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N Machiavelli biography. Biography. Criticism and historical significance

Spouse Marietta di Luigi Corsini Children Piero Macchiavelli[d], Bartolomea Macciavelli[d], Bernardo Macciavelli[d], Ludovico Macciavelli[d] And Guido Machiavelli[d] Autograph Niccolo Machiavelli at Wikimedia Commons

Niccolo Machiavelli(Machiavelli, Italian. Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli; May 3, 1469, Florence - June 22, 1527, ibid.) - Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, politician - held several positions in Florence, the most significant - the post of secretary of the second chancellery, was responsible for diplomatic relations of the republic, author of military theoretical works He was a supporter of strong state power, to strengthen which he allowed the use of any means, which he expressed in the book “The Sovereign” that glorified him, published in 1532, which went through many editions and was interpreted ambiguously many times.

Biography

He became interested in politics from his youth, as evidenced by a letter dated March 9, 1498, the second that has come down to us, in which he addresses his friend Riccardo Becchi, the Florentine ambassador in Rome, with a critical characterization of the actions of Girolamo Savonarola. The first surviving letter, dated December 2, 1497, was addressed to Cardinal Giovanni Lopez (Italian)Russian, with a request to recognize the disputed lands of the Pazzi family for his family.

Niccolo Machiavelli. Artist Santi di Tito

Start of a career

In the life of Niccolo Machiavelli, two stages can be distinguished: during the first part of his life, he was mainly involved in state affairs. In 1512, the second stage began, marked by the forced removal of Machiavelli from active politics.

Machiavelli lived in a turbulent era, when the Pope could have an entire army, and the rich city-states of Italy fell one after another under the rule of foreign powers - France, Spain or the Holy Roman Empire. It was a time of constant changes in alliances, mercenaries going over to the enemy’s side without warning, when power, after existing for several weeks, collapsed and was replaced by a new one. Perhaps the most significant event in this series of chaotic upheavals was the fall of Rome in 1527. Rich cities like Genoa suffered much the same as Rome five centuries ago, when it was burned by an army of barbarian Germans.

In 1494, the French king Charles VIII entered Italy and reached Florence in November. Young Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici, whose family ruled the city for almost 60 years, hastily went to the royal camp, achieving, however, only the signing of a humiliating peace treaty, the surrender of several key fortresses and the payment of a huge indemnity. Piero did not have the legal authority to enter into such an agreement, especially without the sanction of the Signoria. He was expelled from Florence by the indignant people, and his house was plundered.

The monk Savonarola was placed at the head of the new embassy to the French king. During this troubled time, Savonarola became the real ruler of Florence. Under his influence, the Florentine Republic was restored in 1494, and republican institutions were also returned. At the suggestion of Savonarola, the “Great Council” and the “Council of Eighty” were established.

After the execution of Savonarola, Machiavelli was again re-elected to the Council of Eighty, responsible for diplomatic negotiations and military affairs, thanks to the authoritative recommendation of the Prime Secretary of the Republic, Marcello Adriani (Italian)Russian, a famous humanist who was his teacher.

Theoretically, the First Chancellery of the Florentine Republic was in charge of foreign affairs, and the Second Chancellery was in charge of internal affairs and the city militia. But in practice, such a distinction turned out to be very arbitrary, and often matters were decided by the one who had a greater chance of achieving success through connections, influence or abilities.

Between 1499 and 1512, on behalf of the government, he undertook many diplomatic missions to the court of Louis XII of France, Ferdinand II, and the Papal Court in Rome.

At that time, Italy was fragmented into a dozen states, and wars between France and the Holy Roman Empire began over the Kingdom of Naples. Wars were then fought by mercenary armies and Florence had to maneuver between strong rivals, and the role of ambassador often fell to Machiavelli. In addition, the siege of the rebel Pisa took a lot of time and effort from the government of Florence and its plenipotentiary representative to the army, Niccolo Machiavelli.

On January 14, 1501, Machiavelli was able to return to Florence again. He reached a venerable age, by Florentine standards - he was thirty-two years old, he held a position that provided him with a high position in society and a decent income. And in August of the same year, Niccolo married a lady from an old and illustrious family - Marietta, daughter of Luigi Corsini.

The Corsini family occupied a higher level in the social hierarchy than the Machiavelli branch to which Niccolo belonged. On the one hand, the relationship with Corsini raised Niccolo higher on the social ladder, and on the other, Marietta’s family could benefit from Machiavelli’s political connections.

Niccolo had deep sympathy for his wife; they had five children. Over the years, thanks to daily efforts and cohabitation in both sorrow and joy, their marriage, concluded for the sake of social convention, turned into love and trust. What is noteworthy is that both in the first will of 1512 and in the last will of 1523, Niccolo chose his wife as the guardian of his children, although male relatives were often appointed.

While abroad on diplomatic business for a long period, Machiavelli usually started relationships with other women.

Influence of Cesare Borgia

From 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the effective wars of conquest of Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI, an extremely capable military leader and statesman, whose goal at that time was to expand his possessions in central Italy. Cesare was always brave, prudent, self-confident, firm, and sometimes cruel.

In June 1502, the victorious army of the Borgia, clanging their weapons, approached the borders of Florence. The frightened Republic immediately sent ambassadors to him for negotiations - Francesco Soderini, Bishop of Volterra, and the secretary of the Ten, Niccolo Machiavelli. On June 24 they appeared before the Borgia. In a report to the government, Niccolo noted:

“This sovereign is beautiful, majestic and so warlike that every great undertaking is a trifle for him. He does not stop if he thirsts for glory or new conquests, just as he knows neither fatigue nor fear. ..and also gained the constant favor of Fortune" .

In one of his early works [ ] Machiavelli noted:

Borgia possesses one of the most important attributes of a great man: he is a skilled adventurer and knows how to use the chance given to him to his greatest advantage.

Tombstone of Niccolò Machiavelli

The months spent in the company of Cesare Borgia served as an impetus for Machiavelli’s understanding of the ideas of “statecraft, independent of moral principles,” which were later reflected in the treatise “The Prince”. Apparently, due to his very close relationship with “Lady Luck,” Cesare was very intriguing to Niccolo.

Machiavelli constantly criticized the “soldiers of fortune” in his speeches and reports, calling them treacherous, cowardly and greedy. Niccolo wanted to downplay the role of mercenaries in order to defend his proposal for the creation of a regular army that the republic could easily control. Having its own army would allow Florence not to depend on mercenaries and French help. From a letter to Machiavelli:

“The only way to gain power and strength is to pass a law that would govern the army being created and maintain it in proper order ».

In December 1505, the Ten finally commissioned Machiavelli to begin creating a militia. And on February 15, a selected detachment of pikemen militia paraded through the streets of Florence to the enthusiastic cheers of the crowd; all the soldiers were in well-fitted red and white (the colors of the city flag) uniform, “in cuirasses, armed with pikes and arquebuses.” Florence now has its own army.

Machiavelli became an "armed prophet."

“That is why all the armed prophets won, and all the unarmed ones died, for, in addition to what has been said, it should be borne in mind that the character of people is fickle, and if it is easy to convert them to your faith, it is difficult to keep them in it. Therefore, you need to be prepared by force make those who have lost faith believe". Niccolo Machiavelli. Sovereign

Subsequently, Machiavelli was an envoy to Louis XII, Maximilian I of Habsburg, inspected fortresses, and was even able to create cavalry in the Florentine militia. Accepted the capitulation of Pisa and put his signature on the surrender agreement.

When the Florentine people, having learned about the fall of Pisa, indulged in rejoicing, Niccolò received a letter from his friend Agostino Vespucci: “You have done an impeccable job with your army and helped to hasten the time when Florence again regained what rightfully belonged to it.”

Filippo Casavecchia, who never doubted Niccolò's abilities, wrote: “I do not believe that idiots will comprehend the train of your thoughts, while the wise are few and far between. Every day I come to the conclusion that you are superior even to those prophets who were born among the Jews and other nations."

Return of the Medici to Florence

Machiavelli was not dismissed by the new rulers of the city. But he made several mistakes by continuing to constantly express his thoughts on topical issues. Although no one asked him and his opinion was very different from the internal policy pursued by the new authorities. He opposed the return of property to the returning Medici, offering to pay them simply compensation, and the next time in the appeal “To Palleschi” (II Ricordo ag Palleschi) he called on the Medici not to trust those who had gone over to their side after the fall of the republic.

Disgrace, return to service and resignation again

Machiavelli fell into disgrace, and in 1513 he was accused of conspiracy against the Medici and arrested. Despite the severity of his imprisonment and torture on the rack, he denied any involvement and was eventually released through an amnesty. He retired to his estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina near Florence and began writing books that would secure his place in the history of political philosophy.

From a letter to Niccolò Machiavelli:

I get up at sunrise and head to the grove to watch the woodcutters at work cutting down my forest, from there I follow to the stream, and then to the bird-catching current. I walk with a book in my pocket, either with Dante and Petrarch, or with Tibullus and Ovid. Then I go into an inn on the high road. It’s interesting to talk with people passing by, learn about news in foreign lands and at home, and observe how different people’s tastes and fantasies are. When lunch hour arrives, I sit with my family at a modest meal. After lunch, I return again to the inn, where its owner, the butcher, the miller and two brickmakers usually have already gathered. With them I spend the rest of the day playing cards...

When evening comes, I return home and go to my work room. At the door I throw off my peasant dress, all covered in dirt and slush, put on royal court clothes and, dressed in a dignified manner, go to the ancient courts of the people of antiquity. There, kindly received by them, I am satisfied with the food that is the only one suitable for me, and for which I was born. There I do not hesitate to talk to them and ask about the meaning of their actions, and they, with their inherent humanity, answer me. And for four hours I don’t feel any melancholy, I forget all my worries, I’m not afraid of poverty, I’m not afraid of death, and I’m completely transported to them.

In November 1520 he was called to Florence and received the position of historiographer. Wrote "History of Florence" in 1520-1525. He wrote several plays - "Clizia", ​​"Belfagoras", "Mandrake" - which were staged with great success.

He carried out individual diplomatic assignments for the pontiff, and was finally able to obtain a position when Florence began to be threatened by the Habsburgs. On April 3, Machiavelli received a letter from Francesco Guicciardini on behalf of the pope, containing instructions to go with the famous engineer and then military architect Pedro Navarro - a former siege specialist, defector and pirate - to inspect the fortress walls of Florence and prepare for a possible siege of the city. The choice fell on Niccolo, since he was considered an expert in military affairs: the seventh chapter of his treatise “On the Art of War” was separately devoted to sieges of cities - and, according to generally accepted opinion, was the best in the entire book. The support of Guicciardini and Strozzi also played a role, both talked about this with the pontiff.

  • On May 9, 1526, by order of Clement VII, the Council of the Sta decided to establish a new body in the government of Florence - the College of Five for the Fortification of the Walls (Procuratori delleMura), whose secretary was Niccolò Machiavelli.

But Machiavelli's hopes for the stability of his returned career were deceived. In 1527, after Rome was sacked, which once again showed the full extent of the fall of Italy, republican rule was restored in Florence, lasting three years. Machiavelli's hopes of regaining the position of secretary of the College of Ten did not come true. The new government no longer noticed him.

Machiavelli's spirit was broken, his health was undermined, and after 10 days the thinker's life ended on June 22, 1527 in San Casciano, a few kilometers from Florence. The location of his grave is unknown; however, a cenotaph in his honor is located in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. The inscription is engraved on the monument: No epitaph can express the greatness of this name..

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Without mincing words

The Florentine Republic, which Machiavelli found shortly before his death, lasted only three years. The combined forces of the empire and the papacy approached Florence. The city defended itself heroically during a ten-month siege that lasted from October 1529 to August 1530, thanks to reinforced fortifications - credited to Machiavelli - and a revived militia, albeit with significant support from mercenaries.

The book "The Prince" published in 1532 is the most controversial, but certainly significant work of the Florentine statesman of the Renaissance Niccolò Machiavelli

The last tribute to Machiavelli, which largely contributed to his denigration, is associated with his friends and relatives who donated funds for the posthumous publication of The Prince. The printer Antonio Blado published the treatise in 1532 with the permission of the pontiff, adding a dedication he himself composed, praising Machiavelli's political foresight. In the same year, the second edition of the book was published in Florence.

In subsequent years, decades and centuries, the book was subjected to numerous attacks by enemies (Innocent Gentillet, Antonio Possevino, King Frederick II of Prussia) and defense of admirers (Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Pope Pius VI, Grand Duke Leopold II of Tuscany, Roberto Ridolfi) of the talent of Niccolò Machiavelli.

Machiavelli would hardly have been delighted by the fame that The Prince brought him, and even during his lifetime he tried to make critical remarks. At one time, when he was scolded for the way despots were portrayed in one or another of his books, he sarcastically replied: “I taught sovereigns to become tyrants, and subjects to get rid of them.”

Despite the fact that during Machiavelli’s lifetime his main “project” - the people’s militia - was a fiasco, the Medici rulers after 1530 would develop Niccolò’s ideas and form a reliable conscript army that guaranteed tax, legal and political benefits and privileges to everyone who wanted to join it. and governed through an effective system of civilian control. And the militia of Florence will successfully serve for another 200 years.

“The Prince” and “Discourses” were written for a very unique ruler, which cannot be neglected in explaining the inconsistency of Machiavelli’s thinking. A high opinion of his own talents, coupled with a rather harsh manner of expressing his opinions, caused Niccolo Machiavelli a lot of trouble.

Alas, Machiavelli managed to return to politics only thanks to the assistance of powerful patrons who not only enjoyed his company and wit, but also appreciated his talents. Much better than later authors, they understood all the weaknesses and flaws inherent in Machiavelli, they put up with them, at times laughed at his escapades, considering him, first of all, not a genius in politics or literature, but simply an intelligent, educated, cheerful and entertaining person, a Florentine to the core bones

Worldview and ideas

Historically, Niccolo Machiavelli is usually portrayed as a subtle cynic who believes that the basis of political behavior is profit and power, and that politics should be based on force, and not on morality, which can be neglected if there is a good goal.

However, in his works, Machiavelli shows that it is most beneficial for a ruler to rely on the people, for which it is necessary to respect their freedoms and take care of their well-being. He allows dishonesty only towards enemies, and cruelty only towards rebels, whose activities can lead to greater damage.

Niccolo Machiavelli

In his works “The Prince” and “Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livy,” Machiavelli views the state as political state of society: the relationship between the rulers and the ruled, the presence of appropriately structured, organized political power, institutions, laws.

Machiavelli calls politics "experimental science", which explains the past, guides the present and is able to predict the future.

Machiavelli is one of the few figures of the Renaissance who, in his works, raised the question of the role of the personality of the ruler. He believed, based on the realities of contemporary Italy, which suffered from feudal fragmentation, that a strong, albeit remorseless, sovereign at the head of a single country was better than rival appanage rulers. Thus, Machiavelli raised in philosophy and history the question of the relationship between moral norms and political expediency.

The most famous attempt at a literary refutation of Machiavelli was the work of Frederick the Great, Anti-Machiavelli, written in 1740. Friedrich wrote: I dare now to come out in defense of humanity from the monster that wants to destroy it; armed with reason and justice, I dare to challenge sophistry and crime; and I present my thoughts on Machiavelli’s “The Prince” - chapter by chapter - so that after taking the poison, an antidote can be immediately found.

Machiavelli's writings indicated the beginning of a new era in the development of Western political philosophy: reflection on political problems, according to Machiavelli, should no longer be regulated by theological norms or moral axioms. This was the end of the philosophy of St. Augustine: all the ideas and all the activities of Machiavelli were created in the name of the City of Man, and not the City of God. Politics has already established itself as an independent object of study - the art of creating and strengthening the institution of state power.

However, some modern historians believe that in fact Machiavelli professed traditional values, and in his work “The Prince” he did nothing more than simply ridicule despotism in satirical tones. Thus, historian Garrett Mattingly writes in his article: “The assertion that this little book [“The Prince”] was a serious scientific treatise on government contradicts everything we know about Machiavelli’s life, his works and his era.”

With all this, the works of Machiavelli became one of the most significant events and only in the 16th-18th centuries influenced the works of B. Spinoza, F. Bacon, D. Hume, M. Montaigne, R. Descartes, Sh-L. Montesquieu, Voltaire, D. Diderot, P. Holbach, J. Bodin, G.-B. Mably, P. Bayle and many others.

Quotes

Image in culture

In fiction

  • TV movie “The Life of Leonardo da Vinci” (Spain, Italy. 1971). The role is played by Enrico Osterman;
  • TV movie “The Borgias” (UK. 1981). The role is played by Sam Dastor;
  • documentary-fiction film "The True Story of Niccolò Machiavelli" (Italy, 2011), dir. Alessandra Gigante / Alessandra Gigante, in ch. the roles of Vito Di Bella / Vito Di Bella;
  • series “Young Leonardo” (UK. 2011-2012). The role is played by Akemnji Ndifernyane;
  • series "Borgia" (Canada, Hungary, Ireland. 2011-2013). Portrayed by Julian Bleach;
  • series "Borgia" (France, Germany, Czech Republic, Italy. 2011-2014). The role is played by Thibault Evrard;
  • series “Da Vinci’s Demons” (USA. 2013-2015). The role is played by Eros Vlahos;
  • film “Niccolò Machiavelli - Prince of Politics” (Italy. 2017). The role starred Romeo Salvetti and Jean-Marc Barr.

In gaming culture

Essays

  • Reasoning:
    • "Sovereign" ( Il Principe);
    • "Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livy" ( Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio) (first edition - 1531);
    • Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499);
    • “On how to deal with the rebellious inhabitants of Valdichiana” ( Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati) (1502);
    • "Description of how Duke Valentino got rid of Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliveretto Da Fermo, Signor Paolo and Duke Gravina Orsini" ( Del modo tenuto dal duca Valentino nell’ ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, etc.)(1502);
    • Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502);
    • Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520).
  • Dialogues:
    • Della lingua (1514).
  • Lyrics:
    • Poem Decennale primo (1506);
    • Poem Decennale secondo (1509);
    • Asino d'oro (1517), a poetic adaptation of The Golden Ass.
  • Biographies:
    • "The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca" ( Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca) (1520).
  • Other:
    • Ritratti delle cose dell' Alemagna (1508-1512);
    • Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510);
    • “On the art of war” (1519-1520);
    • Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520);
    • History of Florence (1520-1525), multi-volume history of Florence;
    • Frammenti storici (1525).
  • Plays:
    • Andria (1517) - translation of Terence's comedy;
    • La Mandragola, comedy (1518);
    • Clizia (1525), a comedy in prose.
  • Novels:
    • Belfagor arcidiavolo (1515).

"Sovereign"

The small treatise on which Machiavelli pinned his last hope of winning the favor of the Medici would become his most famous work in the centuries to come and would earn the author the label of villain

The Italian writer and philosopher Machiavelli Niccolo was an important statesman in Florence, serving as secretary in charge of foreign policy. But the books he wrote brought him much greater fame, among which the political treatise “The Sovereign” stands out.

Biography of the writer

The future writer and thinker Machiavelli Niccolo was born in the suburbs of Florence in 1469. His father was a lawyer. He did everything to ensure that his son received the best education for those times. There was no better place for this purpose than Italy. The main source of knowledge for Machiavelli was the Latin language, in which he read a huge amount of literature. His reference books were the works of ancient authors: Macrobius, Cicero, and Titus Livy. The young man was interested in history. Later these tastes were reflected in his own work. The key works for the writer were the works of the ancient Greeks Plutarch, Polybius and Thucydides.

Machiavelli Niccolo began his public service at a time when Italy was suffering from wars between numerous cities, principalities and republics. A special place was occupied by the Pope, who at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. was not just a religious pontiff, but also a significant political figure. The fragmentation of Italy and the absence of a single national state made rich cities a tasty morsel for other major powers - France, the Holy Roman Empire and the growing power of colonial Spain. The tangle of interests was very complex, which led to the formation and dissolution of political alliances. The fateful and striking events that Machiavelli Niccolo witnessed greatly influenced not only his professionalism, but also his worldview.

Philosophical views

The ideas expressed by Machiavelli in his books significantly influenced society's perception of politics. The author was the first to examine and describe in detail all the behavior patterns of rulers. In the book “The Sovereign,” he directly stated that the political interests of the state should prevail over agreements and other conventions. Because of this point of view, the thinker is considered an exemplary cynic who will stop at nothing to achieve his goal. He explained state unscrupulousness by serving a higher good purpose.

Niccolo Machiavelli, whose philosophy was born as a result of personal impressions of the state of Italian society at the beginning of the 16th century, not only discussed the benefits of this or that strategy. On the pages of his books, he described in detail the structure of the state, the principles of its work and the relationships within this system. The thinker proposed the thesis that politics is a science that has its own laws and rules. Niccolo Machiavelli believed that a person who has mastered this subject perfectly can predict the future or determine the outcome of a particular process (war, reforms, etc.).

The importance of Machiavelli's ideas

The Florentine writer of the Renaissance introduced many new topics of discussion into the humanities. His debate about expediency and compliance with moral standards raised a thorny question, which many philosophical schools and teachings are still arguing about.

Discussions about the role of the personality of the ruler in history also first appeared from the pen of Niccolo Machiavelli. The thinker's ideas led him to the conclusion that with feudal fragmentation (in which, for example, Italy was), the character of the sovereign replaces all power institutions, which harms the inhabitants of his country. In other words, in a fragmented state, paranoia or weakness of the ruler leads to ten times worse consequences. During his life, Machiavelli saw enough of such picturesque examples thanks to the Italian principalities and republics, where power swung from side to side like a pendulum. Often such fluctuations led to wars and other disasters that hit the common population the hardest.

History of the "Sovereign"

It should be noted that the treatise “The Prince” was written as a classic manual of application intended for Italian politicians. This style of presentation made the book unique for its time. It was a carefully systematized work in which all thoughts were presented in the form of theses, supported by real examples and logical reasoning. The Prince was published in 1532, five years after the death of Niccolò Machiavelli. The views of the former Florentine official immediately found a response among the widest public.

The book became a reference book for many politicians and statesmen of subsequent centuries. It is still being actively republished and is one of the pillars of the humanities dedicated to society and institutions of power. The main material for writing the book was the experience of the fall of the Florentine Republic, which Niccolò Machiavelli experienced. Quotations from the treatise were included in various textbooks used to teach civil servants of various Italian principalities.

Heredity of power

The author divided his work into 26 chapters, in each of which he addressed a particular political issue. Niccolo's deep knowledge of the history of ancient authors often appears on the pages) allowed him to prove his guesses using the experience of the ancient era. For example, he devoted an entire chapter to the fate of the Persian king Darius, who was captured. In his essay, the writer assessed the fall of the state that had occurred and gave several arguments about why the country did not rebel after the death of the young commander.

The question of the types of heredity of power was of great interest to Niccolo Machiavelli. Politics, in his opinion, directly depended on how the throne passed from predecessor to successor. If the throne is transferred in a reliable way, the state will not be threatened by unrest and crises. At the same time, the book provides several ways to maintain tyrannical power, the author of which was Niccolò Machiavelli. In short, the sovereign can move to a newly captured territory in order to directly monitor local sentiments. A striking example of such a strategy was the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the Turkish Sultan moved his capital to this city and renamed it Istanbul.

Preservation of the state

The author tried to explain in detail to the reader how a captured foreign country can be held. For this, according to the writer’s theses, there are two ways - military and peaceful. At the same time, both methods are acceptable, and they must be skillfully combined in order to simultaneously appease and frighten the population. Machiavelli was a proponent of creating colonies on acquired lands (approximately in the same way as the ancient Greeks or the Italian maritime republics did). In the same chapter, the author derived the golden rule: the sovereign must support the weak and weaken the strong in order to maintain balance within the country. The absence of powerful opposing movements helps the authorities maintain a monopoly on violence in the state, which is one of the main signs of reliable and stable government.

This is how Niccolo Machiavelli described ways to solve this problem. The writer's philosophy was formed as a combination of his own managerial experience in Florence and historical knowledge.

The role of personality in history

Since Machiavelli paid great attention to the importance of the individual in history, he also wrote a short outline of the qualities that an effective prince should possess. The Italian writer emphasized stinginess, criticizing generous rulers who wasted their treasury. As a rule, such autocrats are forced to resort to raising taxes in the event of a war or other critical situation, which extremely irritates the population.

Machiavelli justified the harshness of rulers within the state. He believed that it was precisely this policy that helped society avoid unnecessary unrest and unrest. If, for example, a sovereign prematurely executes people prone to rebellion, he will kill a few people while saving the rest of the population from unnecessary bloodshed. This thesis again repeats the example of the author’s philosophy that the suffering of individual people is nothing compared to the interests of the entire country.

The need for rulers to be tough

The Florentine writer often repeated the idea that human nature is fickle, and most of the people around are a bunch of weak and greedy creatures. Therefore, Machiavelli continued, it is necessary for a prince to instill awe among his subjects. This will help maintain discipline within the country.

As an example, he cited the experience of the legendary ancient commander Hannibal. With the help of cruelty, he maintained order in his multinational army, which fought for several years in a Roman foreign land. Moreover, it was not tyranny, because even executions and reprisals against those guilty of breaking the laws were fair, and no one, regardless of their position, could receive immunity. Machiavelli believed that the cruelty of a ruler is justified only if it is not outright robbery of the population and violence against women.

Death of a Thinker

After writing “The Prince,” the famous thinker devoted the last years of his life to creating “The History of Florence,” in which he returned to his favorite genre. He died in 1527. Despite the author's posthumous fame, the location of his grave is still unknown.

(1469-1527) Italian politician

Niccolo Machiavelli went down in history primarily as the author of two famous political treatises. But in fact, he wrote several dozen works, covering a variety of fields of knowledge, as well as artistic works - the comedies “Mandrake” (1518), “Clizia” (1525) and poems. Machiavelli himself considered himself a historian, and his contemporaries called him the soul of Florence.

Niccolo came from an ancient Tuscan family, the first mentions of which date back to the early Middle Ages. In the 9th century, the Machiavellis were one of the richest landowners. Niccolo's paternal ancestors owned vast estates and castles located in the Arno River valley.

However, by the time of the birth of his son, the Machiavelli family had become impoverished; only a small estate remained from the vast estates, so his father could only boast of a high-profile title. Niccolo's mother belonged to a famous merchant family. In Florence, such a marriage between the scion of an ancient family and the daughter of a wealthy merchant was considered common. Niccolo was the youngest child in a large family consisting of two sons and two daughters.

When he was seven years old, a home teacher began teaching him, who taught the boy to read and write Latin fluently. Four years later, Niccolò was sent to the famous Florentine school of P. Ronciglioni. Throughout his years of study, Machiavelli was considered the best student, and his teachers predicted a brilliant career for him at one of the universities.

Niccolo's youth occurred during the reign of Lorenzo de' Medici, nicknamed the Magnificent. His father served at the duke's court, and the Florentine nobility gathered almost daily at Machiavelli's house. But the family had little money, and Niccolo’s studies at the university were out of the question. To give his son a profession, his father began to study law with him. Niccolo turned out to be an extremely capable student and within a few months he became his father’s assistant. After the sudden death of the elder Machiavelli, Niccolo becomes the sole breadwinner of the family. With the help of friends, he enters the government service.

His brilliant knowledge of Latin and Florentine legislation helped him withstand the competition for the position of Secretary of the Great Council. His subsequent career was rapid. Just a few months later, he receives the position of Chancellor-Secretary of the Council of Ten - that was the name of the main state body for managing all affairs of the Florentine Republic. Thus, all the threads of both the domestic and foreign policy of the republic are in the hands of Machiavelli.

He was chancellor for more than fourteen years, was in charge of the military and diplomatic affairs of the republic, and went on important trips many times - to the Vatican to the papal throne, to various cities in Italy.

Niccolo Machiavelli also proved himself to be a skilled diplomat who knew how to find a way out of the most intractable situations. On behalf of the French king, the German emperor, and the Pope, he resolved issues of war and peace, settled controversial territorial problems, and financial conflicts.

It seemed that Machiavelli was one of the most famous political and diplomatic figures of the early 16th century and nothing could hinder his future career.

But the active political struggle in Florence led to the fact that P. Soderini, who sympathized with him, was overthrown, and representatives of the Medici family came to power in the city, expelling all supporters of the Florentine Republic from service. Niccolo Machiavelli was captured and thrown into prison, where he was tortured, but a year later he was released and sent into exile to the family estate of Sant'Andrea, located near San Casciano. Only in 1525 was he able to return to Florence again.

Finding himself in silence and solitude, Machiavelli takes up his pen and begins to work on two books: “Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius” (1513-1521) and the treatise “The Prince” (1513).

In the first of them, Niccolò Machiavelli formally analyzes the history of Rome, but in fact he does not so much analyze the work of the famous historian as express his own views on the problems of the state structure of his contemporary society. The book was the result of many years of observation and reflection. Machiavelli declares Florence heir to the Roman Republic. He considers republican Rome an ideal example of a state in which there should be opponents and supporters of the existing system.

His views on the place of religion in society are very original. He believes that the ancient Roman religion is better suited to a republican system of government than the cumbersome bureaucratic machine that existed in the Vatican. True, he does not doubt the very foundations of Catholicism; only people who serve the church are criticized. Machiavelli for the first time openly writes that it is the policy of the papal throne that contributes to the increasing fragmentation of Italy. Of course, he could not publish such a book in his homeland, so he sent the manuscript to friends in Florence and continued to work on the treatise “The Prince.”

The researcher analyzes the role and place of the head of state in the management system, considers various forms of government, from authoritarian to democratic, and comes to the conclusion that in any case the key role is played by the personality and behavior of the ruler.

For the first time in European history, Niccolo Machiavelli shows that the most viable form is the so-called "stata", a large independent centralized state. He examines the behavior of the ruler and comes to the conclusion that any power is inevitably associated with certain manifestations of cruelty. Machiavelli considers such manifestations to be natural, but at the same time warns rulers against excessively large sacrifices. He is convinced that any ruler is obliged to respect his fellow citizens and take care of their prosperity. Interestingly, Machiavelli was the first to analyze the personal qualities that a ruler should possess. In particular, he believed

that the ruler must be two-faced in order to hide hatred of his enemies under the guise of a hospitable host of his country.

A ruler must always be decisive. In order for the people to rally around him, it is necessary to set a simple and realistic goal. At the same time, it is by no means important that it is actually achievable. In order to achieve it, one should not stop at any means. If the goal is “historically progressive, nationally justified, solves the main problem of the era, establishing order, then the people forget the means of achieving it.”

Niccolo Machiavelli attached great importance to the connection between the political state of society and the methods of exercising state power. He showed that for the stability of the system it is important to comply with the ideas, traditions, and stereotypes that are emerging in the popular consciousness. In other words, the strength of any state lies in its reliance on the masses.

Machiavelli's reasoning about the so-called political elite is interesting. He distinguishes two types - the “lion elite” and the “fox elite”. The first is characterized by a rigid authoritarian movement towards the goal. For the second - compromise maneuvering. The main conflicts, writes Machiavelli, unfold between the elite with power and the elite striving for power.

At the same time, as a historian, Niccolo Machiavelli gives an analytical picture of the existence of totalitarian regimes, pointing out the possibility of their emergence in a given situation. In fact, Machiavelli’s book laid the foundations of political science, a science that appeared only many centuries later. The treatise “The Sovereign” was a reference book for many political figures. It is known that Napoleon, Churchill, and Stalin read it.

Like the previous book, the treatise began to diverge into numerous manuscripts. Soon they meet him at the Medici court. The official reaction was unexpected: Machiavelli was invited to Florence and offered a government post. He becomes an advisor at the Duke's court.

Niccolò Machiavelli speaks almost weekly at the famous Academy of Medici, where he makes presentations on the possible political and social structure of Florence. He tries to promote his views and writes a “Note on the State System in Florence,” where he tries to convince the political and spiritual rulers to give more power to commercial and industrial groups. The work goes first to the Duke, and then to Pope Leo X. The Pope reacted favorably to Machiavelli's work and even invited him to the Vatican to clarify what exactly he was going to do.

The scientist becomes the Pope's advisor. He spends just over a year in the Vatican and then returns to his homeland, as the Florentine authorities commission him to write the history of Florence.

At the same time, he is engaged in diplomatic work. He is appointed representative of Florence in the election of the general of the Minorite Order. Machiavelli copes brilliantly with the assignment, but refuses the proposal that soon followed. He no longer wants to hold the position of government secretary, believing that only independence will allow him to maintain his impartial position as a historian.

The work on “The History of Florence” required Machiavelli three years of hard work. Only in the middle of 1525 did he send the first eight books to Pope Clement VII. Having received his approval, Niccolo Machiavelli continues his work, but at this time the Florentine government begins a war with the Duchy of Milan, which dreamed of subjugating Florence to its power.

Machiavelli takes an active part in organizing the defense of the city: he is recruiting militias, developing a plan for the defense of the city walls. On his recommendation, a special police force is established in the city to maintain order.

However, soon the internecine war between Milan and Florence subsides - allied Spanish-German troops invade Italian territory.

In November 1526, as a military adviser to G. Medici, Niccolò Machiavelli was present at the Battle of Governolo. The defeat of the Roman troops and the death of G. Medici cause a rise in republican sentiment in Florence.

Meanwhile, Machiavelli continues to serve as a military adviser and moves to the town of Civi ta Vecchia, where he comes under the orders of Admiral Doria, commander of the Italian fleet. When Machiavelli learns that an uprising has begun in Florence, he drops everything and hurries back.

He believed that only by his presence could he bring maximum benefit to the republic. However, after arriving, Machiavelli unexpectedly falls ill and dies a few days later from stomach bleeding.

His funeral was attended by almost all residents of the city. At their request, the ashes of Niccolo Machiavelli were buried in the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Croce next to other outstanding countrymen - Boccaccio, Petrarch.

Machiavelli's works were not forgotten; in 1531, both of the scientist's treatises and a collection of his literary works were published in Italy. Thus, they gradually become available to the scientific and general public.

Traditionally, there have been two perceptions of Machiavelli’s creative heritage. On the one hand, he is seen as a supporter of the totalitarian regime, who was looking for a way out of the current situation in a strong collective will, which could be formed by a strong-willed and strong sovereign. Others see in Niccolo Machiavelli a dangerous rebel, capable of objecting to the rulers of this world, not accepting the terms of their game, and at the same time faithfully serving those whom he revered. It is no coincidence that in Tsarist Russia his books were repeatedly banned from publication, and he was practically never published in the USSR.

Over time, the name Machiavelli began to be perceived as a symbol - the problems posed by him turned out to be so large-scale. In the 16th-17th centuries they turned to him for help in political and diplomatic art, in the 18th century - for clarification of methods and techniques of public administration. For historians of the 19th century, Niccolo Machiavelli was an authoritative chronicler, and in the 20th century he was addressed as a classic of political sociology. But no one disputed the significance of Machiavelli as the first of a galaxy of outstanding thinkers at the turn of the New Age - Jean Bodin, G. Grotius, T. Hobbes, G. Vico, who created the science of political science in different countries.

Niccolo Machiavelli is an outstanding Italian politician, thinker, historian, Renaissance writer, poet, military theorist. He was born on May 3, 1469 into an impoverished noble family. His small homeland was the village of San Casciano, located near Florence. Machiavelli received a good education, thanks to his excellent knowledge of Latin, he could read ancient authors in the original, had an excellent understanding of the Italian classics, but did not share the humanists’ admiration for the era of antiquity.

The political biography of Niccolo Machiavelli dates back to 1498, he plays the role of secretary of the Second Chancellery, in the same year he was elected secretary of the Council of Ten, which was to be responsible for the military sphere and diplomacy. For 14 years, Machiavelli carried out a large number of government orders, traveled as part of embassies to various Italian states, as well as Germany and France, compiled certificates and reports on current political issues, and conducted extensive correspondence. Familiarity with the heritage of the ancients, the experience of government and diplomatic service became an invaluable aid in the subsequent creation of social and political concepts.

In 1512, Machiavelli had to resign because of the Medici who came to power, he was expelled from the city for a year as a republican, and the next year he was arrested as an alleged participant in the conspiracy and tortured. Machiavelli firmly defended his innocence, and in the end he was pardoned and exiled to the small estate of Sant'Andrea.

The most intense period of his creative biography is associated with his stay on the estate. Here he writes a number of works devoted to political history, military theory, and philosophy. Thus, at the end of 1513, the treatise “The Sovereign” was written (published in 1532), thanks to which the name of its author forever entered world history. In this work, Machiavelli argued that the end justifies the means, but at the same time, the “new sovereign” must pursue goals related not to personal interests, but to the common good - in this case, we were talking about uniting politically fragmented Italy into a single strong state. It was the unlimited power of the ruler, according to the convinced patriot Machiavelli, that could be the only way to put an end to the troubles of his native country. For the sake of this good goal, justice and morality, the interests of citizens and the church can be neglected.

Machiavelli's works were received with enthusiasm by his contemporaries and enjoyed enormous success. After his name, a system of politics was called Machiavellianism, which does not neglect any of the ways to achieve a goal, regardless of their compliance with moral standards. In addition to the world-famous “The Prince,” Machiavelli’s most significant works are considered to be “Treatise on the Art of War” (1521), “Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius” (1531), and “History of Florence” (1532). He began writing this work in 1520, when he was summoned to Florence and appointed historiographer. The commissioner of the “History” was Pope Clement VII. In addition, being a multi-talented person, Niccolo Machiavelli wrote works of art - short stories, songs, sonnets, poems, etc. In 1559, his works were included by the Catholic Church in the “Index of Prohibited Books.”

In the last years of his life, Machiavelli made many unsuccessful attempts to return to vigorous political activity. In the spring of 1527, his candidacy for the post of Chancellor of the Florentine Republic was rejected. And in the summer, on June 21 of the same year, while in his native village, the outstanding thinker died. The place of his burial has not been established; in the Florentine church of Santa Croce there is a cenotaph in his honor.

Niccolo Machiavelli's brief biography and interesting facts from the life of the Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, and politician are presented in this article.

Niccolo Machiavelli biography briefly

Niccolo Machiavelli was born in the village of San Casciano, near Florence, on May 3, 1469 into an impoverished noble family. The young man received an excellent education. He had a good command of Latin, so he read ancient authors in the original and understood the Italian classics.

In 1498, he received the post of secretary of the Second Chancellery, and later, but in the same year, the job of secretary of the Council of Ten. Machiavelli was responsible for diplomacy and the military sphere. For a long time, for 14 years, the thinker carried out various orders from the government: together with members of the embassy, ​​he traveled to the Italian states, France and Germany, compiled reports and certificates on current political issues, and was responsible for correspondence. But such work, experience in diplomatic and public service became the basis for the subsequent creation of political and social concepts.

When the Medici came to power in 1512, Machiavelli resigned due to divergent views and disputes. He, an ardent Republican, is expelled from the city for a year. A year later, the thinker is arrested as a possible participant in the conspiracy and tortured. Niccolo is finally pardoned and sent to the Sant'Andrea estate.

He had the most fruitful period of creativity on the estate. He wrote many works on political history, philosophy and military theory. In 1513, a work was written that immortalized his name in world history - “The Sovereign”. The slogan of this treatise is that the end justifies the means. In it, the author touched upon the issues of uniting politically fragmented Italy into one strong state.

In 1520, Pope Clement VII summons Niccolò Machiavelli and appoints him historiographer. The Pope ordered him to write a history of Florence. He also writes songs, short stories, poems and sonnets.

In the last years of his life he tried to return to politics, but was inconsolable. In the spring of 1527, his candidacy as chancellor of the Florentine Republic was rejected. And on June 21, 1527, while staying in his native village, the thinker and philosopher lost consciousness.

Famous works of Machiavelli- “The Prince”, “Treatise on the Art of War”, “Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livy”, comedy “Mandrake”, “History of Florence”.