International organizations of general competence examples. Other regional organizations of general competence. Autonomous organizations of the OECD
International organizations are subjects of international law. The main feature of non-governmental international organizations is that they are not created on the basis of an interstate agreement and unite individuals and / or legal entities (for example, the Association of International Law, the League of Red Cross Societies, the World Federation of Scientists, etc.).
Different criteria are generally applied to classify international organizations. By the nature of their membership, they are divided into interstate and non-governmental. According to the circle of participants, international interstate organizations are divided into universal, open to the participation of all states of the world (UN, its specialized agencies), and regional, whose members can be states of the same region (Organization of African Unity, Organization of American States). Interstate organizations are also subdivided into organizations of general and special competence. The activities of organizations of general competence affect all spheres of relations between member states: political, economic, social, cultural, etc. (for example, the UN, OAU, OAS). Organizations of special competence are limited to cooperation in one special area (for example, the Universal Postal Union, the International Labor Organization, etc.) and can be divided into political, economic, social, cultural, scientific, religious, etc. Classification by the nature of powers allows you to highlight interstate and supranational or, more precisely, supranational organizations. The first group includes the vast majority of international organizations whose purpose is to organize interstate cooperation and whose decisions are addressed to member states. The goal of supranational organizations is integration. Their decisions apply directly to citizens and legal entities of the Member States. Some elements of supranationality in this sense are inherent, for example, in the European Union (EU).
Most organizations are precisely interstate. They do not have supranational power, members do not transfer their powers to them. The task of such organizations is to regulate the cooperation of states.
International political and economic organizations of general competence:
United Nations - United Nations
Big Eight - G 8
International trade and economic organizations and industrial development organizations:
International financial institutions:
World Bank Group
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
Regional Economic Cooperation Organizations
European Union - EU
Organization of Asia-Pacific Cooperation - ARES
Specialized intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations in the field of ICT:
International Telecommunication Union - ITU
World Information Technology and Services Alliance - WITSA and others.
The central place in the system of international organizations belongs to the UN.
The UN was established to maintain and strengthen international peace and security, to develop cooperation between nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples. The UN Charter was signed on June 26, 1945 in San Francisco by representatives of the 50 founding countries. There are currently 191 member states of the UN. The UN Charter establishes six main organs of the Organization: the General Assembly /GA/, the Security Council /SC/, the UN Economic and Social Council /ECOSOC/, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat. In addition to the main organs in the UN system, there are a number of specialized agencies, of which most UN countries are members.
1.2 Evolution of international organizations
Today we can say that the monocentric international system of one actor is gradually being replaced by a polycentric international system of many actors.
The second in terms of role and importance (after the state) actor in international relations are international organizations (IOs). The first MOs appeared as early as the beginning and middle of the 19th century. These were the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, which arose in 1815, as well as the Universal Telegraph Union (1865) and the General Postal Union (1874). The first IOs were created in the field of economy, transport, culture, social interests of states and, according to their goals, were aimed at joint cross-border cooperation in the non-political field (law politics).
The number of such organizations, or, as they were then called, international administrative unions, increased by the beginning of the 20th century. These included the health commission, the flood control commission, the transport union, and others. Increasing industrialization required joint management in the field of chemistry, electrification and transport, thereby necessitating the creation of new MOs. The cross-border flow of goods, services, information and people led to the fact that at the beginning of the twentieth century. a quasi-global, Eurocentric in essence, system of the world economy was formed. The Ministry of Defense played an important role in the management of this system.
In the political sphere, the predecessors of the first MO appeared after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Then the so-called European concert, or pentarchy, was formed, consisting of 5 great powers (England, Prussia, Russia, Austria and France). The European concert can be seen as a prototype of the MOD in the security sector, which claimed a leading role in European affairs. The concert was a system of congresses and conferences, within the framework of which 5 powers resolved issues of settlement and resolution of international crises and conflicts. The main principle of the activity of the European concert was the principle of balance.
The next important stage in the development of the IR was the activities of the League of Nations, established in 1919. The League of Nations had two significant differences from the Concert of Europe: 1) it was created on the basis of an internationally recognized act - the Statute of the League of Nations; 2) it was built on the principle of collective security.
Thanks to the institutional forms of international cooperation created by the League, a more reliable support was provided for the future UN.
Time has shown that the UN Charter turned out to be a much more elective and influential instrument for maintaining international peace and security, as well as developing cooperation in the non-political sphere, than the Statute of the League of Nations. In the second half of the twentieth century. The UN was able to take a central place in the MOD system, coordinating the activities of both governmental and non-governmental MODs.
The activities of the UN and other IOs took place in a certain international atmosphere, which largely predetermined their successes and failures. In 1945-1990. The UN developed under the decisive influence of two major factors of the post-war system of international relations. The first of these was the "cold war" between East and West, the second - the growing conflict between the economically developed North and the backward and poor South. In this regard, the history of the UN and other MODs is a reflection of the development of the post-war world.
When classifying international organizations, various criteria can be applied.
1. By the nature of the members, they can be distinguished:
1.1. interstate (intergovernmental) - participants are states
1.2. non-governmental organizations - unite public and professional national organizations, individuals, for example, the International Red Cross, the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the International Law Association, etc.
2. According to the circle of members, international organizations are divided into:
2.1. universal (worldwide), open to the participation of all states of the world (the United Nations (UN), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Health Organization (WHO) and other organizations of the UN system (its specialized agencies), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Civil Defense Organization, etc.),
2.2. regional, whose members can be states of one region (Organization of African Unity, European Union, Commonwealth of Independent States).
3. According to the objects of activity, we can say:
3.1. on organizations of general competence (UN, Organization of African Unity, Commonwealth of Independent States, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe)
3.2. special (International Labor Organization, Universal Postal Union). There are also political, economic, social, cultural, scientific and other organizations.
62. Legal nature of an international organization
An international intergovernmental organization has a derivative and functional legal personality and is characterized by the following features.
First, it is created by states that fix their intention in a constituent act - the Charter - as a special version of an international treaty.
Secondly, it exists and operates within the framework of the constituent act that determines its status and powers, which gives its legal capacity, rights and duties a functional character.
Thirdly, it is a permanent association, which is manifested in its stable structure, in the system of its permanent bodies.
Fourth, it is based on the principle of sovereign equality of member states, while membership in the organization is subject to certain rules that characterize the participation of states in the activities of its bodies and the representation of states in the organization.
Fifth, states are bound by the resolutions of the organs of the organization within their competence and in accordance with the established legal force of these resolutions.
Sixthly, each international organization has a set of rights inherent in a legal entity. These rights are fixed in the constituent act of the organization or in a special convention and are implemented subject to the national legislation of the state in whose territory the organization performs its functions. As a legal entity, it is competent to enter into civil law transactions (conclude contracts), acquire property, own and dispose of it, initiate cases in court and arbitration, and be a party to litigation.
Seventh, an international organization has privileges and immunities that ensure its normal activities and are recognized both at the location of its headquarters and in any state in the exercise of its functions.
For the legal nature of international organizations, it is characteristic that its general goals and principles, competence, structure, sphere of common interests have an agreed contractual basis. Such a basis is the statutes or other constituent acts of international organizations, which are international treaties. The question of the relationship between state sovereignty and the general goals and interests of the organization is resolved in its founding act.
FEDERAL FISHING AGENCY
KAMCHATKA STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
CORRESPONDENCE FACULTY
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
CONTROL WORK ON DISCIPLINE
"WORLD ECONOMY"
OPTION NUMBER 4
TOPIC:International organizations of general competence and their activities in the field of economic cooperation: Council of Europe; Commonwealth of Nations; League of Arab States; Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe - OSCE.
Performed Checked
Student of group 06AUs IO head
Distance form of education of the Department of Economics and Management
Miroshnichenko O.A. Eremina M.Yu.
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Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Introduction. page 3 - 5
Council of Europe. pages 6 - 12
Commonwealth of Nations. pp. 13 – 15
League of Arab States. pp. 15 – 18
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe - OSCE
Bibliography.
In modern international relations, international organizations play a significant role as a form of cooperation between states and multilateral diplomacy.
Since the establishment of the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine in 1815, international organizations have been endowed with their own competence and authority.
Modern international organizations are characterized by further expansion of their competence and complication of the structure.
Currently, there are more than 4 thousand international organizations, of which more than 300 are intergovernmental. At the center of them is the UN.
An interstate organization is characterized by the following features:
state membership;
existence of a constituent international treaty;
permanent bodies;
respect for the sovereignty of member states.
The main feature of non-governmental international organizations is that they are not created on the basis of an interstate agreement (for example, the Association of International Law, the League of Red Cross Societies, etc.).
According to the nature of membership, international organizations are divided into interstate and non-governmental. According to the circle of participants, international organizations are divided into universal (UN, its specialized agencies) and regional (Organization of African Unity, Organization of American States). International organizations are also subdivided into organizations of general competence (UN, OAU, OAS) and special (Universal Postal Union, International Labor Organization). Classification according to the nature of powers makes it possible to single out interstate and supranational organizations. The vast majority of international organizations belong to the first group. The goal of supranational organizations is integration. For example, the European Union. From the point of view of the procedure for joining them, organizations are divided into open (any state can become a member at its own discretion) and closed (admission with the consent of the founders).
International organizations are created by states. The process of creating an international organization takes place in three stages: the adoption of a constituent document, the creation of the material structure of the organization, and the convening of the main bodies.
The first step involves convening an international conference to develop and adopt the text of the treaty. Its name may be different, for example, statute (League of Nations), charter (UN, OAS, OAU), convention (UPU, WIPO).
The second stage involves the creation of the material structure of the organization. For these purposes, specially trained bodies are most often used, which prepare draft rules of procedure for future bodies of the organization, process the entire range of issues related to the creation of headquarters, etc.
The convening of the main organs completes the arrangements for the creation of an international organization.
Council of Europe.
The Council of Europe plays an important role in the development of common European legislation and, in particular, in dealing with the legal and ethical problems that arise in connection with the achievements of scientific and technological progress. The activities of the Council of Europe are aimed at developing conventions and agreements, on the basis of which the unification and changes in the legislation of the member states are subsequently carried out. Conventions are the main elements of interstate legal cooperation that are binding on the states that have ratified them. Among the conventions related to the legal support of entrepreneurial activity is the convention on laundering, detection, seizure and confiscation of the proceeds of crime.
Twice (in 1993 and 1997) meetings of the heads of state and government of the countries of the Council of Europe were held. Within the framework of the Committee of Ministers, which is the highest body of the organization and meets twice a year as part of the foreign ministers of the member countries, the political aspects of cooperation in these areas are discussed and recommendations are adopted (on the basis of unanimity) to the governments of the member countries, as well as declarations and resolutions on international political issues related to the sphere of activity of the Council of Europe. The Congress of Local and Regional Authorities, recently created as an organ of the Council of Europe, aims to promote the development of local democracy. Several dozens of committees of experts organize intergovernmental cooperation in areas falling within the competence of the Council of Europe.
The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, which is an advisory body of the Council of Europe, and in which parliamentarians of national legislative bodies (including from opposition parties) are represented, is very active. The Parliamentary Assembly is an advisory body and has no legislative powers. It consists of representatives of the parliaments of the member states of the Council of Europe. Each national delegation is formed in such a way that it represents the interests of various political circles in its country, including opposition parties. It is the main initiator of the activities carried out by the Council of Europe and holds its plenary meetings three times a year, adopting by majority vote recommendations to the Committee of Ministers and national governments, organizing parliamentary hearings, conferences, colloquia, forming various committees and subcommittees, study groups, etc. supervising the following economic and social areas:
economic and development issues;
agriculture and rural development;
science and technology;
social issues;
environment.
In all the main areas of its activity, the Council of Europe carries out numerous activities that contribute not only to the development of cooperation between member states, but also to the formation of some common guidelines for them in the organization of public life. The number of representatives from each country (from 2 to 18) depends on the size of its population. The Council of the Assembly consists of the Chairman and 17 deputies. Elections of the President of the Assembly are held every year. The Parliamentary Assembly holds its plenary sessions three times a year. It adopts by majority vote recommendations to the Committee of Ministers and the governments of the member states, which form the basis of specific areas of activity of the Council of Europe. The Assembly organizes conferences, colloquia, open parliamentary hearings, elects the Secretary General of the Council of Europe and judges of the European Court of Human Rights. In 1989, the Parliamentary Assembly established the status of a specially invited country to provide it to the countries of Central and Eastern Europe before their admission to full members. This status is still retained by the Republic of Belarus.
The structure of the Council of Europe includes an administrative and technical secretariat, headed by the Secretary General, who is elected for five years.
The international political confrontation that existed on the continent made it impossible for the socialist countries to participate in the Council of Europe. With the end of the Cold War, the activities of this organization were given a new impetus, prompting it to focus on issues of democratic transformation. As a result, even joining the Council of Europe became an additional incentive for their implementation. Thus, the states newly admitted to the Council of Europe had to undertake the obligation to sign the European Convention on Human Rights, which entered into force in 1953, and to accept the totality of its control mechanisms. The conditions for the accession of new members to the Council of Europe are also the existence of a democratic legal system and the holding of free, equal and general elections. It is also important that many questions of the formation of civil society in post-socialist countries have become the subject of attention within the framework of the Council of Europe. Among them are the problems of protecting national minorities, issues of local self-government.
The Council of Europe is an authoritative international organization, the mere participation in which serves for all member states as a kind of evidence of their compliance with the high standards of pluralistic democracy. Hence the possibility of influencing those countries that are members of the Council (or candidates for accession to the Council of Europe), where this or that problem arises on this basis. At the same time, this may raise fears of the countries concerned regarding unacceptable interference in their internal affairs. In other words, the activity of the Council of Europe often turns out to be inscribed in one or another international political context and is viewed by the participants primarily through the prism of their immediate foreign policy interests; Naturally, quite serious collisions can arise as a result. This happened more than once in practice, for example, in connection with the internal political situation in Turkey in Belarus, the problem of the rights of the Russian-speaking population in some Baltic countries, the separatist movement in Chechnya (Russia), when discussing the issue of Croatia joining the Council of Europe.
The European Commission on Human Rights operates within the Council of Europe. European Court of Human Rights, European Youth Centre. Permanent Conference of Local and Regional Authorities in Europe, Social Development Fund.
The Council of Europe develops and adopts pan-European conventions on various issues of cooperation. More than 145 such conventions have already been adopted. Some of them, such as the European Convention on Human Rights, are open only to member states of the Council of Europe, while others, such as the European Convention on Culture, are open to all European states.
The Pompidou Group, an interdisciplinary ministerial cooperation body (including 28 Member States), deals with the fight against drug addiction and illicit drug trafficking.
In the field of environment and regional planning, the Council of Europe has provided a number of normative acts aimed at protecting the environment in Europe and at developing integrated development and planning for the development of the territory.
The Convention on the Conservation of Wildlife and the Environment in Europe, known as the Berne Convention, covers all aspects of nature conservation. It entered into force in 1982.
The European Conference of Ministers Responsible for Regional Planning (CEMAT), convened regularly since 1970, aims to implement a regional planning policy that will ensure sustainable economic and social development and environmental protection in an enlarged Europe.
The European Charter for Regional Planning puts forward a global, functional and long-term concept of regional planning, which, along with others, sets goals: harmonious socio-economic development of regions; environmental protection and rational use of land.
In the social sphere, the Council of Europe aims to improve the level of social protection and promote employment, training and the protection of workers' rights. In 1997 Two recommendations were accepted:
on the organization, activities and role of public employment services;
for the development of small and medium enterprises.
initiatives to create jobs outside the mainstream labor market;
social and economic consequences of structural changes in the economy of European states.
creation of jobs at small and medium-sized enterprises in economically disadvantaged areas;
for vocational training programs;
housing construction and creation of social infrastructures;
environmental protection: treatment facilities, waste processing;
modernization of rural areas - creation of basic infrastructures.
Commonwealth of Nations.
The main activities are:
support for political and economic cooperation;
promoting the sustainable development of the economy of the member countries;
performance of consulting, representative and informational functions;
development and implementation of Commonwealth programs, organization and holding of conferences, seminars, workshops and other events on the following issues: economic and social development, technology, science, education, vocational training, human rights, democracy and others. The conferences adopt declarations on various problems of world politics and economics. So, in 1987. the Declaration on World Trade was adopted; in 1989 – Declaration on the environment; in 1991 – Declaration of Fundamental Rights and others.
Meetings of heads of government of the Commonwealth countries are held once every two years. They discuss issues of the international situation, regional problems, economic, social, cultural issues, programs of the Commonwealth. Decisions are made by consensus. Meetings of ministers of an advisory and consultative nature are held regularly with the participation of the ministers of finance, trade, education, health, labor, etc.
The Secretariat, established in 1965, is the central coordinating body and head of the intergovernmental structure. and headed by the general secretary. The Secretary-General and his three deputies (for political affairs; for economic and social affairs; for technical cooperation) are appointed by the heads of government. The secretariat develops programs and organizes conferences, seminars and various events. The Secretariat maintains links with almost 300 organizations, of which 200 are non-governmental. In its work, the Secretariat relies on the Commonwealth Fund, which promotes the expansion of links between professional groups in member countries; encourages the formation of associations; provides support for conferences and assistance in the organization of vocational training.
The activities of the secretariat are financed by five different budgets, funds:
financial resources allocated from the Commonwealth budget;
funds allocated from the budget of the Scientific Council of the Commonwealth;
through the Technical Cooperation Fund;
through the Commonwealth Youth Program;
funded by the Technology Management Advisory Group.
Arab League.
The supreme body of the League is the Council, which meets twice a year, in which each member state has one vote. , adopted unanimously, are binding on all countries, adopted by a majority of votes - only for those who voted "for" Since 1964, conferences of heads of state and government of the countries of the League have been regularly convened. Located in Cairo, the General Secretariat of the League ensures its current activities. Within the framework of the Arab League, there are over two dozen different structures - the Economic Council, the Joint Defense Council, the Administrative Tribunal, specialized organizations (dealing with issues of industrial development, agriculture, education, culture, science, telecommunications, crime control, etc.).
The Arab League has founded a number of institutions and specialized organizations, including those that assist in the development of entrepreneurship. It:
Arab Management Organization;
Arab Labor Organization;
Council for Arab Economic Unity;
Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development;
Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa;
Arab Organization for Agricultural Development;
Arab Organization for Standardization and Meteorology;
Arab Academy of Maritime Transport;
Arab Telecommunications Union;
Arab Monetary Fund;
Arab Institute of Petroleum.
In order to resolve issues affecting the interests of the Arab countries, special committees are formed within the framework of the Arab League (“committee of eight” on the situation in the territories occupied by Israel, “committee of three” on Lebanon, “committee of three” on the Middle East settlement, “committee of seven” on Libya, "committee on Jerusalem", "committee of seven" on Iraq, etc.).
The member states of the League are at the same time members of specialized agencies under the Arab League, such as: Arab Organization for Industrial Development and Extractive Industries, Arab Organization for Agricultural Development, Arab Atomic Energy Organization, Arab Labor Organization, Arab Postal Union, Arab Organization for Satellite Communications (ARABSAT) and etc.
The Arab League provides financial assistance to controlled institutions and organizations. The LAS also has a Council for Economic Affairs, including the ministers of economy and their representatives, who discuss and agree on the economic and social policies of the member countries.
The members of the Arab League are: Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Yemen, Qatar, Comoros, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, UAE, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia.
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).
The political significance of the OSCE lies primarily in its uniqueness compared to other international governmental organizations in Europe. It is practically the only European security organization directly involved in early warning, conflict resolution and post-crisis recovery in crisis regions, as well as preventive diplomacy, election observation, and environmental security in Europe.
The founding document of the CSCE/OSCE is the Helsinki Final Act, signed on August 1, 1975 by the USSR, the USA, Canada and 33 European states. This document was intended to consolidate the existing "status quo" on the European continent and continue further movement along the path of detente in relations between the West and the East. It contained the basic principles that determined the norms of mutual relations and cooperation of the participating countries and consisted of three sections (or three "baskets"), corresponding to the number of the main tasks of the Conference.
55 countries are members of the OSCE. A distinctive feature of the CSCE/OSCE is the universal nature of this organization: not only almost all European states, but also the USSR, the USA and Canada became its participants, and the main basic provisions of the Conference/Organization are aimed at ensuring security in Europe. It is quite obvious that the universal nature of the CSCE/OSCE was also ensured by procedural rules, namely: the principle of consensus in decision-making and the principle of equality of participating countries. The Final Act was also considered as documentary confirmation of the existing balance of power between the two military-political blocs ( NATO and ATS) and non-aligned countries.
After the collapse of the USSR and the end of the ideological confrontation between West and East, the former adversaries attempted to turn the CSCE (and then the OSCE) into a pan-European organization involved in maintaining security in Europe, resolving conflicts, developing new arms control agreements, as well as taking measures to strengthen military confidence. It was at this time that such key documents as the Charter of Paris for a New Europe, the Treaty on Conventional Arms in Europe (CFE Treaty), the Open Skies Treaty, documents on the “third generation of confidence and security building measures” and other agreements were developed and signed. Thus, the participating countries tried to "adjust" the OSCE to the new realities that have developed on the continent after the end of the Cold War.
NATO's eastward expansion and the increased level of cooperation between the North Atlantic Alliance and Russia have led to significant geopolitical changes, without, however, calling into question the role of the OSCE as the only pan-European international governmental organization. This organization is practically inseparable from the “key link” between NATO and the EU; it is often used by individual member countries to indirectly “sound out” their own national interests. For example, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Mikhail Gorbachev and Francois Mitterrand tried to oppose the OSCE to NATO. In fact, Paris and Moscow were not interested in further strengthening NATO, as they did not have sufficient organizational resources to influence the decision-making process within NATO, which is heavily influenced by the United States. Moreover, in 1994 French Prime Minister Edouard Balladur proposed making the CSCE/OSCE the main peacekeeping organization in resolving the conflict in the former Yugoslavia. Russia also supported this position and up until the Istanbul summit in 1999 tried to "promote" the OSCE as the main actor in the field of European security. However, criticism of Russian actions in Chechnya at the OSCE Istanbul Summit, as well as Moscow's increased cooperation with NATO, eventually led to a partial loss of Russian interest in the OSCE as an organization for maintaining security in Europe. At the beginning of the 21st century Russia pursues a pragmatic foreign policy and recognizes NATO as a key organization in the field of European security.
The Permanent Council of the OSCE consists of representatives of the participating States and, in fact, is the main executive body of the OSCE. The Council meets once a week at the Vienna Hofburg Congress Center to discuss the current state of affairs in the OSCE area of territorial responsibility and take appropriate decisions. Like the Council, the Forum for Security Co-operation meets once a week in Vienna to discuss and decide on issues related to the military dimension of pan-European security. This applies in particular to the Confidence and Security Measures. The Forum also deals with issues related to new security challenges and conflict resolution in the OSCE area of responsibility. In turn, the OSCE Economic Forum meets once a year in Prague to discuss economic and environmental issues affecting the security of the participating countries.
The Summit or OSCE Summit is a periodic meeting of the Heads of State or Government of OSCE member states. The main task of the summits is to determine the political guidelines and priorities for the development of the Organization at the highest level. Each meeting is preceded by a preparatory conference during which diplomats from the contracting parties oversee the implementation of key legal commitments made by the OSCE. They agree on the positions of the participants and prepare basic documents for the upcoming summit. During the existence of the OSCE, 6 summits were held. The most significant were:
the Helsinki Summit (1975), which ended with the signing of the Final Act, which is the founding document of the CSCE/OSCE;
The Paris Summit (1990), which culminated in the signing of the Charter for a New Europe and the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. The Charter confirmed the decisions of the OSCE Vienna Meeting (1986) and documented the priority of international law over national law, which further led to the strengthening of separatist movements in the USSR and Eastern Europe;
The Budapest Summit (1994) ended with a series of institutional reforms. The CSCE was turned into a permanent organization of the OSCE, the contracting parties paid additional attention to the problems of resolving the Karabakh conflict, etc.;
Istanbul Summit (1999), which ended with the signing of the European Security Charter. During the meeting, the Russian delegation was severely criticized because of Moscow's policy in Chechnya. Russia pledged to reduce its military presence in Transcaucasia and Transnistria.
The functions of the OSCE in the economic field are determined by the following provisions:
Strive to achieve sustainable economic development;
Strengthen contacts and practical cooperation on environmental protection;
Contribute to strengthening international peace and security, as well as ensuring fundamental human rights, economic and social progress and the well-being of all peoples.
Cooperation between states;
Conscientious fulfillment of international legal obligations.
Within the framework of the OSCE structures dealing with the observance of human rights, attention should be paid to the Office of the High Commissioner on National Minorities (The Hague). This unit deals with the early warning of ethnic conflicts that threaten stability, peace on the continent and friendly relations between the participating States of the CSCE.
A special place in the organizational structure of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe is occupied by Confidence and Security Building Measures. This program was created with the aim of easing tension and strengthening mutual trust on the European continent. Within its framework, such documents were signed as: a) CFE Treaty (Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe), which establishes quotas for conventional weapons in Europe for the contracting parties; The Open Skies Treaty, which allows the participating states to exercise mutual control over each other's actions, especially in the field of security. As part of the Confidence and Security Building Measures, the Chairman-in-Office appointed his personal representatives to oversee the implementation of a number of articles of the Dayton Peace Accords. The Court of Conciliation and Arbitration, located in Geneva, was established to resolve conflict situations and disputes between the participating States that have signed the OSCE Convention on Conciliation and Arbitration, which is internal to the OSCE.
In 2003 the budget of the OSCE amounted to 185.7 million euros and mainly consists of the membership dues of the participating states. About 84 per cent of all funds are spent on military missions and projects carried out by the Organization in the field.
About 370 employees work directly in the OSCE central office, and in various missions and projects of this organization - more than 1,000 international employees and 2,000 citizens of those countries on whose territory these missions are carried out.
One of the fundamentally important issues in the activities of the OSCE concerns the definition of its future role. There is general agreement that it will occupy one of the central places in the organization of international political life in Europe. However, in practice, due to the desire of a large group of countries in Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the Baltic States to join NATO and the European Union, there is a tendency to marginalize the role of the OSCE. Attempts initiated by Russian diplomacy to raise the status and real significance of this organization are often viewed only as aimed at opposing it to NATO. The Charter for European Security being developed within the framework of the OSCE could neutralize this trend and contribute to a fuller use of the potential of this organization in the interests of strengthening stability on the continent.
^ BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Gerchikova I.N. International economic organizations: regulation of world economic relations and entrepreneurial activity. M. Publishing house of JSC "Consultbanker", 2001.
A. Kireev "International Economics", part II, Moscow, 1999
World economy. Textbook / Ed. Bulatova A.S., M. ECONOMIST, 2004
World economy. Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. I.P. Nikolaeva, ed.3, - M. UNITY-DANA, 2005
Neshataeva T.N. International organizations and law. New trends in international legal regulation. - M., 1998
Shrepler H.A. . Directory. - M., 1997.
The practice of creating sustainable international associations has its roots in the era of ancient Greece and Rome. In ancient Greece, such associations arise in the VI century. BC. in the form of unions of cities and communities (symmachy and amphiktyony). At the same time, Rome becomes the head of the Latin Union, which united 30 cities of Latium. Such alliances were created mainly to protect against a common enemy. International economic and customs associations began to emerge at a later stage. Formed in the 16th century and the trade and political union of the North German cities, which formally existed until 1669, headed by the city of Lübeck, known as the Hanseatic Trade Union, is one of such associations.
The prototype of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations in their modern sense was the so-called international administrative unions that appeared in the 19th century. and representing institutions endowed, although rather narrow, but with their own competence to work in areas of public life that are closely related to the development of the economy, science, and technology. In addition, unlike such forms of interstate communication as international conferences, commissions and committees, international administrative unions had permanent bodies in the form of so-called international bureaus.
Such unions include the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine (1815), the International Union for Land Measurement (1864), the Universal Telegraph Union (1865), the International Meteorological Organization (1873), the Universal Postal Union (1874) and others.
The League of Nations (1919) became the first political international organization created to maintain peace and international security. In 1945 it was replaced by the United Nations (UN). It is with it that the recognition of the quality of a subject of international law for the MMPO is connected. After the creation of the UN, a number of international administrative associations received the status of its specialized agencies, while others function as IMPOs for special problems.
The emergence of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations was dictated by the practical needs of states to unite their efforts to solve problems that they were no longer able to effectively deal with alone.
Interstate organizations must be distinguished from non-governmental organizations (INGOs). Being international in nature, they have a fundamentally different legal nature.
An interstate organization is characterized by such features as membership of states, the presence of a constituent international treaty, the presence of a headquarters and a system of permanent bodies, respect for the sovereignty of member states, as well as their international legal personality, etc.
An essential feature of INGOs is that they are not created on the basis of an interstate agreement and unite individuals and (or) legal entities (International Law Association, Doctors Without Borders). INGOs are also characterized by: lack of profit-making goals; recognition by at least one state or consultative status with international intergovernmental organizations; carrying out activities in at least two states; creation on the basis of the founding act. INGOs cannot include subjects of international law.
According to the resolution of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 1996/31 of July 25, 1996, an INGO is any non-governmental organization established not on the basis of an intergovernmental agreement and not pursuing the goal of commercial profit.
Classification of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations
International organizations can be classified on various grounds.
According to the circle of participants, intergovernmental (interstate) organizations are divided into universal, open to the participation of all states of the world (UN, its specialized agencies), and regional, whose members can be states of the same geographical region (African Union, Organization of American States, etc.).
In other cases, the possibility of membership is determined by other criteria. Thus, only those countries for which oil exports constitute the main source of income can be members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries.
Allocate international organizations of general and special competence. The activities of the former cover all areas of international relations: political, economic, social, cultural, etc. (UN, OAS). The latter are limited to cooperation in one special area (UPU, ILO, etc.) and can be divided into political, economic, scientific, religious, etc.
Classification according to the nature of powers makes it possible to single out interstate and so-called supranational (supranational) organizations.
The first group includes the vast majority of international organizations whose purpose is to organize interstate cooperation and whose decisions are addressed to member states.
There is no consensus on the issue of supranationality of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations.
Some believe that, contrary to the often encountered statements of the MMPO, which by the beginning of the 21st century. there were about 300, and the central place among which is occupied by the UN, are not some kind of global, supranational formations that “absorb” the sovereign rights of states and dictate rules and norms of behavior on the world stage. Their functioning is not connected with any infringement of the sovereignty of states or the delegation of their sovereign rights, because this would contradict the very nature of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations, which are a kind of centers for harmonizing the interests of states and coordinating their efforts to solve various international problems. The participation of states in the work of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations gives them additional opportunities to exercise their own sovereignty, coordinate actions in the international arena with other states to achieve the goals set in the constituent documents of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations.
Supporters of the concept of supranationality of international organizations believe that they become such, in particular, as a result of the transfer by states of certain sovereign powers, the ability to make decisions addressed not only to member states, but also to their national individuals and legal entities (EU), the presence of such organizations mechanism for the enforcement of their decisions.
Depending on the procedure for joining them, international organizations are divided into open (any state can become a member at will) and closed (members are admitted at the invitation of the original founders). An example of a closed organization is NATO.
Creation of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations
International organizations as secondary, derivative subjects of international law are created by states. The process of creating a new international organization goes through a number of stages: the adoption of a constituent document; creation of its organizational and legal basis; convening of the main bodies, indicating the beginning of the functioning of the organization.
The most common way of legalizing the will of states regarding the creation of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations is the development and conclusion of an international treaty, which becomes the founding act of the organization. In this regard, we can talk about the contractual-legal nature of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations. The names of such an act may be different: statute (League of Nations), charter (UN, Organization of American States), convention (Universal Postal Union), etc. The date of entry into force of the founding act is considered the date of creation of the organization.
There is another, simplified procedure for the establishment of international organizations in the form of a decision by another international organization. The UN has repeatedly resorted to this practice by creating autonomous organizations (UNCTAD, UNDP) with the status of a subsidiary body of the General Assembly. In this case, the agreed expression of the will of the states regarding the creation of an international organization is manifested by voting for a constituent resolution that enters into force from the moment it is adopted.
At the second stage, the internal infrastructure of the organization is formed. For this, a special preparatory body, established on the basis of a separate international treaty or annex to the charter of the organization being created, can be used, designed to draft rules of procedure for future bodies of the organization, work out issues related to the establishment of headquarters, draw up a preliminary agenda for the main bodies, etc. This is how UNESCO, WHO, IAEA and others were created.
The convening of the main organs and the beginning of their work usually means the completion of the activities for the creation of an international organization.
Members of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations
Among the participants of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations are:
- initial members (founders) - states that participated in the development and adoption of the founding act of the organization;
- affiliated members - states that joined the organization after the start of its activities by joining its constituent act;
- partial members - states that are not members of the intergovernmental (interstate) organization itself as a whole, but are part of its individual bodies;
- associate members (associate members, non-full members). As a rule, such members do not participate in voting, do not elect and cannot be elected to the bodies of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations;
- States and other international organizations that may participate in the work of any IMGO as an observer.
Termination of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations and membership in it
The termination of the existence of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations is most often carried out by signing a protocol on dissolution. So, on July 1, 1991, at a meeting of the Political Consultative Committee in Prague, the Warsaw Pact member states - Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia signed the Protocol on the Termination of the Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance of May 14, 1955. and the Protocol on the extension of its validity, signed on April 26, 1985. Similarly, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was liquidated in the same year.
If a new organization is created instead of the liquidated one, then the problem of succession arises. The objects of succession are property, funds, some functions. This succession took place during the liquidation of the League of Nations and its replacement by the UN in 1946. The latter took over a number of the League's functions. The property of the League passed to the UN in accordance with the agreement concluded between them.
Ways to terminate the membership of states in the MMPO are:
- voluntary withdrawal from the organization;
- automatic exit - the state is forced to terminate its membership in the organization; for example, if a state ceases to be a member of the IMF, then it automatically leaves the membership of the IBRD and other organizations of the World Bank Group;
- expulsion from the organization is a type of international sanctions. As a rule, it is the result of a systematic violation by the state of the charter of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations;
- the cessation of the existence of the state;
- the liquidation of the IIGO itself automatically terminates the membership of the participating states.
Features of the legal personality of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations
Inter-parliamentary bodies are characteristic mainly of regional organizations. Their members are either directly elected by the populations of the member states through direct universal suffrage (European Parliament) or appointed by national parliaments (Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe). In most cases, parliamentary bodies limit themselves to adopting recommendations.
An important structural link in almost all intergovernmental (interstate) organizations are administrative bodies. They consist of international officials who are in the service of an international organization and are responsible only to it. Such persons are recruited in accordance with the quotas established for Member States on a contractual basis.
A significant role in the activities of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations is played by bodies consisting of persons in their personal capacity (for example, arbitration and judicial bodies, committees of experts).
Based on the number of members, two types of bodies can be distinguished: plenary, consisting of all member states, and bodies of limited composition. The plenary body, as a rule, determines the general policy and principles of the organization's activities, making decisions on the most fundamental issues. The scope of its competence includes budgetary and financial issues, the adoption of draft conventions and recommendations, the revision of the charter and the adoption of amendments to it, issues related to membership in the organization - admission, exclusion, suspension of rights and privileges, etc.
At the same time, in the activities of a number of international organizations, especially the UN specialized agencies, there is a tendency to increase the role of limited membership bodies in managing their activities (for example, in the ILO, IMO, ICAO).
For bodies with limited membership, issues of their composition are important. These bodies should be staffed in such a way that the decisions they make reflect the interests of all states to the greatest extent, and not just one or two groups. In the practice of the activities of international organizations, the following principles are most often used to form bodies of a limited composition: fair geographical representation; specific interests; equal representation of groups of states with diverging interests; the largest financial contribution, etc.
When forming organs, one of the principles is most often applied. In some cases, organs are formed taking into account two or more criteria. For example, the election of non-permanent members of the Security Council is conducted with regard primarily to the degree of participation of UN members in the maintenance of international peace and security and in the achievement of other goals of the Organization, as well as equitable geographical representation.
To characterize the bodies of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations, it is possible to use other criteria, for example, the hierarchy of bodies (main and auxiliary), the frequency of meetings (permanent and sessional), etc.
Procedure for making decisions by international organizations and their legal force
Decisions of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations are taken by its bodies. The decision of an international organization can be defined as the will of the member states in the competent body in accordance with the rules of procedure and the provisions of the charter of this organization. The decision-making process begins with the manifestation of an initiative coming from the state, from a group of states, from bodies or officials of an international organization. As a rule, the initiator proposes the study of a certain problem. But in a number of cases, he can also introduce a draft of a future decision for discussion.
In most international organizations, decisions, before they are submitted for discussion by the plenary body, are submitted for consideration by subsidiary bodies, where, in essence, a draft decision is developed, its supporters and opponents are identified.
Voting is the decisive step in decision-making. In the overwhelming majority of bodies of international organizations, each delegation has one vote.
Decisions in intergovernmental (interstate) organizations can be made:
a) by unanimity, which may be:
- complete - unambiguous vote of all members of the organization. The absence of any member of the organization or his abstention from voting excludes the possibility of making a decision;
- relative - unanimity of the Member States present and voting. Abstention from voting or the absence of any member of the organization does not prevent the adoption of a decision;
- simple majority - 50% of the votes of those present and voting plus one vote;
- qualified - 2/3, 3/4 of the votes of all those present and voting;
c) based on weighted voting - the number of votes for each state is determined by various criteria depending on the nature and goals of the organization. In the Council of the European Union, the number of votes is determined in proportion to the size of the territory and the number of population. In the IBRD, IMF, IDA, the number of votes for each member state is determined in proportion to its financial contribution;
d) based on consensus, i.e. the decision is taken by consensus without a vote in the absence of objections. The degree of consistency in the positions of states is determined by the absence of direct objections to this decision. Acclamation (a kind of consensus) is used when making decisions on procedural issues: the decision is made without a vote in the absence of objections;
e) on the basis of making decisions in a package - several issues that could be voted on separately in each case are combined into one package and voted on. This ensures decision making.
The rules of procedure of each body establish the quorum required for decision-making, which is most often a simple majority of the members of the body.
The foregoing testifies to the existence of an independent branch of international law - the law of international organizations, which is a set of norms and principles governing the process of creation and functioning of the IMPO.
The doctrine distinguishes the concept of internal law of MMPO, covering a set of rules that determine the structure, scope of competence and the procedure for the work of MMPO bodies, regulating the recruitment procedure and the legal status of their personnel. These norms are contained in the constituent acts, in the decisions of the MMPO itself, aimed at regulating intra-organizational relations, in contracts concluded by organizations with their employees.
General characteristics of the structure and activities of the UN
States may, according to Art. 36 of the Statute, declare at any time that they accept, without special agreement to that effect, ipso facto, in respect of any other State which has accepted the same undertaking, the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in all legal disputes concerning the interpretation of a treaty; any question of international law; the existence of a fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of the international obligation, and the nature and extent of the reparation due for the breach of the international obligation. The above declarations may be unconditional, or on conditions of reciprocity on the part of certain states, or for a certain period of time.
By the beginning of 2015, 70 out of 193 UN member states declared their recognition of the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court in accordance with paragraph 2 of Art. 36 of the Statute, and many statements are accompanied by such reservations that make this consent essentially illusory.
During the existence of the Court, it has issued about 90 judgments and 25 advisory opinions. The decisions of the Court shall be considered binding on the states parties to the dispute. In the event that a party to a case fails to comply with the obligation imposed on it by the decision of the Court, the Security Council, at the request of the other party, “may, if it deems it necessary, make recommendations or decide to take measures to enforce the decision” (paragraph 2 of Art. 94 of the UN Charter).
In addition to judicial jurisdiction, the International Court of Justice also has advisory jurisdiction. According to Art. 96 of the UN Charter, the General Assembly or the Security Council may request advisory opinions from the International Court of Justice on any legal question. In addition, other organs of the United Nations and the specialized agencies, which may at any time be authorized to do so by the General Assembly, may also seek advisory opinions from the Court on legal questions arising within the scope of their activities. At present, three principal organs of the UN, one subsidiary organ of the General Assembly, 19 specialized agencies of the United Nations and the IAEA (a total of 24 organs) can request advisory opinions from the Court.
On February 3, 1994, the Court delivered its judgment in the Territorial Dispute (Libya v. Chad) case, according to which the border between Libya and Chad is determined by the Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighborliness concluded on August 10, 1955 by France and Libya. In its Resolution 915 of May 4, 1994, the Security Council decided to establish the United Nations Aouzou Strip Monitoring Group (UNOGPA) to monitor the implementation of the agreement signed on April 4, 1994 between Libya and Chad, in which the parties pledged to abide by the decision of the International Court of Justice . The decision of the Security Council is the first example of the provision by the Security Council in accordance with Art. 94 of the UN Charter to assist the parties in complying with the decision of the Court.
In connection with the appeal in December 1994 by the UN General Assembly to the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, the Court unanimously concluded on 8 July 1996 that neither in conventional nor in treaty international law, there is no specific permission for the threat or use of nuclear weapons, there is no comprehensive and general prohibition on such actions, and that the threat or use of force using nuclear weapons, which is contrary to the provisions of paragraph 4 of Art. 2 of the UN Charter and does not meet all the requirements provided for in Art. 51, illegal. The Court unanimously concluded that the threat or use of nuclear weapons must also comply with the requirements of international law applicable to armed conflicts, especially those enshrined in the principles and rules of international humanitarian law, as well as specific treaty obligations and other obligations that relate directly to nuclear weapons. In the September 2000 UN Millennium Declaration, world leaders declared their determination to strengthen the International Court of Justice in order to ensure justice and the rule of law in international affairs.
The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (ECOSOC) consists of 54 members who are elected by the General Assembly for a period of three years in accordance with the procedure provided for by the Charter (Art. 61), with 18 members elected annually for a period of three years to replace those 18 members, a three-year term whose activities have expired. Decisions in ECOSOC are taken by a simple majority of those present and voting.
ECOSOC coordinates the economic and social activities of the UN and its 19 specialized agencies, as well as other institutions of the UN system. It serves as a central forum for discussing international economic and social issues of a global and cross-sectoral nature and for developing policy recommendations on these issues for states and for the UN system as a whole.
ECOSOC is responsible for convening numerous international conferences, preparing draft conventions on various issues of interstate cooperation for submission to the General Assembly, and negotiating with specialized agencies on agreements defining their relationship with the UN. The Council is empowered to harmonize the activities of the specialized agencies through consultation with them and to make recommendations to the agencies, as well as to the General Assembly and the members of the United Nations.
ECOSOC holds an organizational session in New York at the beginning of the year and a main session in the summer of each year, alternately in Geneva and New York.
With regard to states, the resolutions of ECOSOC and the General Assembly on economic, monetary and financial issues are advisory in nature. However, resolutions addressed to subsidiary bodies, to specialized agencies, in a number of cases have a different quality, of course, depending on the provisions of the agreements of these agencies with the UN. Thus, the general principles of economic and technical cooperation can be of a binding nature and, as such, can serve as an important starting point in the current intensive process of norm-setting activity of states in the socio-economic, scientific, technical, and humanitarian fields.
During the year, the work of the Council is carried out in its subsidiary bodies, which meet regularly and report to the Council. Subsidiary bodies include five regional commissions based in Europe, Latin America, Africa, Asia and the Pacific and Western Asia. The subsidiary mechanism of ECOSOC includes four standing committees and a number of standing expert bodies.
In addition, ECOSOC works in close cooperation with such institutions as the UN Children's Fund, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, the UN Development Program, the World Food Program, etc.
Guardian Council. It currently consists of five members (Russia, USA, England, France and China). The Council meets once a year in New York. Of the original 11 Trust Territories, all gained independence during the Council's work. In accordance with Resolution 956 of November 10, 1994, unanimously approved by the Security Council, the Trusteeship Agreement with respect to the last Trust Territory was terminated. At the suggestion of Malta, an item entitled "Review of the role of the Trusteeship Council" was included in the agenda of the 50th session of the General Assembly.
During the discussion of this issue, various proposals were made, including the abolition of the Trusteeship Council and its transformation into the Human Rights Council, the empowerment of it with the functions of the guardian and trustee of the common heritage of mankind and the protection of the environment.
The fate of the Trusteeship Council was not left without attention in the Report of the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change dated December 1, 2004, the authors of which proposed, without any justification, to exclude from the UN Charter the chapter dedicated to the Trusteeship Council. XIII.
The proposals put forward regarding the abolition of the Trusteeship Council or the possible assignment of some new functions to it seem unacceptable for a number of reasons. This would be a departure from the system of methods and forms of adaptation of the UN Charter to the changing conditions of world development, established in the practice of the UN and tested by more than half a century of experience, would lead to incitement of disputes and disagreements between states and would sow doubts about the enduring value of the main provisions of the UN Charter. It should also be taken into account that the Trusteeship Council has not yet exhausted the possibilities provided for in Art. 77 of the UN Charter, according to which territories voluntarily included in the trusteeship system by the states responsible for their administration may be transferred to the jurisdiction of the Council. This was confirmed in Resolution 2200/LXI of May 25, 1994 adopted by the Trusteeship Council, which, in particular, explicitly provides for the possibility of convening this body in the future. In accordance with this Resolution, the Trusteeship Council may be convened by its own decision, or by decision of the President, or at the request of a majority of the members, or at the request of the General Assembly or the Security Council. Therefore, at this stage, there are neither legal nor practical grounds for abolishing the Trusteeship Council, vesting it with any new functions and powers, i.e. it is not necessary to write off this one of the main organs of the UN.
United Nations Secretariat. One of the main organs of the UN is the Secretariat. It shall consist of the Secretary-General and such personnel as the Organization may require. It serves other UN bodies and carries out practical work to implement the programs of activities and decisions approved by these bodies, provides conference services to all the main and subsidiary bodies of the UN. The work of the Secretariat includes conducting peacekeeping operations under the authority of the Security Council, organizing and holding international conferences on issues of global importance (for example, the Conference on the Law of the Sea), compiling reviews of world economic and social trends and problems, preparing studies on issues such as disarmament, development, human rights. The functions of the Secretariat also include the interpretation and translation of speeches and documents and the distribution of documentation.
All staff of the UN Secretariat is divided into four categories: specialists, field service, general service, economic and technical service. The main part of the posts of specialists is subject to distribution among the Member States on the basis of the principle of equitable geographical representation, taking into account the size of the contribution to the UN budget and population.
There are two types of recruitment in the UN Secretariat: based on the conclusion of permanent (until retirement age) contracts and fixed-term (temporary) contracts. At present, about 60% of the staff of the Secretariat are on permanent contracts.
General Secretary. The head of the Secretariat and the chief administrative officer is the Secretary General, appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year term, after which he may be reappointed. The Secretary-General submits to the General Assembly an annual report on the work of the Organization, and also brings to the attention of the Security Council matters which, in his opinion, may threaten the maintenance of peace.
From January 2007, Ban Ki-moon (Republic of Korea) assumed the duties of Secretary General.
United Nations specialized agencies
The specialized agencies, bodies, programs and funds of the UN are an important part of the entire UN system. Their creation, operating procedure and legal status are expressly provided for by the UN Charter (Chapters IX and X). According to Art. 57 of the Charter, the specialized agencies are created on the basis of intergovernmental agreements and are vested with international responsibilities, broadly defined in their constituent acts, for the purpose of promoting the improvement of the standard of living; full employment of the population; creation of favorable conditions for economic and social progress and development; resolution of international problems in the areas of economic, social, health care; international cooperation in the field of culture and education; universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion.
Thus, specialized institutions have a limited scope of activity, mainly related to responsibility in the economic, social, cultural, educational, health and similar fields. From Art. 57 of the UN Charter it directly follows that, for example, military organizations cannot become specialized agencies. This is why, in particular, such an important organization as the IAEA, which has a recognized authority on international nuclear energy issues, does not have the status of a specialized agency, although it is mentioned in many international documents together with specialized agencies. Within the meaning of Art. 57 can not be specialized agencies and numerous regional organizations.
An important purpose of specialized intergovernmental organizations, programs and funds is that they must continue into the 21st century. play the role of a kind of mediator in order to resolve differences between states that are different in their power, culture, size and interests, and serve as forums for expressing the views and approaches of states and defending the interests of all mankind.
The specialized organizations of the UN are:
International Labor Organization (ILO) - develops policies and programs aimed at improving working conditions and increasing employment, and sets international labor standards used by countries around the world;
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) - directs efforts to increase agricultural productivity and food security, as well as to improve the living conditions of the rural population;
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) - promotes the implementation of the goals of universal education, the development of culture, the preservation of the world's natural and cultural heritage, international scientific cooperation, ensuring freedom of the press and communication;
World Health Organization (WHO) - coordinates the implementation of programs aimed at solving health problems and achieving the highest possible level of health for all people. Works in areas such as immunization, health education and the supply of essential drugs;
The World Bank Group (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - IBRD, International Development Association - IDA, International Finance Corporation - IFC, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency - MIGA, International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes - ICSID) - provides loans and technical assistance to developing countries in to reduce poverty and promote sustainable economic growth;
International Monetary Fund (IMF) - promotes international monetary cooperation and financial stability and serves as a permanent forum for consultation, advice and assistance on financial matters;
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) - establishes the international standards necessary to ensure the safety, reliability and efficiency of air traffic, and acts as a coordinator of international cooperation in all areas related to civil aviation;
Universal Postal Union (UPU) - establishes international standards for postal services, provides technical assistance and promotes cooperation in the field of postal services;
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) - promotes international cooperation to improve all types of telecommunications, coordinates the use of radio and television frequencies, promotes security measures and conducts research;
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) - encourages scientific research related to the study of the Earth's atmosphere and climate change, and promotes the worldwide exchange of meteorological data;
International Maritime Organization (IMO) - established on March 17, 1958. Since 1959, it has become a specialized agency of the UN. IMO members are 166 states, including Russia. The structure of the IMO consists of: the Assembly, the Council, the Maritime Safety Committee, the Legal Committee and the Committee for the Protection of the Marine Environment. Location - London (England);
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) - encourages international protection of intellectual property and promotes cooperation in matters relating to copyrights, trademarks, industrial designs and patents;
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) - promotes the industrial development of developing countries through the provision of technical assistance and advisory services and training;
World Tourism Organization (WTO) - serves as a global forum for policy issues related to tourism and a source of practical experience in the field of tourism.
Regional organizations and sub-regional structures and their interaction with the UN
Regional and sub-regional organizations and structures are an important part of the global system of collective security provided for by the UN Charter. Ch. VIII of the UN Charter, which, although it does not give a clear definition of regional agreements and organizations, at the same time allows them to adjust their activities to the constantly changing situation in the world and, together with the UN, contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security.
The experience of more than half a century of UN cooperation with regional organizations shows that regional organizations have played and continue to play an increasingly active role in ensuring regional security, not only in the areas of preventive diplomacy, peacekeeping and confidence building, but also in terms of enforcement to the world.
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) began operations in 1972 as a multilateral forum for dialogue and negotiation. In 1975, the terms of reference of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) were fixed in the Final Act approved at the first summit in Helsinki.
At the CSCE summit in Budapest in December 1994, it was decided to rename the CSCE as of January 1, 1995 into the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). At present, although the OSCE Charter has not been developed, a rather ramified structure of the OSCE has developed, which consists of: a meeting of the heads of state and government of the OSCE; Council of Ministers, convened once a year; Governing Council; Permanent Council; Forum for Security Cooperation (consists of representatives of the delegations of the participating States and meets weekly in Vienna); The OSCE Chairman-in-Office, who is entrusted with responsibility for the implementation of OSCE decisions (this post is held by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of the participating State for one year; the Chairman is assisted in the exercise of his functions by the previous and future Chairmanships, together forming a "troika"); OSCE Secretariat (the first OSCE Secretary General was appointed in June 1993); Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights based in Warsaw; the High Commissioner for National Minorities based in The Hague; Office for Freedom of the Media and OSCE Parliamentary Assembly. Currently, 55 states are members of the OSCE, including Russia. Location - Vienna (Austria).
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was established in December 1991 and includes 12 countries, including Russia. In accordance with the Charter of the CIS adopted on January 22, 1993, the main goal of the Commonwealth is, among other things, cooperation in the political, economic, environmental, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. The main bodies of the CIS are: the Council of Heads of State; Council of Heads of Government; Council of Foreign Ministers; Economic Council; Economic Court; Council of Defense Ministers; Headquarters for the coordination of military cooperation between the CIS member states; Council of Commanders of the Border Troops; The Executive Committee of the CIS, which is a permanent executive, administrative and coordinating body headed by the Chairman - the Executive Secretary of the CIS, and the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly. The CIS is a regional organization within the meaning of Ch. VIII of the UN Charter and, like other regional organizations, has observer status in the UN General Assembly. Location - Minsk (Belarus).
On January 1, 2015, the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) began to operate, which included Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan. Already on January 2, 2015, Armenia joined the EAEU. Kyrgyzstan is expected to join the union in May 2015.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was founded on August 8, 1967 in Bangkok. The main bodies of ASEAN are the meetings of heads of state and government, the Foreign Ministers' Meetings (MFA), the Standing Committee and the Secretariat. Location - Jakarta (Indonesia).
The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) is an intergovernmental structure in the Asia-Pacific region, within which a set of issues related to strengthening security and stability in this region of the world is regularly discussed. The ARF was founded in 1994. The ARF holds its annual sessions at the level of the ministers of foreign affairs of the participating countries. Ministerial sessions are the highest body of the Forum, during which the ministers discuss the whole range of problems affecting the security of the participating countries and the region as a whole. From the first days of the existence of the ARF, Russia has been actively participating in the events held within the framework of the Forum.
The European Union (EU) is the largest political and economic integration association of 25 European countries.
The main directions of the EU's activity at the current stage are: moving from a common market to an economic and monetary union; implementation of expansion strategy; the formation of the foundations of a unified foreign and defense policy and the acquisition of a European defense identity; activation of regional policy in the Mediterranean, in the North of Europe, in Asia, Latin America, Africa; further harmonization of the social sphere, interaction in the field of justice and internal affairs. The system of general bodies and institutions of the EU includes: the European Council, the European Parliament (EP), the Council of the European Union, the Commission of the European Communities (CEC) and the European Court of Justice. No final decision on the EU headquarters has been made, and meetings of its main bodies are held in Brussels, Luxembourg and Strasbourg.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created on the basis of the Washington Treaty of April 4, 1949 as a defensive political and military alliance. At the moment, the Organization of the North Atlantic Alliance includes 26 states of Western, Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the USA and Canada.
The structure of NATO is an extensive network of political and military bodies, which include: the highest political body - the NATO Council, the Political Committee for Military Planning, the International Secretariat, headed by the NATO Secretary General. Headquarters - Brussels (Belgium).
The African Union (until July 2000 it had the name "Organization of African Unity (OAU)") is a regional organization uniting 53 African states, which was established by decision of the Constituent Conference of the Heads of State and Government of African countries, held on May 22 - 25, 1963. in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). By the end of the 20th century, the problem of reorganizing and increasing the effectiveness of the OAU and its adaptation to the new realities in the international situation, including those fundamental changes that had taken place on the African continent, was clearly overdue. Under these conditions, Libya officially put forward the idea of transforming the OAU into the African Union, which was approved at the 4th Extraordinary Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the OAU member countries in Sirte in September 1999. In July 2000, at the OAU summit in Lome ( Togo), the Act on the establishment of the AU and the creation within its framework of an extensive system of organs was adopted. On July 8 - 10, 2002, the 39th session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the OAU member countries took place in Durban (South Africa), which became formally the founding summit of the AU. The headquarters of AS is located in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia).
The Organization of American States (OAS) was created on the basis of the Charter of the OAS, signed in Bogota in 1948. 35 states are members of the OAS (Cuba's participation was suspended in 1962). The main organs of the OAS are the General Assembly, the Permanent Council and the General Secretariat. Since 1971, the institution of permanent observers under the OAS has been operating. Currently, the European Union and 42 states, including Russia, have this status. Location - Washington (USA).
The League of Arab States (LAS) is a voluntary association of sovereign Arab states, created on the basis of the Pact of the League of Arab States, signed on March 22, 1945. The activities of the League are based on its Charter, which entered into force on May 11, 1945. The League has its own representative offices or information bureaus in a number of countries, including since January 1990 in Russia. Location - Cairo (Egypt).
International non-governmental organizations and forms of their cooperation with the UN
Throughout the existence of the UN and the creation of other IMGOs, the number of non-governmental organizations (INGOs) has grown rapidly. Today there are about 40 thousand INGOs in the world dealing with economic, cultural, humanitarian and other issues.
For a long time it was not clear what constitutes a non-governmental organization. A more or less satisfactory and very general definition was only reached on July 25, 1996, when the following definition was included in ECOSOC Resolution 1996/31 "Consultative relations between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations": "Any such organization which is not established by any or by a governmental body or by intergovernmental agreement, shall be considered a non-governmental organization for the purposes of these events, including organizations that accept government-appointed members, provided that such membership does not interfere with the free expression of that organization." From this definition it follows that tens of thousands of non-governmental organizations around the world - from the local to the global level, engaged in issues such as sustainable development, environmental protection, human rights and the democratization of public life, can be considered as genuine NGOs. On the other hand, it follows from this definition that secret societies, closed clubs, terrorist organizations, drug syndicates with transnational connections, associations of persons involved in money laundering, illegal arms trafficking, trafficking in women and children and kidnapping cannot be considered NGOs. for ransom, and other elements and organizations of the so-called anti-civil society. It is not legitimate, from the point of view of the UN Charter, to identify INGOs with such powerful international economic complexes as transnational corporations.
Many IMGOs actively cooperate with INGOs in order to increase the efficiency of their work. The UN and its specialized agencies have very developed ties with INGOs. According to Art. 71 of the UN Charter, ECOSOC is authorized "to take appropriate measures for consultation with non-governmental organizations interested in matters within its competence. Such measures may be agreed with international organizations, if necessary with national organizations, after consultation with the interested member of the Organization." This article created a legal basis for developing mechanisms for cooperation between the UN and INGOs.
UN practice has developed criteria for determining those INGOs that can be granted consultative status in ECOSOC. First of all, the area of activity of the INGO should coincide with the areas of competence of ECOSOC, as defined in Art. 62 of the UN Charter. Another necessary condition for obtaining consultative status is the compliance of INGO activities with the goals and principles of the UN, as well as the provision of assistance to the UN in its work and the dissemination of information about the activities of the UN. In addition, the INGO itself must have a representative character and a stable international reputation, representing a certain part of the population.
Of great importance is the provision of ECOSOC Resolution 1996/31 of July 25, 1996, according to which the granting, suspension and cancellation of consultative status, as well as the interpretation of norms and decisions on this issue, are the prerogative of member states, carried out through ECOSOC and its committee on INGOs.
ECOSOC Resolution 1996/31 provides for three categories of consultative status for INGOs.
1. General consultative status for organizations associated with most of the activities of ECOSOC and its subsidiary bodies, which can satisfactorily demonstrate to ECOSOC that they can make a significant and permanent contribution to the achievement of the goals of the United Nations, and which are closely connected with the economic and social life of the inhabitants of the represented their districts and whose membership is broadly representative of the main sections of society in various regions of the world.
2. Special consultative status for organizations that have special competence in only a few areas of activity of ECOSOC and its subsidiary bodies, or are specifically involved in these areas and are known internationally in those areas in which they have consultative status or seek it.
3. Other organizations not in general or special consultative status but which, in the opinion of ECOSOC or the UN Secretary-General, in consultation with ECOSOC or its NGO Committee, may from time to time make useful contributions to the work of ECOSOC and its subsidiary bodies or other bodies of the United Nations, within their competence, are included in a list called the "registry".
By the end of the XX century. More than 2,000 INGOs have received consultative status with ECOSOC, including a number of Russian NGOs (the International Association of Peace Foundations, the Women's Union of Russia, the Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia, the International Informatization Academy, the All-Russian Society of the Disabled, the Association for Assistance to Families with Disabled Children, the Russian United Nations Association, etc.).
Numerous INGOs have been especially active since the end of the Cold War. Many INGOs began to advocate for a revision of their role in the UN system, for the creation of an "Assembly of Peoples" in the UN as a parallel partner of the current UN General Assembly, for limiting the principle of state sovereignty, for the involvement of INGOs in all areas of UN activities, for the right of INGOs to participate on an equal basis with states in work of UN bodies and meetings and conferences held under its auspices. However, such plans are at odds with the criteria and procedures for the activities of INGOs provided for by the UN Charter.
On the whole, one cannot fail to recognize the positive influence of INGOs on the overall development of international relations, the rule-making process taking place in the world, the formation of a collective security system at the global and regional levels, and on strengthening the role of the UN and other international interstate organizations in the 21st century.
The process of updating and adapting the UN and its Charter to the new world realities and changes
In its approach to the UN Charter, Russia proceeds from the fact that this most important international document is currently the only act whose provisions are binding on all existing states of the world. This document fully meets the needs of the development of international relations at the present stage, and its progressive democratic principles and goals remain relevant to this day.
In the practice of the UN, various forms and means of adapting the UN Charter to the changing conditions of world development have developed. One of these ways is the preparation, under the auspices of the UN, of international treaties and agreements that seem to "catch up" with the UN Charter and many of which are of key importance for the development of broad international cooperation (Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1968, International Covenants on Human Rights of 1966 etc.). As UN Secretary-General Perez de Cuellar rightly pointed out, over the years of its existence, the UN has done more in the field of codification of international law than in the entire previous period of human history.
Among the proven ways and means of adapting the UN Charter to the new world realities are the development and adoption of declarations and resolutions of the General Assembly, specifying the general statutory principles and provisions and having great moral and political weight and practical significance. Although resolutions and declarations of this kind are not of a binding character, nevertheless they sometimes exert a decisive influence on the policy of states and on the positive resolution of major international problems.
Another way to "match" the provisions of the UN Charter with the changing conditions of the development of international relations is the adoption by the Security Council of decisions and statements that develop the provisions of the UN Charter in relation to specific situations and problems of international life. Considering that, in accordance with Art. 25 of the UN Charter, its members agree to obey the decisions of the Security Council and carry them out, its decisions acquire a certain normative significance. Such decisions include, for example, the adoption by the Security Council of Resolution 1373 of September 28, 2001, which is a kind of international set of norms and measures to combat terrorism that are binding on all states.
Undoubtedly, the resolutions adopted by the Security Council on various aspects of UN peacekeeping activities, the establishment of sanctions regimes against states that violated the provisions of the UN Charter, etc., had a special impact on the process of adapting the UN Charter to the changing conditions for the development of international relations.
Thus, it can be said that on the basis of the decisions of the Security Council, a process of evolutionary fine-tuning of the UN crisis mechanism is taking place, which is acquiring the features of a viable peacekeeping instrument to prevent and suppress future violations of international peace and security.
An important component of the evolutionary process of development and bringing the UN Charter in line with the emerging new needs for the normal functioning of the Organization is the achievement of generally acceptable agreements on an agreed "understanding" and "interpretation" of certain provisions of the UN Charter.
It is appropriate to recall that this unique international document contains a number of provisions that, for various reasons, have not been implemented or have not been fully implemented. Suffice it to recall Art. Art. 43 - 47 of the UN Charter, which provide for the placing at the disposal of the Security Council at its request and in accordance with special agreements of the armed forces and the effective functioning of the Military Staff Committee (MSC) - a permanent subsidiary body of the Council, designed to assist and advise it on all issues relating to the military needs of the Security Council in the maintenance of international peace and security. These most important obligations of states under the UN Charter to create UN armed forces in order to protect peace, prevent war and suppress aggression were virtually forgotten during the Cold War.
Meanwhile, the end of the Cold War, the unprecedented growth in the number of UN peacekeeping operations, their assertive multicomponent and multifunctional nature, the emerging tilt of UN operations towards "peace enforcement", the emergence of a large number of new generation conflicts, including those related to interethnic, interconfessional and other contradictions both between states and within them, inevitably lead many states to the conclusion that the most rational course of action in the current situation is to use the potential of the UN Charter and the mechanisms provided for by it, primarily the Security Council and its permanent subsidiary body - VSHK. At the same time, the MSC could, on an ongoing basis, engage in a comprehensive operational analysis of the military-political situation in conflict zones and prepare recommendations for the Security Council, including those related to the adoption of preventive measures, assessing the effectiveness of sanctions, forecasting possible scenarios, creating multilateral naval forces under the auspices of The UN is not only used to localize conflicts, establish a naval blockade and enforce sanctions, but also to combat piracy, international terrorism, and hostage-taking.
Thus, the problem of adaptation is not limited to the revision of the UN Charter and cannot be solved by changes in the text of the Charter alone. This is not a one-time act, but a multidimensional and timeless process that includes various forms and methods of creative development and transformation of the institutions and mechanisms of the Organization in relation to new realities.
Among them, in particular, is the method of natural obsolescence of certain provisions, the loss of their original meaning and meaning. The operation of this method makes it possible to avoid the application of the lengthy cumbersome procedure provided for by the UN Charter to introduce appropriate amendments to the UN Charter. For example, for a long time it has not been applied and cannot be applied in the future, paragraph 3 of Art. 109 of the Charter, providing for the possibility of adopting, before the 10th annual session of the General Assembly or at the 10th session itself, a decision to convene a General Conference to revise the UN Charter.
An analysis of the main forms and methods of adapting the UN Charter to the changing conditions of the evolution of international life clearly shows that the revision of the UN Charter is not the only way for the United Nations to gain new strength and capabilities so that it can keep pace with the times and successfully cope with the challenges imposed on it. more and more responsible and complex tasks. Moreover, any attempt to radically break the UN Charter is fraught in the current conditions with the appearance of an avalanche effect, which, if it grows, can destroy the entire Organization. It should also be borne in mind that attempts to revise the Charter in its main provisions may lead to incitement of disputes and disagreements between states, divert the attention of the Organization from solving urgent problems of our time, undermine the faith of peoples in the enduring value and universal applicability of the fundamental purposes and principles of the UN Charter.
In the conditions of the current turbulent changes, it would be imprudent to revise the structure and functions of the UN and its organs. The question of amending the UN Charter should be approached from a very cautious and balanced position, taking into account all possible negative consequences of such a step. The dynamics of international relations dictate the task of achieving a carefully calibrated and consensus-based adaptation of the Charter, expanding and clarifying the scope of its purposes and principles. To do this, it is necessary to find the right balance between reformist sentiments and the preservation of proven structures that have no alternative yet. Now it is important to fully realize the potential that the UN has, to improve the structure of the Organization on the basis of the UN Charter, to fill the forms and methods of its activity with new content.
Autonomous organizations of the OECD
One of the most powerful organizations that make up the OECD system is the "Group of Seven", created in 1975 to resolve global financial and currency issues at the level of heads of government of the leading Western countries. In 1997, Russia joined this organization, and the group became known as the "Big Eight" (Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Canada, USA, France, Japan, Russia).
At the meetings of the organization, issues of achieving a balanced growth dynamics of the main exchange rates, coordinating and harmonizing economic development strategies, and developing a common economic course for the world's leading countries are considered.
An autonomous body within the OECD is the International Energy Agency (MEA), established in 1974, with the participation of all OECD member countries, with the exception of Iceland and Mexico.
The organizational structure of the MEA includes: the Governing Council, which consists of high-ranking representatives of each state responsible for energy issues; permanent groups and special committees (on issues of long-term cooperation in the field of energy, emergencies, oil markets, etc.); The secretariat, composed of experts in the field of energy, performs support functions.
The main goals and objectives of the MEA:
Cooperation on the development and use of various energy sources;
Measures to improve the efficiency of energy use;
Ensuring the continuous functioning of the information system on the state of the international oil market;
Establishing cooperation with countries that are not members of the MEA, and international organizations to solve global problems of energy development;
Improving the system for overcoming violations in the supply of electricity.
The OECD system also includes the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), formed in 1958 with the participation of OECD member countries, with the exception of New Zealand and the Republic of Korea. The purpose of this organization is cooperation between the governments of the participating countries in the use of nuclear energy as a safe, economical source.
The main functions of the Nuclear Energy Agency include: - assessment of the contribution of nuclear energy to the overall energy supply; - Development of a system for the exchange of scientific and technical information; - Organization of international studies, preparation of programs for the development of nuclear energy; - Encourage cooperation to harmonize policies and practices in the regulation of nuclear energy (protection of people from radiation and protection of the environment).
The organizational structure of the Agency includes the following units: Council of the OECD; Executive Committee for Nuclear Energy; five specialized committees (on the development of nuclear energy and the fuel cycle; on the regulation of activities in the field of nuclear energy; on the safety of nuclear devices, on radiation protection; on health protection).
International organizations of general competence within economic cooperation
Organizations of general competence include organizations formed after the collapse of colonial empires or as a result of the macro-regionalization of world economic relations.
The most important of them are the Council of Europe, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Nordic Cooperation Organization, the League of Arab States, the Organization for Security and Cooperation, the Organization of the Islamic Conference.
1. The Council of Europe (with 46 countries, founded in 1949) is a broad-based organization that covers the following areas of activity: human rights, the media, legal cooperation, social and economic issues; healthcare, education, culture, youth, sports, environmental protection. The Council of Europe develops pan-European conventions and agreements, which are the basis for appropriate changes in national legislation with a view to harmonizing them.
Ukraine has chosen a democratic path of development that meets the standards of the European community. At the headquarters of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg (France) on November 9, 1995, a solemn ceremony of Ukraine's entry into this organization took place. The Council of Europe has developed a number of programs to promote democratic and legal reforms in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, for the implementation of which about 10 million US dollars have been provided. The programs concerned local self-government, judiciary, and elections. Thus, the Demosthenes program provided for an expert analysis of draft bilateral agreements to ensure the rights of national minorities, which Ukraine proposed to conclude with new independent states on the territory of the former USSR. The Council of Europe provides advisory assistance in the development of curricula for the training of lawyers in Ukraine (for example, at the Institute of International Relations of Taras Shevchenko University of Kyiv). Representatives of our state participate in the work of the main and special committees of the Council of Europe, in particular on human rights, social security, migration, cultural heritage, and the media. Ukrainian experts worked in the committee on the legal problems of refugees and stateless persons, the rights of national minorities and their linguistic rights. Ukraine has become one of the contracting parties to some conventions of the Council of Europe, the European Cultural Convention, the European Framework Convention on Frontier Cooperation between Territorial Communities and Authorities, the European Convention on Information on Foreign Legislation, as well as conventions on combating crime and protecting the rights of national minorities.
2. The Commonwealth of Nations (including 53 countries and was formed in 1931) operates in the following main areas: support for political and economic cooperation; promoting the sustainable development of the economies of the participating countries; consulting, representative and information tasks; development and implementation of programs for the development of the Commonwealth; organizing and holding conferences to adopt declarations on various issues of world politics. In 1987, the Declaration on World Trade was adopted; in 1991 - the Declaration of Fundamental Rights.
3. The Nordic Cooperation Organization, including five countries, was established in 1971. its main tasks are: improving the quality and competitiveness of products of the northern region; ensuring environmental protection and environmentally sustainable use of natural resources; growth in the level of employment, improvement of working conditions and social security.
4. The League of Arab States (LAS) was established in 1945. its members are 21 Arab countries and the Palestinian Authority. The purpose of the functioning is the thoroughness and coordination of the participating countries in various fields, the protection of national security and independence.
5. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), established in 1975, has 55 countries, the main tasks are 6: achieving sustainable economic development; improving contacts and practical cooperation on environmental protection; promotion of international peace and security.
6. The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) includes 57 Muslim states. II was established in 1969 with the aim of deepening cooperation in economic, social and scientific issues, holding consultations between participating countries in international organizations, strengthening Muslim solidarity.