
| UNEP - United Nations Environment Program | Nairobi | |
| UNU - United Nations University | Tokyo | |
| UNCHS - United Nations Center for Human Settlements | Nairobi | |
| UNOPS - United Nations Office for Project Services | New York | |
| UN REGIONAL COMMISSIONS | ||
| EEC - Economic Commission for Europe | Geneva | |
| ESCAP - Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific | Bangkok | |
| ECLAC - Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean | Santiago | |
| ECA - Economic Commission for Africa | Addis Ababa | |
| ESCWA - Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia | Beirut | |
| SPECIALIZED INSTITUTIONS AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS | ||
| ITU - International Telecommunication Union | Geneva | |
| WMO - World Meteorological Organization | Geneva | |
| UPU - Universal Postal Union | Berne | |
| WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization | Geneva | |
| ILO - International Labor Organization | Geneva | |
| World Bank - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development | Washington | |
| IMF - International Monetary Fund | Washington | |
| FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | Rome | |
| UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization | Paris | |
| ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization | Montreal | |
| WHO - World Health Organization | Geneva | |
| IFC - International Finance Corporation | Washington | |
| IAEA* - International Atomic Energy Agency | Vein | |
| IMO - International Maritime Organization | London | |
| IDA - International Development Association | Washington | |
| IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development | Rome | |
| UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization | Vein | |
| WTO - World Trade Organization | Geneva |
* The IAEA is not a specialized agency; it is an intergovernmental organization linked to the UN not through ECOSOC, but through the UN General Assembly.
Each international organization has its own civil service. However, since the emergence of the UN and its specialized agencies, the idea of creating a unified international civil service has appeared. To this end, inter-organizational personnel agreements have been concluded between the UN and a number of specialized agencies aimed at resolving a number of common problems facing the international civil services of the UN system.
The concept of international civil service is now universally accepted. World practice has shown that when employees of different countries work in secretariats and are financially completely independent of their state, they are much more efficient and can perform a wide variety of functions where an impartial approach is required. Largely due to this independence, the UN Secretariat and many specialized organizations were able, on the whole, to successfully withstand the test of the Cold War, to refrain from slipping into the position of one or another of the conflicting parties or groups.
In order to prevent political divisions within the UN itself from having a direct impact on the work of the specialized agencies, the founding states gave the common system of the international civil service decentralized character, which gives each of them considerable independence. Over time, the system has evolved, becoming more ambitious and multifaceted. Accordingly, the task of intrasystem coordination became more complicated. States and international organizations themselves have matured understanding that a coherent policy in personnel and administrative matters is one of the few factors that bind the organizations of the common system.
Summing up the above, it can be determined that the United Nations system includes a number of autonomous organizations, which, on the basis of the agreements reached, have become participants in mechanisms that provide a common basis for human resources management. Its main elements are those elements of the Human Resources Framework that the United Nations system organizations bring together in order to (a) avoid any competition in recruitment that may result from significant pay differentials; b) promote the common values of the international civil service; c) promote mobility and, to some extent, rotation of staff, in this case within the system.
At the same time, it should be noted that the United Nations system organizations are characterized by three other features inherent only to them, which in one way or another affect the management of human resources and draw a clear line of distinction between national and international civil services:
Their system of governance: all organizations are accountable to a large number of Member States, which determine their tasks, mandates and strategies;
Their legal status: these organizations are extraterritorial and are not subject to national legislation and international labor conventions;
Their international, multicultural nature: the goals and activities of the organizations are global in nature, and their employees are recruited from different countries of the world.
The characteristics that distinguish the international civil service from the national one should also include the fact that the latter, being part of the state system, participates in ensuring the implementation of the constitutional right of a citizen of his country to work, i.e. permanent employment.
The international civil service has no such obligations. From this angle, one can view the entire human resources management system in MMPO, including the terms of employment and the duration of employment agreements/contracts, the objectives and meaning of professional training and retraining of personnel, and a number of other elements, including mobility or staff rotation.
Mobility is of particular importance in the management of human resources, including both the rotation of personnel within and between organizations of the common system, and with national civil services, other national organizations and institutions, allowing the recruitment of personnel necessary to carry out the ever-increasing tasks of the IMPO, which are far from always have sufficient time and funds to train such personnel from internal resources, including human resources.
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In April 1945, in San Francisco, after almost a month of negotiations between the head of Soviet diplomacy, People's Commissar (since 1946 - Minister) of Foreign Affairs of the USSR V. Molotov and the head of the American delegation, Republican Senator Arthur Hendrik Vandenberg, the drafting the UN Charter. It was submitted for approval to a conference to which 42 countries that had declared war on Germany or Japan before March 1, 1945 were invited. Invitations were sent out on behalf of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and China, which signed on January 1, 1942. United Nations Declaration. Subsequently, the number of participants in the San Francisco Conference increased to 50 states. The conference continued until June 26, 1945, and ended with the signing of the Charter, which entered into force in October of that year.
UN: who created the organization and why!
The United Nations was to become the main instrument of world political regulation, just as the Bretton Woods institutions were to become the basis for world economic regulation. The Soviet Union, evading participation in the regulation of international economic relations, focused on world political regulation. There were reasons for this, the main of which was the statutory decision-making procedure in the UN favorable for the USSR. This procedure was two-stage. The bottom link of the organization is the general meeting of the UN member states, General Assembly - had the right to make only advisory decisions. Top link - Security Council - had broad powers, including the right to apply sanctions against certain states.
According to the UN Charter, the USSR, along with the United States, Great Britain, France and China, received a place as a permanent, irremovable member of the Security Council. In addition, all key decisions of the Council, according to the Charter, were taken not by a majority of votes, but by consensus- with the obligatory consent with the decision of all five permanent members of the Security Council. In other words, each of the permanent members received the right to veto any decision.
The UN turned out to be the only institution where the US and the USSR could cooperate in matters of world politics. But their interests in it almost always clashed.
International public law. Test 1
Therefore, in fact, the main real function of the UN was not to improve the world, but not to allow war between the USSR and the USA.
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What is the UN and why was this organization created?
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International law
Lecture notes. Taganrog: TTI SFU, 2011.
Lecture 7. International organizations
7.2. United Nations
The idea of creating the United Nations arose during the Second World War as an organization aimed at maintaining international peace and security. For the first time, the need to create an international organization designed to promote the maintenance of international peace and security was expressed in the Atlantic Charter on August 14, 1941. The term "United Nations" itself arose at the Washington Conference in 1942, in which 26 states of the anti-Hitler coalition took part, where it was adopted Declaration of the United Nations on the unification of the efforts of states in the fight against the Triple Alliance. The Moscow Conference of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, USA, Great Britain in October 1943 adopted a Declaration on General Security, which provided for the need to create an international organization on issues of general security. The 1943 conference in Tehran expressed the correctness of the general thrust of the Moscow Declaration of 1943 and reinforced its provisions at a higher level. An important step towards the creation of a new international organization was the conference in Dumbarton Oaks (1944), at which the draft Charter of the new organization was basically worked out. June 26, 1945
UN system
The Charter of the United Nations was adopted at a conference in San Francisco with the participation of 51 states.
The goals of the UN are: maintaining international peace and security; development of friendly relations between nations on the basis of respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples; implementation of international cooperation of states in resolving problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature; developing respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction.
The principles of the organization's activities are the basic principles of international law, enshrined in Art. 2 of the UN Charter.
The organs of the United Nations carry out their functions through the principal and subsidiary organs created by them. The main organs of the UN are: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat.
United Nations General Assembly is the only body in which all Member States are represented. Each of them has an equal position, regardless of its size, power and significance. Decisions of the UN General Assembly on issues of international peace and security are in the nature of legally non-binding recommendations. The UN General Assembly meets in ordinary, special or emergency sessions. Regular sessions are held throughout the year. The provisional agenda for a regular session of the UN General Assembly is developed by the UN Secretary General, brought to the attention of the UN member states and discussed within 2-3 weeks after the start of the UN session. Within the framework of the UN General Assembly, 7 main committees of the UN have been created:
1) Political and Security Committee;
2) Special political committee;
3) Committee on Economic and Financial Affairs;
4) Committee on social, humanitarian and cultural issues;
5) Trusteeship and Non-Self-Governing Territories Committee;
6) Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Affairs;
7) Legal Affairs Committee.
United Nations Security Council bears the primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. It is organized as a small, fast and timely body, which should provide prompt and effective measures for the maintenance or restoration of international peace. Currently, the UN Security Council consists of 15 states (it is planned to increase to 20 in the future), of which 5 states are permanent members of the UN Security Council.
The UN Security Council considers international disputes or situations, the continuation of which could threaten the maintenance of international peace and security. It may decide to apply measures of an economic or military nature against a violator of international peace. Members of the UN agree, in accordance with the Charter, to obey and comply with the decisions of the UN Security Council (Articles 39-50 of the UN Charter). There are two types of UNSC actions, sometimes referred to as sanctions or collective measures: action without the use of armed forces or with their use.
The UN Security Council takes its decisions when 8 members voted for them, including 5 permanent members of the Security Council. The permanent members of the UN Security Council have the "right of veto", i.e. the right to block the decision of the UN Security Council. The UNSC has two standing committees:
— Committee of Experts;
— Committee for the Admission of New Members to the United Nations. Economic and Social Council under the direction of
The UN General Assembly carries out extensive activities in connection with its tasks in the field of development of economic, social, cultural and humanitarian cooperation between the member states of the organization. EcoCoC currently consists of 54 Member States, which are elected by the UN General Assembly for 3 years. ECOCOC makes all its decisions by a majority of members present and voting. Various special committees and commissions have been created in EcoSoS (for example, the committee on natural resources, on the fight against crime, on negotiations with international organizations, etc.).
Guardian Council is the principal organ of the United Nations, acting under the authority of the UNGA. The Trusteeship Board is charged with the responsibility of overseeing the executive duties that the administering authorities have over trust territories (such territories include the Pacific Islands).
UN Secretariat consists of the General Secretary and staff.
It is the apparatus of management of the United Nations and serves its main organs.
The main problems of the UN include:
- the problem of the budget of the organization, characterized by a constant budget deficit of the organization associated with non-payment of membership dues of member states;
- the problem of reforming the UN bodies. The proposed reform of the UN bodies has not yet been implemented (expansion of the UN Security Council to 20 states, including permanent members of the UN);
- the problem of the effectiveness of the organization, characterized by the adoption of measures aimed at preventing wars. At present, there is a tendency to underestimate the role of the UN before NATO;
- the problem of trust in the organization, characterized by the passive role of the UN in the Balkan crisis, in solving the problems of the Kurds, East Timor.
Global economic organizations under the auspices of the UN.
On a global scale, international economic cooperation is developing mainly within the framework of the United Nations (UN).
The formation of the UN was historically associated with the victory of the countries participating in the anti-Hitler coalition, which predetermined the natural priority in considering foreign policy issues. However, gradually with the solution in most of the victorious states in the Second World War of the tasks of normalizing their economic situation, with the growth in the number of sovereign states that have liberated themselves from colonial dependence and their entry into the UN, as well as with the growth of the objective interconnection of various states, the United Nations began to equally consider not only foreign policy, but also social, economic and general humanitarian problems of our time with the aim of solving them in the most favorable form for the entire world community.
At present, the UN is the largest international organization established on the basis of the voluntary union of efforts of sovereign states in order to maintain and strengthen peace and security, as well as to develop international cooperation between states.
The main organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the UN Secretariat.
One of them, directly related to international economic relations, is ECOCOS - the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, under whose auspices most of the other economic bodies of this organization operate.
The functions of ECOCOS include the organization of research and the preparation of various kinds of reports and recommendations on the widest range of international economic, social, cultural and related issues.
ECOCOS is also empowered to create various bodies, on the basis of which its organizational structure is formed in the sphere of the implementation of decisions made. Currently, 54 states are members of ECOCOS, elected for a term of 3 years. At the same time, every three years, a third of the composition of ECOCOS changes. By geographical regions, the representation is formed as follows: for Asia - 11 places, for Africa - 14, for Latin America - 10, for countries of Western Europe and other countries - 13, for countries of Eastern Europe - 6 places.
Currently, within the framework of ECOCOS, various intergovernmental and functional commissions and committees operate in the UN system: statistical, commission on population, commission on transnational corporations, committee on natural resources, commission on human rights, commission on the status of women; Committee on Non-Governmental Organizations and others, which are grouped under the general name "ECOCOS subsidiary bodies".
In addition, there are five regional economic commissions within ECOCOS:
— European Economic Commission;
- Economic Commission for Africa;
- Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific;
- Economic Commission for Latin America;
— Economic Commission for Western Asia.
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is an international body designed to regulate world trade relations. The fact is that the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), created after World War II, operated until 1997 outside the UN framework. Therefore, many countries have set the task for the UN to create in its structures a more independent and universal body, called upon to regulate the complex problems of international trade on behalf of the world community.
Ministry of Economic Development of Russia
To this end, in 1964, the Trade and Development Commission was established as an autonomous body of the United Nations to promote international trade, negotiate and develop international treaties and recommendations in this area. The main body of UNCTAD is the conference, which meets in session twice a year. Secretariat located in Geneva
Since 1997, the GATT, by the decision of its members, has been transformed into the World Trade Organization, as a specialized agency of the UN.
A significant role both in the structure of the UN and according to the results of ongoing activities related to certain aspects of international economic relations is occupied by a number of specialized institutions, the creation and functioning of which is provided for by the UN Charter. These include:
— International Labor Organization (ILO);
— Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO);
— International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA);
— World Meteorological Organization (WMO);
— World Health Organization (WHO);
— World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO);
— Universal Postal Union (UPU);
— International Maritime Organization (IMO);
— International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO);
— International Telecommunication Union (ITU);
— International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD);
- Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and some others.
A special place in the international economy is occupied by the international financial specialized agencies of the United Nations
The oldest intergovernmental specialized financial institution of the UN, founded in 1944, is the International Bank for Development and Reconstruction - IBRD, which began functioning in 1946. The Bank provides medium-term and long-term loans to the governments of its countries or private organizations under the guarantee of governments and controls their use. Recipient countries are required to comply with the Bank's recommendations, provide it with reports on the use of loans and provide it with all necessary information. The interest rate on IBRD loans is set in accordance with the value of loans received by the Bank in the international capital markets, and ranges from approximately 7.5 to 8.5%. In accordance with the charter of the IBRD, only members of the International Monetary Fund - the IMF, which was also founded in 1944 and began to function with the Bank in 1946, can be its members. The purpose of the functioning of the IMF, as an intergovernmental specialized agency of the UN, is to coordinate the monetary and financial policies of its member countries and provide them with loans to regulate balance of payments and maintain exchange rates. The third specialized intergovernmental agency of the United Nations in the field of consideration of financial issues is the International Development Association - IDA, founded in 1960 with the aim of providing loans to developing countries on especially favorable terms. Since March 1988, IDA annual interest rates have averaged no more than 0.5%.
All three specialized UN agencies - IBRD, IDA and IMF are part of the International Finance Corporation, founded in 1956 as an affiliate of the IBRD with the aim of using its own resources and attracting investments from the private and mixed sectors of the national economy, mainly in developing countries.
In addition to financing capital investments, the functions of the International Finance Corporation include providing developing countries with a variety of financial and technical services, as well as organizational and advisory assistance to private investors in developing countries.
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The main bodies according to the Charter are:
— General Assembly (GA),
— Security Council (SC),
– Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC),
- Board of Trustees
- International Court,
— Secretariat.
Over 300 subsidiary bodies have been created in the history of the UN.
General Assembly- the most representative body of the UN, has the widest competence. The General Assembly is a democratic body. Each member, regardless of the size of the territory, population, economic and military power, has one vote. Each member of the UN can be represented in all bodies by one person (official representative, adviser, expert). Decisions on important issues are taken by a 2/3 majority of the members of the General Assembly present and voting. The work of the General Assembly may be attended by states that are not members of the UN, having permanent observers at the UN (Vatican, Switzerland) and not having them. The General Assembly is headed by the Secretary General. Consists of delegations from all member states. The composition of the delegation is up to 5 delegates and up to 5 deputies, as well as the required number of advisers, experts and assistants. Delegations are headed by heads of states, governments, departments of foreign affairs or other senior officials. In exceptional cases, when a threat to the peace is created or the peace is violated, and the Security Council cannot take action due to the lack of unity among its permanent members, the GA is authorized on the basis of the resolution " Unity for Peace adopted in November 1950 to immediately consider the matter and adopt a decision recommending that Member States take collective measures, including, in the event of a breach of the peace or an act of aggression, the use, if necessary, of armed forces to maintain or restore peace.
The official and working languages of the GA are English, Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish.
Order of GA meetings
— plenary sessions with the participation of all delegations,
— meetings of sessional main committees,
— meetings of subsidiary bodies created on a permanent or temporary basis (committees, commissions, centers, programs, funds, etc.).
In total there are 6 main committees of the GA:
First Committee (questions of disarmament and international security),
Second Committee (economic and financial matters),
Third Committee (social, humanitarian and cultural issues),
· Fourth Committee (special political issues and decolonization),
Fifth Committee (administrative and budgetary matters),
· Sixth Committee (legal matters).
Committees create subcommittees, working groups, in which members of state delegations take part.
Their activities are coordinated by the General Committee - created at each session, consists of the Chairman of the General Assembly, his deputies and chairmen of the committees.
Operating procedure:
- annual regular sessions(opening - 3rd Tuesday of September, ending - on the eve of the opening of the regular session),
– special(convened within 15 days from the date of the relevant request from the Security Council or from the majority of UN members),
- emergency special sessions(convened by the Secretary General within 24 hours from the date of receipt of the relevant request from the Security Council, supported by any 9 votes in the Security Council, or at the request of a majority of UN members).
At the beginning of the session, the agenda is approved, including, as a rule, 160-170 issues.
Competence of the General Assembly.
· Discusses any questions or matters within the Charter.
· Examines the general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of peace, including the principle of disarmament, and makes appropriate recommendations.
· Considers any questions related to the maintenance of peace.
· Promotes international cooperation in the political field and the progressive development of international law and its codification.
· Forms UN bodies, receives reports from them on their activities.
· Together with the Security Council elects a member of the International Court of Justice.
Security Council consists of 15 members: 5 permanent - Russia, China, France, Great Britain, USA - and 10 non-permanent - elected by the General Assembly for a period of 2 years. It has the primary responsibility for maintaining peace and security. The Council acts on behalf of the UN member states and is the main executive body of the UN, it is assigned the main role in the peaceful resolution of disputes. Decisions on procedural issues in the Council are taken by a majority of 9 votes. For other issues, a majority of 9 votes is required, but this number must include the votes of the permanent members.
SB in accordance with Art. 39 of the Charter defines Existence any threat to the peace, any breach of the peace or act of aggression and does recommendations or decides about what measures should be taken in accordance with Art. 41 and 42 to maintain or restore international peace and security.
To implement its decisions, the Security Council may adopt various sanctions.
The Security Council is assigned the role of a guarantor in resolving disputes by peaceful means. In accordance with paragraph 2 of Art. 33 " The Security Council shall, when it deems it necessary, require the parties to resolve their dispute by such means.».
These powers of the Security Council do not deprive states of their inalienable right to individual or collective self-defence.
If an armed attack occurs on a member of the Organization, then the victim state has the right to self-defense until the Security Council takes its own measures necessary to maintain international peace and security (Article 51 of the Charter).
The Security Council is authorized, in case of ineffectiveness or insufficiency of the measures taken or non-fulfillment of its decisions, to apply the following measures to the guilty party in their following sequence:
United Nations
Preventive (temporary) measures (Articles 33-40 of the Charter), expressed in:
- the Council's requirement for the disputing parties to resolve the dispute by negotiation, examination, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, litigation, recourse to regional authorities or other peaceful means of their choice;
— the Council's own investigation into the dispute or threat;
2. Coercive measures of a non-military nature (Article 41 of the Charter), expressed in a complete or partial interruption by members of the UN with the offending state of economic relations, rail, sea, air, postal, telegraph, radio or other means of communication, as well as the severance of diplomatic relations;
3. Coercive measures of a military nature (Article 42 of the Charter), expressed in the implementation of a demonstration, blockade and other military actions against the aggressor state by air, sea or land forces necessary to restore peace.
To ensure the coercive military measures taken, the Member States, on the basis of special agreements with the Council, must place at its disposal military contingents, from which the Council forms the UN Armed Forces (the so-called "blue helmets").
Competence of the Security Council.
· Monitoring the implementation of UN principles by states.
· Preparation of plans for the regulation of armaments.
· Determining whether there is a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or acts of aggression.
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)- is responsible for the performance of the functions set out in Chapter IX of the UN Charter. Consists of 5 members elected annually by the General Assembly for a term of three years.
Competence of the Economic and Social Council.
· Undertakes research and writes reports on international issues in the field of economy, social sphere, culture, education, health care and similar fields.
· Concludes agreements with specialized institutions and coordinates their activities, receives reports from them.
· Communicates with non-governmental international organizations.
Guardian Council. Established to administer the UN's international trusteeship system. The guardianship system covered three categories of territories:
1) former mandated territories of the League of Nations,
2) the territories that departed from the enemy states following the results of the Second World War,
3) territories voluntarily included in the trusteeship system by the states responsible for their administration. This body, under the leadership of the GA, supervised the performance of their duties by the administering authorities in relation to the territories under the trust system.
On November 1, 1994, it actually suspended its activities in connection with the political independence of the last trust territory (Palau - a region of Micronesia in the Pacific Ocean).
UN Secretariat — the main, permanent administrative body of the Organization.
The main purpose of the Secretariat is to serve the activities of all UN bodies, including subsidiary ones, to manage the programs of activities of these bodies. According to Art. 97 of the Constitution, the Secretariat shall consist of the Secretary-General and such personnel as the Organization may require. The Secretary General manages the work of the Secretariat. The Secretary General is the chief official of the UN, appointed by the GA on the recommendation of the Security Council for a 5-year term with the right to re-election. He is present in his personal capacity at meetings of all principal organs, provides an annual report on the work of the Organization, and acts as a depositary of international treaties. Citizens of all Member States may be members of the UN Secretariat. In the performance of their duties, they must be completely independent. UN employees enjoy international privileges and immunities as defined in the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations of 1946. The headquarters of the Secretariat and other principal organs of the UN (except the International Court of Justice) is New York (USA).
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- International human rights law
- Formation of international human rights law as a branch of international law, its concept
- Principles and sources of international human rights law
- Universal international legal norms on the protection of human rights
- United Nations system of human rights bodies
- Regional international legal mechanism for the protection of human rights
- Protection of human rights in the system of international judicial institutions
- International environmental law
- The essence of international environmental law
- The concept and subject of international environmental law
- Principles of International Environmental Law
- Sources of international environmental law
- International organizations and their role in the field of environmental protection
- United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). Legal nature, goals and objectives, structure
- The role of international conferences in international environmental law
- The marine environment as an object of international legal protection
- Water as an object of protection in international environmental law
- Protection of the air environment, climate and the ozone layer of the Earth
- Fauna and flora in international environmental law
- International legal regulation of hazardous and toxic waste management
- Environmental protection during armed conflicts
- International security law
- International security law at the present stage
- The concept and principles of international security law
- Sources of international security law
- Modern system of international security law
- Disarmament and arms limitation
- International humanitarian law
- Concept, principles and sources of international humanitarian law
- Legal regulation of the outbreak of hostilities
- Participants in armed conflicts
- theater of war
- International humanitarian law for the protection of victims of war
- Protection of civilian objects
- Prohibited Methods and Means of Warfare
- International legal regulation of the end of hostilities and the state of war
- Norms of International Humanitarian Law and Russian Legislation
- Population in international law
- Population concept
- Citizenship and international law
- Legal status of dual nationals and stateless persons
- Legal status of foreign citizens
- Regime of illegal migrants
- Right of asylum
- Legal Status of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons
- International economic law
- The concept of international economic law
- Sources and methods of regulation of international economic law
- System and principles of international economic law
- Subjects of international economic law
- International organizations in the field of economic cooperation
- Sub-branches of international economic law
- Law of External Relations
- The concept and sources of the law of external relations
- State bodies of external relations
- Diplomatic missions
- Consular offices
- Permanent missions of states to international organizations
- Special missions
- Privileges and immunities in the law of foreign relations
- Law of international organizations
- The concept, history of occurrence, signs and types of international organizations
- The procedure for the creation of international organizations and the termination of their activities
- The procedure for adoption and legal force of decisions of international organizations
- Bodies of international organizations: classification, formation procedure
- Legal personality and implementation of the functions of international organizations
- Membership in international organizations
- UN: charter, goals, principles, membership
- United Nations specialized agencies
- International organizations that are part of the UN system
- Regional international organizations
- International legal regulation of the protection of employees of international organizations
- International non-governmental organizations
- Territory in international law
- International legal classification of territories
- Legal nature of the state territory
- Composition of the state territory
- State borders
- Legal grounds for changing the state territory
- International rivers and their legal regime
- International common area
- Legal regime of the Arctic
- International Legal Regime of Antarctica
- International maritime law
- The concept and principles of international maritime law
- International legal status and regime of maritime spaces
- Maritime areas under the sovereignty of a coastal State
- Maritime areas under the jurisdiction of a coastal State
- International maritime spaces
- Maritime spaces with a special legal status
- international air law
- Definition of international air law
- Sources of international air law
- Basic principles of international air law
- Legal status and legal regime of airspace
- International legal framework for flights in airspace
- air traffic control
- Legal regulation of international air communications
- Legal status of aircraft
- Legal status of the aircraft crew
- Combating acts of unlawful interference with the operation of aircraft
- Aircraft Assistance
- Administrative formalities in international air navigation
- International aviation organizations
- Liability in international air law
- international space law
- Concept, objects, subjects and sources of international space law
- International legal regime of outer space and celestial bodies
- Legal status of space objects
- International legal regime of the geostationary orbit
- Legal status of astronauts
- Peaceful and safe use of outer space
- Earth remote sensing
- Intellectual Property Law in International Space Projects
- Protection of outer space and the earth's environment from technogenic space pollution
- Interaction of international and national space law
- Liability in international space law
- International cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space
- International nuclear law
- The concept of international nuclear law
- Principles and sources of international nuclear law
- Legal regulation of the development, testing, deployment of nuclear weapons
- International legal protection against radioactive contamination
- Responsibility for nuclear activities
- Control in international nuclear law
- International criminal law
- The concept of international criminal law
- Principles and sources of international criminal law
- The concept and types of international crimes
- The concept and types of transnational crimes
- Legal assistance in criminal matters
- Extradition (extradition) of criminals and transfer of convicts to serve their sentences in the state of citizenship
- The role of international organizations in the field of combating crime
- International Criminal Justice
- On international criminal procedure law
- International legal regulation of scientific and technical cooperation
- Scientific and technical cooperation: concept and principles
- Sources of legal regulation of international scientific and technical cooperation
- Types of international scientific and technical cooperation and forms of its implementation
- UN and international scientific and technical cooperation
- Regional international scientific and technical cooperation
International organizations that are part of the UN system
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). This intergovernmental organization in the field of the use of atomic energy was established by the decision of the UN at the International Conference in New York. The Charter of the Agency was adopted on October 26, 1956 and entered into force on July 29, 1957. The headquarters is located in Vienna (Austria).
The IAEA, although it belongs to special organizations, does not have the status of a specialized agency of the UN. Its relationship with the UN is regulated by an Agreement concluded with the UN General Assembly on November 14, 1957. In accordance with the Agreement and the IAEA Statute, the Agency must submit annual reports on its activities to the General Assembly and, if necessary, to the Security Council and ECOSOC. If, in connection with the activities of the Agency, issues arise that fall within the competence of the Security Council, then it must notify the Council about them (for example, about all cases of violation by members of the IAEA of agreements concluded with the Agency).
The organization aims to promote the development of international cooperation in the field of the peaceful use of atomic energy.
The supreme body of the IAEA - the General Conference, consisting of representatives of all Member States, meets annually in regular sessions. There are also special sessions. The General Conference provides overall direction for the policies and programs of the IAEA. The Board of Governors is responsible for the operational direction of all IAEA activities. It consists of 35 states, of which 22 are elected by the General Conference from seven regions of the world (Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Latin America, Africa, the Middle East and South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific, the Far East), and 13 appointed (the most developed countries in the field of atomic energy technology). The Council usually meets four times a year. It has two standing committees: on administrative and budgetary matters and on technical assistance. In addition, he can create committees to deal with specific issues.
The IAEA Secretariat carries out the administrative and technical management of the organization. It is headed by a Director General who is appointed for four years by the Board of Governors and approved by the General Conference.
The main activities of the IAEA: organizing and coordinating research and development in the field of nuclear energy, radiation safety issues, providing technical assistance to the Member States of the Agency in the field of the peaceful use of nuclear energy, exercising control (guarantees) over the peaceful use of atomic energy, regulatory activities on issues associated with nuclear danger.
One of the main functions of the Agency is to apply a system of controls (safeguards) to ensure that nuclear materials and equipment intended for peaceful use are not used for military purposes. Control is carried out on the ground by IAEA inspectors. The non-nuclear states that are parties to the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons must conclude agreements with the IAEA on control over the peaceful nuclear activities of these states. In recent years, the IAEA has been working in the Iranian direction in order to achieve a peaceful orientation of the Iranian nuclear program.
World Trade Organization (WTO)- an international economic organization that regulates the rules of international trade in accordance with the principles of liberalism.
The WTO has been operating since January 1, 1995, the decision to establish it was made at the end of many years of negotiations within the framework of the Uruguay Round of GATT, which ended in December 1993. Also known as the Marrakesh Agreement.
The scope of the WTO is wide: in addition to trade in goods, it also regulates trade in services and trade aspects of intellectual property rights. The WTO has the legal status of a specialized agency of the UN system.
Since mid-2003, WTO members have been 146 countries - developed, developing and post-socialist. Some post-Soviet countries also joined the WTO: Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Armenia, Georgia, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan. An important event was the accession to the WTO in December 2001 of China, which is considered one of the most promising participants in world trade. The WTO member countries account for approximately 95% of world trade - in fact, almost the entire world market without Russia. A number of countries have officially expressed their desire to join this organization and have the status of observer states. At present, some other post-Soviet states (Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan) have expressed a desire to become members of the WTO.
The main task of the WTO is to promote unhindered international trade. It is currently believed that the world trading system should comply with the following five principles.
1. No discrimination in trade.
2. Reducing trade (protectionist) barriers.
3. Stability and predictability of the terms of trade.
4. Stimulation of competitiveness in international trade.
5. Benefits in international trade for less developed countries.
In general, the WTO promotes the ideas of free trade (free trade), fighting for the removal of protectionist barriers.
The activities of the WTO are based on three international agreements signed in 1994 by the majority of states actively participating in world economic relations: the General Agreement on Trade in Goods (GATT), the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). ). The main purpose of these agreements is to provide assistance to firms of all countries involved in export-import operations.
The main functions of the WTO: control over the fulfillment of the requirements of the basic WTO agreements; creation of conditions for negotiations between the countries-participants of the WTO concerning foreign economic relations; settlement of disputes between states on issues of foreign economic trade policy; control over the policy of the WTO member states in the field of international trade; assistance to developing countries; cooperation with other international organizations.
WTO Members undertake not to take unilateral action against potential trade violations. Moreover, they undertake to resolve disputes within the framework of the multilateral dispute settlement system and abide by its rules and decisions. Decisions on controversial issues are taken by all member states, usually by consensus, which is an additional incentive to strengthen agreement in the ranks of the WTO.