Peoples of northeastern Siberia. Panorama of peoples on the background of Europe. Peoples of Northeastern Europe (Series I). Housing of small peoples

A whole world of multilingual tribes and peculiar household cultures existed before the arrival of the Russians in northeast Asia. The life of the tribes of northeast Asia before the arrival of the Russians can be judged from the Russian archival materials of the 17th-18th centuries, the news of travelers of that time and archaeological data. This information can be spread far into the depths of the past of these tribes, since the Russians found them at the level of the Stone Age.

104 Ibid.

105 V. Panov. Historical information about Hunchun. "Far East", 1900, No. 91, pp. 3-4.

The mainland regions, a huge territory from the lower reaches of the Lena to Anadyr, were occupied by the Yukaghir tribes. On the Siberian scale, the Yukaghirs were then a numerous people.

In the middle of the XVII century. There were about 4500 Yukaghirs. They consisted of 12 tribal or territorial groups. About 450 Yukagirs lived in the Len basin, about 1000 in the Indigirka basin, about 1600 in Alazeya and Kolyma, and 1300 in Anadyr. 106

In ancient times, the Yukaghirs were settled even more widely. 107 This is confirmed by the data of their language, which occupies a separate position among the surrounding languages. 108 Obviously, it was formed in a large closed area. The proximity of the Yukaghir language to the Samoyedic languages ​​indicates that in ancient times the Yukaghir tribes came into contact with the ancestors of the Samoyeds. 109 The narrow corridor between the Samoyed and Yukagir tribes, occupied by the Lamuts and Tungus, was formed as a result of a relatively late invasion of these tribes into the lower reaches of the Lena and Olenek.

The fact that the Yukaghirs recently lived on Olenek is evidenced by folklore: the opponent of Uren-Khosun, the hero of the Olenek heroic tales, Unkebil-Khosun is directly called in one of the legends “Yukaghir”. The Yukagirs entered the lower reaches of the Lena and in the middle of the 17th century. 110

The most ancient way of life among the Yukaghirs was that of foot hunters for wild deer. The Yukagirs in the lower reaches of the Indigirka represent their ancestors as hunters of wild deer. In winter, they pursued their prey on sleds. In autumn they hunted her with the help of decoys. In the summer, small herds of wild deer were driven into the lakes, where the hunters, who lay in wait for the animals, approached the deer in boats and stabbed them with spears. For all groups of tundra Yukagirs, hunting for migratory wild deer at river crossings, at the so-called "deer trades" or "animal swimming" was of great importance. 111 “In order to cross, deer usually descend to the river along the bed of a dry or shallow channel ... in a few minutes the entire surface of the river is covered with floating deer. Then hunters rush at them, hiding in their boats behind stones and bushes and usually under the wind from a deer, surround them and try to keep them. Meanwhile, two or three experienced industrialists, armed with long spears and polearms, break into the herd and stab the swimming deer with incredible speed. A good experienced hunter kills up to a hundred or more deer in less than half an hour.

106 V. I. Ogorodnikov. Essays on the history of Siberia from the beginning of the 19th century, part II, issue I. Russian conquest of Siberia. Vladivostok, 1924, pp. 54-61; B. O. Dolgikh. Tribal and tribal composition of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century. "Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography", new series, v. 55, M., pp. 379-442.

107 A. P. Okladnikov. History of the Yakut ASSR, vol. I, p. 28 (-293; M. G. Levin. Ethnic anthropology and problems of the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Far East "Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography named after N. N. Miklukho-Maclay", new series, vol. XXXVI , M., 1958, pp. 153-154, 204.

108 V. I. Iokhelson. 1) Sample materials for the study of the Yukaghir language and folklore. "Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences", vol. IX, No. 2, St. Petersburg, 1892; 2) Odul (Yukaghir) language. Sat. "Languages ​​and writing of the peoples of the Far North", part III,

109 Y. Andere. Die Uralo-Yukagirische Frage. Stockholm, 1956; Yu. A. K e and no-vich. Yukaghir language. L., 1958, pp. 228-237.

110 Russian sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. M.-L., 1952, pp. 276-277.

111 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 214, Art. 274, ll. 172-173; f. 1177, op. 2, Art. 6, l. 15.

112 F. P. Wrangel Journey along the northern shores of Siberia. M., 194, p. 221.

This is how F. P. Wrangel’s companion F. F. Matyushkin painted hunting “on the floats”. But the fishing was not always successful, then the Yukaghirs were starving, dying out in whole families.

Such prey of wild deer at the crossings was carried out in the lower reaches of the Alazeya, Indigirka, Kolyma, Anadyr. In those areas where there were a lot of fish, in the lower reaches of the northern rivers, fishing was important as an aid to hunting.

Groups of foot Yukagirs lived not only in the lower reaches of the rivers. In the upper reaches of the Kolyma, Yana, there are also places where fish accumulate in autumn, heading to spawning grounds. Accumulations of fish are so significant that, using the most primitive nets such as nonsense, the local population managed to prepare fish for the whole year in a few days. Modern Upper Kolyma Yukaghirs call this way of catching fish "scooping", and the places of accumulation of fish are called "chemka", "moner".

It is characteristic that the remains of dwellings - semi-dugouts, attributed by the local population to some extinct people ("omoks"), are located not on the banks of the Indigirka itself, but along small tributaries, channels. Obviously, it was here (on the main waterways that the fish goes along the fairway) that the Yukaghirs could build rides with “muzzles” or other traps, and set up nets. During the course of the rune, the fish also filled these channels, and then the Yukaghirs could provide themselves with fish with their primitive fishing gear.

The names of the rivers where the Yukaghirs lived on foot - Kolyma, Indigirka, Anadyr - "dog" - indicate the important role that the dog played in their life - their only domestic animal, on which they transported their meager property. They were real dog breeders. So, in the lower reaches of the Indigirka, Russian servicemen met in 1639 settled Yukaghir fishermen-dog breeders. “People are sedentary,” the Cossacks told about them, “but they ride dogs.”113 However, there were also domestic deer on some farms of the foot Yukaghirs. “On the same day,” Fyodor Gavrilov reported in a yasak book in 1648, “46 sables were (taken) from the great sovereign yasak from the Kolyma foot prince and deer under his amanat Kandang and from the whole family.” 114 In 1659, the son of the Indigir Yukagir, Landiya-Checha, became a guide with his reindeer to the merchants. 115 The Upper Kolyma Yukagirs also had reindeer. Significant herds of deer were in the XVII century. in the hands of the Yukagirs - Khodyns and Chuvans. On the reindeer of these Yukaghirs, the first detachments of service people moved to Kamchatka.

Tundra reindeer herders-Yukaghirs knew draft reindeer herding. Sledges and sleds are repeatedly mentioned in the documents.

The material culture of the Yukagirs was much more primitive than the culture of their neighbors, the Yakuts and Evens. The Yukaghirs themselves described their past in this way: “There were Yukaghirs, they were with stone axes, they were bone arrows, they were with knives made of rib bones. . . That's how they lived." 116 The weapons of the Yukagirs were bows with arrows, spears, stone axes. 117

113 Sat. Discoveries of Russian explorers and polar sailors in the 17th century, 1951, p.143

114 “Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 1177, op. 4, book. 260,

f.1177. op.4, book. 260. l.1

115 Colonial policy of the Muscovite state in Yakutia in the 17th century. L., 1936, page 185.

116 V.I. Yokhelson 1936 Materials on the study of the Yukaghir language and folklore, part 1. SPb. 1900 p. 74

117 Ibid., p. 93

True, this does not mean that the Yukagirs did not know iron at all. The Yukagir language even has its own terminology related to the processing of iron. But there was so little of it that, according to legend, before the arrival of the Russians, the iron ax, the greatest value, was the property of the whole family. It was used by all its members only in those cases when it was necessary to cut a thick strong tree, which was difficult to do with stone axes.

There is another legend, which figuratively tells about the first axes received from the Russians. It says: "The Russians said: 'Chop wood with this.' Everyone started chopping. Some, having chopped off their legs, died. They all threw away their stone axes. They (Russians) gave them knives." 118

By the arrival of the Russians, the Yukaghirs were divided into paternal clans. However, strong remnants of the maternal clan also survived, such as matrilocal marriage - the husband moved to live in his wife's house and worked for the bride in her clan. Among the Yukagirs, women enjoyed great independence, and girls before marriage enjoyed great freedom.

According to the legends, the lucky experienced hunter Khangicha - the breadwinner - enjoyed the greatest honor in the family. Elders were at the head of the family. Each clan had its own tribal priest shaman (alma), who combined a healer and a soothsayer. In some groups, the Yukagirs deified the dead shamans.

“And their faith will be Yukagirey: in which family the shaman dies, then taking him, cutting off the body from the bones of Eve, drying the veins, clouds in a dress, they believe in him and carry them with them on deer,” the service people reported G.F. to Miller. 119 The bones of the deceased shaman served as a family protective amulet. According to them, they guessed about the results of the fishery. 120

In 1652, when the Yukaghir amanats died from some illness, their relatives turned to the Cossacks with a request to keep the "bone", for which they promised to deliver yasak. 121 Along with shamanism, the trade cult was widespread among the Yukagirs. The Yukaghirs believed in the existence of "master spirits" of places and animals and believed that each creature has its own master spirit. Of the animals, the elk enjoyed special honor.

The closest neighbors of the Yukagirs in the north-east of Siberia were the Chukchi. In one of the early reports of the Lena Cossacks it was reported: "... and those chuhchi live between the Alazeya and Kolyma rivers on the tundra, they say their people are 400 or more." 122 They occupied the mouth of the river. Kolyma. 123 To the east of the Kolyma, the Chukchi were encountered at Cape Shelagsky, 124 from where, further east, their settlements were located along the coast of the Arctic Ocean up to Cape Dezhnev. On the coast of the Bering Sea, the Chukchi settlements were located from Cape Dezhnev in the north to the hall. Cross in the southwest. Throughout this space, the Chukchi settled settlements interspersed with the Eskimos. Throughout the

118 W. Jochelson. Material culture and social organization of the Koryak.

119 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 199, d. 481, part VII, l. 313.

120 V. I. Iokhelson. Materials for the study of the Yukagir language and folklore.

121 History of the Yakut ASSR, v.II. M.-L., 1957, p. 107.

122 Sat. “Discoveries of Russian explorers and polar sailors in the 17th century”, p. 143.

123 B. P. Polevoy. The discovery of the petition of the discoverers of Kolyma. Sat. "Siberia of the period of feudalism", no. 2, Novosibirsk, 1965.

124 Russian Sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, p. 100.

dissimilarities, even then there were settlements with a mixed Chukchi-Eskimo population. South of the hall. Cross only in the lower reaches of the river. Anadyr, at the mouth of the river. Kanchalan lived Chukchi. 125 These data are also confirmed by archaeological finds. 126 ВXVII century. on the river itself Anadyr, apparently, there were no permanent settlements of the Chukchi. Consequently, in the southeast, the border of the settlement of the Chukchi began at the mouth of the river. Kanchalan, on the northern shore of the Anadyr estuary. Following to the northwest, the border of their settlement passed approximately along the middle course of the rivers flowing into the Anadyr on the left (Tanyurer, Belaya). Further, it passed northeast of the upper reaches of the Big and Small Anyui, descending closer to the Chaun Bay through the tops of the rivers flowing into it, and went to the river. Kolyma below the mouth of Anyui. Throughout the outlined space of the interior regions, purely Chukchi toponymy is preserved, while on the coast of the Bering and Chukchi Seas - both Chukchi and Eskimo. There are no statistical data on the number of Chukchi in the middle of the 17th century. no. However, based on information from the beginning and middle of the 18th century, it can be assumed that there were about 8-9 thousand of all Chukchi at that time. 127

The authors of the first news about the Chukchi of the XVII century. they divide them by occupation into reindeer herders and sedentary sea hunters and at the same time indicate that both of these groups of Chukchi were intensively engaged in hunting wild deer. However, even then, the specialization of one part of the Chukchi in the field of reindeer husbandry, and the other in the field of sea fur hunting, was clearly indicated.

In 1647, M. Stadukhin described the economic activities of the Chukchi as follows: “The Chukchi are the same as the Samoyed, deer, sedentary.” A little lower in the same message it is said that the Chukchi are moving on deer to the Bear Islands and there "they beat the sea animal walrus." 128 Judging by the report of M. Stadukhin, the Western Chukchi then conducted a complex economy. They combined reindeer breeding with sea hunting and, apparently, land hunting. To the east of the Kolyma, there was a more distinct division between the reindeer Chukchi and the settled sea hunters. The latter lived on the coast of the sea throughout the year, where they hunted marine mammals: walruses, seals and whales. In the summer months, they undertook long-distance hunting expeditions to the Kolyma, Amguema, Anadyr and other rivers, where they hunted wild deer while crossing them from one bank to another. It is known that huge herds of wild deer made regular migrations from south to north and back. In spring they moved north and crossed rivers on ice, and in August-September, returning from the North, they swam across rivers in certain places. There were especially many such fishing grounds on the rivers flowing in the meridional direction (the Anadyr and its tributaries). Chukchi gathered to such places. They sailed on large canoes along with their families, accompanied by small single canoes in which the hunters sailed. According to data from the middle of the 1st century, by the end of July, the Chukchi sailed to Anadyr in "canoes in a hundred of fifty or more, each with 15 and 20 or more people." 129 Thus, Anadyr sailed from the coast of the Bering Sea

125 V.I. Ogorodnikov. The conquest of the Yukagir land. “Proceedings of the State University of Public Education in Chita”, book I, Chita, 1922, p. 270; Archive of the Academy of Sciences, f. 21, op. 4, book. 31, l. 277

126 A.P. Okladnikov, V.V. Naryshkin. New data on ancient cultures on the Chukchi Peninsula "Soviet Ethnography", 1955, No. 1.

127 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century. L., 1935, pp. 158, 161, 179.

128 Additions to historical acts, vol. III, doc. 24.

129 Central State Historical Archive of Leningrad, f. Senate, Secret Expedition, d. 1552, l.12.

more than 2 thousand Chukchi, including women and children. By the same time, deer Chukchi were gathering on the coast of the Anadyr estuary. They also took part in this great collective fishery. Hunting was carried out at the moment when a herd of wild deer crossed the river. When the deer reached the middle of the river, the Chukchi quickly left the ambush in single-seat kayaks, surrounded the deer and stabbed them with special “thorns” on the “float”. Pokolschiki were strong and agile men, while other Chukchi, including women, caught the carcasses of dead and wounded deer carried away by the current. Apparently, they hunted a lot of deer. According to the data of the first half of the 16th century, “when there is a good melt, then, without turning off the babies, twenty deer get for each”. 130 Autumn hunting gave meat, high quality skins, necessary for winter clothes, footwear and for making parts of the dwelling. Deer meat was separated from the bones and dried. Bones, deer were finely crushed and bone fat was rendered out of them, which was eaten along with dried meat and used for lighting. The Chukchi were also engaged in hunting wild deer at other times of the year, using bows and arrows.

Hunting for wild deer was an occupation of both nomadic and settled Chukchi. This is their traditional occupation, which has its roots in ancient times. By the middle of the XVII century. it has already begun to lose its former significance both for the reindeer Chukchi and for those who lived mainly at the expense of sea hunting. Reindeer husbandry of the Chukchi was still poorly developed. It only acquired the character of pastoral reindeer husbandry. The deer herds of the Chukchi of that time were small. Deer were used mainly as a means of transportation and for hunting purposes. There were reindeer herders mainly due to hunting, partly fishing.

By the middle of the XVII century. The Chukchi, who inhabited the coast of the Bering and Chukchi Seas, lived mainly at the expense of sea fur hunting. From hunting for marine mammals, they received their main food (meat, fat); walrus skins were used to tighten the frames of canoes (leather boats), to prepare belts needed for harness, for rigging canoes, for lines to harpoons, and were used for roofing summer yarangas. Raincoats were sewn from the intestines of a walrus. The skins of seals (seals, bearded seals) were used for sewing clothes, shoes, bags for storing various household items and some products, skins for storing fat; belts of various sections were cut out of them, with which parts of the sled were fastened, belt nets were knitted for seal fishing, and lines for harpoons were made.

The fat of marine animals was used for food, was used for lighting and heating the home. Hunting tools, arrowheads, harpoons, picks, harpoon attachments, hunting sleds, parts of sailing rigging for canoes, and some household items (scoops, spoons) were made from walrus tusks. The walrus tusk also served as a material for the manufacture of art objects (bone sculpture).

Whalebone was used to pad the runners of the sledges, and nets and fishing lines were woven from its fibers. Whalebone was used to make cups and inserts for harpoon tips. Whale bones were used as building material (beams and crossbars of dugouts, hangers, storehouses).

Hunting for whales and partly for walruses was carried out from canoes with the help of harpoons and was of a collective nature, while hunting

130 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 199, No. 528. vol. I-tetr. 19, l. 32.

for seals and polar bears was individual. Harpoons, spears, and knives were mainly used for hunting marine animals.

Walrus fishing was of the greatest importance in the life of the Primorye Chukchi; walruses, in addition to meat and fat, gave high-strength skins. The tusks of walruses were especially valuable for coastal hunters. Already in the first reports about the Primorsky Chukchi, the importance of walrus tusk as a material for making tools was emphasized. In 1647, Isai Ignatiev and the Alekseev Family reached the Chaun Bay on a koch, “and they found people in the bay, and they are called Chukchi, and a small place was traded with them. . . they brought a merchant to them on the shore, laid it, and they put in that place the bones of a fish tooth (as walrus tusks were then called) a little, and not every tooth is intact; they made picks and axes from that bone. 131

Fishing, apparently, the Chukchi did little. Fish were caught with bone hooks, short nets woven from deer tendons or whalebone fibers. The nets were set up from the shore.

When hunting land animals, the Chukchi used complex bows, arrows with various tips and spears. When hunting marine mammals, they used throwing spears (harpoons) with detachable tips, to which long lines were attached. A bow with arrows and a spear were also weapons of the Chukchi warriors.

Deer antlers and bones were widely used as material for tools and household items. Arrowheads, piercings, parts of a team, handles, spears for reindeer sleds, spoons, hooks for hanging, knives, plates for shells and much more were made from them.

The main means of transportation of the Chukchi overland in the XVII century. deer served. They harnessed them to the sled. The settled Chukchi apparently also used dogs. Then they had a fan-shaped type of dog team, which has been preserved until recently.

The Chukchi had two types of dwellings - portable and permanent. The reindeer Chukchi used portable housing in all seasons, while the settled ones used it only in summer. In winter, they lived in semi-dugouts, the type and design of which they borrowed from the Eskimos. The building material was the jawbones and ribs of whales, wood, and turf. 132 It is no coincidence that one of the types of semi-dugouts was called "valka-ran" - a dwelling made of jaws. Several families of close relatives lived in semi-dugouts. Summer dwellings were above ground. Their skeleton was covered with walrus or deer skins. Inside, they had canopies sewn from deer skins, and for settled Chukchi, from the skins of polar bears. Grease lamps burned in the canopies. They illuminated the dwelling and gave warmth. 133

The household utensils of the Chukchi were distinguished by their simplicity and a small number of items. Grease lamps were hollowed out of sandstone or made of clay. The cauldrons necessary for cooking food were made of clay mixed with coarse sand. According to Chukchi legends, clay and sand were kneaded with the blood of hunted animals, and dog hair was added to this mixture to make it more viscous. In addition to earthenware, they had wooden utensils, mainly dishes on which

131 Russian Sailors in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, p. 110.

132 S.I. Rudenko Ancient culture of the Bering Sea and the Eskimo problem. M.-L., 1947, pp. 69-108.

133 I S. Vdovin. Essays on the history and ethnography of the Chukchi. M. - L., 1965, pp. 44-49.

meat was laid out. Fire was produced by friction with the help of a special bow projectile. The Primorye Chukchi cooked their food on oil lamps in winter, and in summer in special rooms where whale bones were burned, pouring fat on them.

The main social unit of both nomadic and settled Chukchi in the middle of the 17th century. there was a large patriarchal family with many remnants of more ancient social relations, in particular with remnants of group marriage, levirate, sororate, polygamy, etc. Even then, they coexisted simultaneously with private and communal property: private property for deer, communal property for pastures, hunting grounds, dwellings, etc. They experienced the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system. Judging by the data of folklore, they had an initial form of patriarchal slavery.

According to the Chukchi, the surrounding world was spiritualized. Each object lived a life similar to human life, although it had a different material form. The nature surrounding the Chukchi was filled with creatures benevolent to man - vayrgyt and evil, harmful, spirits - kelet. The benevolent beings helped man in his labor activity, while the evil ones harmed him. They, for example, caused cases of deer, moved into a person, brought him illness and death. The sun and stars are benevolent vayrgyt. The most important being was considered nargynen (“universe”, literally “all outer space”). Ideas about these creatures were vague, vague. They were looking for patronage, help and protection. Since successes or failures in labor activity, in hunting depended on the benevolent disposition of the vayrgyts, the Chukchi cajoled them by means of sacrifices practiced on various occasions. Walruses, whales, deer were the most common objects of worship among the Chukchi. Perhaps the earliest message on this subject came to us from 1647, compiled by M. Stadukhin, a well-known explorer of the north-east of Siberia. He says that near the river. Chukchi (west of the Kolyma River) live Chukchi. “And those Chukchi on this side of the Kalyma from their homes from that river in the winter move on deer to that island one day, and on that island they hunt the sea animal walrus and bring walrus heads with all their teeth, and in their own way they are those walrus heads prayer." 134

Traces of the widespread cult of walruses and whales can be traced to the present not only on the coast of the Arctic Ocean, but also on the Pacific. I. S. Vdovin managed to observe traces of the cult gathering of walrus heads near Cape Shelagsky, near the villages of Ryrkaypiy (Cape Schmidt), Enurmin (Cape Heart-Stone) and in other places. Thus, this cult was widespread not only among the Chukchi and Eskimos, but also among the Koryaks.

South of Anadyr 135 along the coast of the Bering Sea to the river. Uni, and along the western coast of Kamchatka from the river. Tigil in the south 136 to the northern corner of the Penzhina Bay lived settled Koryaks. The settled Koryaks also occupied the northwestern coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk up to the river. Ola. 137 "Ostrozhki" of settled Koryaks were located not only in the lower

134 Additions to historical acts, vol. III, doc. No. 24.

135 Ibid., vol. IV, doc. No. 7.

136 I. I. Ogryzko. Settlement and number of Itelmens and Kamchatka Koryaks at the end of the 17th century. “Scientific notes of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen”, v. 222, L., 1961, pp. 173-174. 137 Additions to historical acts, vol. V, doc. No. 73.

but also on the middle and upper reaches of more or less large rivers of Kamchatka (for example, on the rivers Tigil, Palana, Karaga, Rusanov, etc.) 138 . .The entire interior of the Kamchatka Peninsula from the river. Bolshoi in the south 139 up to the right tributaries of the Anadyr - the Velikaya and Maina rivers, the valleys of the lower and middle reaches of the Penzhina, Gizhiga, Parenya, Yama, Ola rivers, as well as the Taigonos Peninsula, were occupied by deer Koryaks.

The number of Koryaks in the 17th century. was completely unknown. Even S.P. Krasheninnikov wrote that “it was impossible to get any real news about the Koryak people”. 140 According to B. O. Dolgikh, the estimated number of Koryaks by the end of the 17th century. was 10785 people, 141 and according to the calculations of I. S. Gurvich, there were more Koryaks - about 13 thousand. 142 Thus, the question of the number of Koryaks at the end of the 17th century. requires further study.

The closest contact between Russians and Koryaks began in the 80s of the 17th century. Almost simultaneously, the advance of the Russians from Okhotsk to the north along the sea coast and from the Anadyr prison to the south to the Kamchatka side began. 143

Like the Chukchi, the Koryaks were divided into sedentary and nomadic. In turn, the settled Koryaks were divided into several territorial groups, differing from one another in language and some elements of culture. “And in Penzhina,” Vl. Atlasov, - the Koryaks live ... they speak their own special language ... And they eat fish and every animal and seal. And their yurts are reindeer and rovduga... And behind those Koryaks live foreign Lutorians, and the language and everything is similar to Koryak, and their yurts are earthen, similar to Ostyak yurts.”144

The settled Koryaks were engaged in fishing, sea hunting and hunting for mountain sheep, wild deer and bears. Most of all they were fishermen. As you know, the rivers of Kamchatka, as well as the rivers flowing into the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and the Bering Sea, abounded in salmon species of fish. Fishing was the main source of livelihood for the Koryaks. Fish were caught in rivers and lakes at spawning grounds with nets tied from deer tendons or from threads made from nettles. Basically, yukola was made from fish, which was stored in special structures (booths) on high piles. Yukola was the main winter food of the settled Koryaks.

The farther north along the coast of the Kamchatka Isthmus, the more important in the life of the Koryaks was the marine fur trade. They hunted seals, whales, and on the coast of the Bering Sea - walruses.

On land, the Koryaks hunted wild deer, which were found in the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and mountain sheep. They were mined with a bow and arrows, as well as with the help of loops that were installed on animal paths. Everywhere on the territory of the settlement of the Koryaks, brown bears were found, which were also the subject of their hunting.

By the time of contact with the Russians, the Koryaks already had developed pastoral reindeer husbandry. Herds of some patriarchal communities

138 I. I. Ogryzkov. Settlement and number of Itelmens..., pp. 189-192.

139 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, p. 31. S.P.

140 S.P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka. M.-L., 1949, p. 726.

141 B. O. Dolgikh. Tribal and tribal composition of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century, p. 561.

142 I. S. Gurvich. Ethnic history of the north-east of Siberia. M., 1966, p. 109.

143 M. I. Belov. New data on the services of Vladimir Atlasov and the first Russian campaigns against Kamchatka. "Chronicle of the North", L.-M., 1957.

144 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, p. 31; S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 448.

were numerous. Deer were the private property of individual members of the community. Among the Koryaks there was an inequality of property, which was sharply evident to the first Russian observers.

The reindeer gave the Koryaks not only food, but also material for clothing, footwear, and housing; surpluses of reindeer herding products went to settled Koryaks, in exchange for them, reindeer herders received products of the Marine hunting trade (blubber, skins and skins of marine mammals). “Everyone wears a dress made of deerskin,” wrote S.P. Krasheninnikov __ in which there is no cancellation from Kamchatka, because Kamchadals also receive reindeer dress from them, as already announced above. 145 Deer also served as a means of transportation. They were harnessed to cargo and passenger sleds, they were ridden only in winter. 146

The tools of labor and hunting of the Koryaks were made of wood, stone and bone. It is interesting that their axes (adzes), arrowheads, spears, men's and women's knives (pakul) show almost complete resemblance to similar items of the Chukchi and Siberian Eskimos. The weapons of the Koryaks also had much in common with the weapons of the Chukchi and Eskimos. “Their military weapons consist of bows, arrows and spears, which before this were made of bones and stones ... They used to have stone and bone axes and knives, and wooden flint, which they still use more,” wrote S. P. Krasheninnikov. 147 Speaking about the Alyutor settled Koryaks, V. Atlasov noted: “... they have a gun, bows and arrows made of bone and stone.” 148

Reindeer Koryaks used deer as a means of transportation on land, and dogs, which they also harnessed to sleds, served as a settled Koryaks. As S. P. Krasheninnikov noted: “. . Sedentary Koryak also have deer, only rare ones and not in large numbers, but they use them only for traveling. 149 On reindeer harnessed to sleds, the Koryaks engaged in battle with the enemy. “The Koryak deer on sleds go out to battle: one rules, and the other shoots from a bow.” 150 They traveled along the rivers on bahts (in the southern areas of settlement), and on the sea - on canoes. The latter differed in their size, especially among the Penzhin Koryaks. “Penzhin foreigners have canoes instead of boats for sailing,” Vl. Atlasov, - sewn from sealskin, 6 sazhens in length, and 1/2 sazhens across, and in those canoes, 30 and 40 people swim at sea for seal and fat fishing. 151

Reindeer Koryaks lived in portable dwellings, the frame of which was made up of light poles and covered with panels sewn from reindeer skins. Inside such a dwelling, curtains were placed, also sewn from deer skins. There were as many as there were families living under one roof. In the middle of the tent, a fire was burning, on which food was cooked. The canopies were illuminated and heated by oil-burning lamps, in which either bone fat or the fat of marine animals burned. Summer tents were covered with rovduga panels. 159

The settled Koryaks had special winter and summer dwellings. In winter, they lived in semi-dugouts, with an inlet at the top, which also served as a chimney. Several families of close relatives lived in such semi-dugouts. In summer they settled in cone-shaped

145 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 453.

146 Ibid., 453-454.

147 Ibid., pp. 460, 729.

148 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, pp. -26.

149 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 455.

150 The colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the XVIII in p. 32.

151 Ibid., pp. 32-33.

152 Ibid., p. 31.

booths, which were built on high pillars and covered with grass. Each family had its own booth. The same booths served as warehouses, where yukola harvested in summer was stored in winter.

The Koryaks ate fish, meat of deer, mountain sheep, marine mammals, collected pine nuts, berries, and some types of edible roots.

They used earthenware, birch bark and leather utensils, weaved grass mats, baskets, bags for storing stocks of pine nuts, berries, and roots of edible plants.

The social relations of the Koryaks, apparently, did not fundamentally differ from the social relations of the Chukchi. The main social unit of the Koryaks was a large patriarchal family with preserved remnants of the maternal family. Among the reindeer Koryaks, such an economic and social unit was the camp community, which united the closest relatives - the patriarchal family. “In one place there are yurts of four and five, but more than one,” noted S. P. Krasheninnikov. 153 Among the settled Koryaks, this was a group of relatives (a large patriarchal family), united around the main means of hunting - canoes - a canoe community. Members of such a community lived in one semi-dugout. “They didn’t have initial people before, but whoever in which family is rich in deer, he was in charge in that family, because all the poor and meager deer live near that relative of his, and they supply them with food and clothes, and they guard his herd ". 154 As can be seen, the property inequality on the basis of reindeer ownership among the Koryaks has gone far. "Wives and children have special herds." 155 They already have the beginnings of patriarchal slavery. Foreigners were slaves. "Kholopei have the Chukchi and Kamchatka peoples." 156

The Koryaks practiced polygamy, especially among the wealthy. “The rich marry the rich, and the poor marry the poor ... They have two and three wives, and keep them in different places, giving special shepherds and herds.” 157 Exogamous norms of marriage among the Koryaks, as well as among the Chukchi, no longer existed. “They take wives most of their kind, cousins, aunts and stepmothers, but they do not marry mothers, daughters, sisters and stepdaughters.” 158 For a bride, they worked for three to five years.

Animism lay at the heart of the Koryaks' religious beliefs. They inspired the phenomena of nature. They made sacrifices to the “spirits” of mountains, rivers, the sea, etc., in order to cause a beneficence from their side in the form of successful hunting, fishing, prosperity. They also had shamans who, by playing a tambourine, summoned helper spirits, and with their help fought against evil spirits. 159 Among the settled Koryaks were shamans, who were "revered as healers." However, they “treated” the sick only by playing the tambourine, allegedly “chasing away the spirits” of the disease.

At the same time, the Koryaks, like the Chukchi, had many practical skills related to hunting and fishing, with knowledge of local natural conditions and their characteristics. Their dwellings, clothing, vehicles, tools and weapons were well adapted to the harsh nature, they were very perfect inventions, which only

153 Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 729.

154 Ibid., p. 726.

155 Ibid., p. 731.

156 Ibid., p. 726.

157 Ibid., p. 458.

158 Ibid. nine

159 Ibid., p. 455.

could be done under these conditions. Their amazing ability to rationally use all the products of reindeer breeding, sea fishing, fishing, and the surrounding sparse vegetation is striking.

Eskimos

Eskimos are the classic representatives of the way of marine hunters of the Arctic.

The Eskimos, as we have seen, are the northernmost people in the world who have managed to adapt to the specific conditions of life in the high Arctic latitudes. Generations of scientists have been interested in their history primarily because the Eskimos created a peculiar culture of Arctic St. John's hunters, and also because they were one of the last waves of immigrants from Asia to America. This is the only people that inhabits both the Arctic shores of the Old World and the New, American continent. The history of the Eskimos consists of grandiose migrations, during which they mastered not only Alaska, but eventually reached the shores of Greenland, where the Vikings back in the 9th century. n. e. we met undersized "skrelings" wrapped in seals and deerskins.

Traces of the ancient life of the Eskimos can be traced in vast expanses along the coast of the Bering Sea and the Bering Strait, along the Arctic coast of the Arctic Ocean to the mouth of the river. Kolyma in the west, along the northern shores of Alaska, the islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and on the coast of Greenland.

In the 17th-18th centuries, when the Asian Eskimos came into contact with the Russians, they lived the old life of the sea hunters of the Stone Age and preserved at the core the culture that had been developing among them for thousands of years. It is called "protohistoric" in Alaska.

The Eskimos lived in semi-underground dwellings. The basis of their economy was walrus and whale hunting, as well as fishing, gathering and hunting for birds and tundra animals.

Walrus hunting, judging by ethnographic data, began from the end of April and continued until November-December with minor deviations in terms associated with ice conditions. In spring, at the end of April and in May, walruses lay on the drifting ice along the coast. Hunters brought canoes on special sleds to the edge of fast ice, lowered them into the water and went out to sea to fish. Noticing an ice floe with walruses lying on it, the hunters silently, so as not to frighten off the dormant animals, swam up to it and landed on the ice. Having crept up to the walruses, the hunters beat the animals with spears equipped with stone or bone tips.

With the disappearance of ice, hunting for walruses continued on the high seas with canoes using harpoons. Some lull in hunting came in the month of June, when the walruses moved away from the shores. Since August, the walrus trade has revived again, as at this time the animals again approached the shore.

Whale hunting was carried out with canoes. The harpooned and exhausted animal was finished off with a special pike, trying to hit him right in the heart. In ancient times, the Eskimos hunted mainly the bowhead whale. An experienced harpooner struck the animal that surfaced near the canoe in the heart with one blow with a lance. Hunting the bowhead whale, despite its grandiose size, was relatively safe, since the bowhead whale is less mobile than the smaller gray whale that lives in the waters of the Bering Sea, which is more difficult to hunt. Before finishing off a gray whale, they threw

several harpoons, in which special “puff-puff” air bags made from whole-skinned seal skins were attached with a line. There were cases when a gray whale harpooned several times, carrying up to 10 “puff-puff” floats, nevertheless left, since it was difficult to approach it on oars for the last final blow with a pike.

Hunting walrus and especially whale required a large team of hunters, organization and specialization of the work of each member of such an association. Ethnographic materials show with sufficient persuasiveness that such an association among the Asian Eskimos was the paternal clan.

The remnants of primitive communal patriarchal-tribal relations, judging by the data of ethnography, were preserved among the Eskimos until the beginning of the 20th century. 160 The tribal community consisted of a number of small families. The most important feature of the genus was exogamy. Within the framework of one family, marriage between its members was previously strictly prohibited. An Eskimo legend tells that a young man who married his cousin, the daughter of his father's younger brother, was killed by his father.

The predominant form of marriage was marriage with working for the bride. There were cases of the conclusion of a marriage contract between the parents of young children, and sometimes even before their birth. Even in the recent past, there was a custom of exchanging wives, as well as polygamy. There were cases when a person from another clan, who married and remained in the wife’s clan, was adopted by the clan, and he was called “ignykak” - “adopted son”, from the word “ignyk” - son. If a child was adopted by a member of the clan - an orphan from the same clan, then he was called "anlisyagak" - "adopted son, pupil." At the head of the clan at the beginning of the 20th century. there was a tribal elder - nunalihtak. It was usually an old man or an elderly man. His duty was to regulate the social and industrial life of the clan. He opened and closed the fishing season, determined the time of travel for the purpose of exchange, and supervised the performance of festive ceremonies. Together with the elders of his own clan and tribal elders of other clans, he sorted out the quarrels and lawsuits of his fellow villagers. The duties of a tribal elder were not elective - they usually passed through the male line, usually from father to son. Often, the tribal elder of one of the most powerful and respected clans led the entire village. Each clan occupied its strictly defined territory in the village, where their dwellings were located. In the village Sireniki still has the ruins of two huge now (dugouts), in which at the end of the 18th century. the clans Silyakshagmit and Syaigogmit lived. According to legend, from the present day of the Silyakshagmit family, seven canoe artels went out to sea for fishing, and from the present day of the Syaigogmit family, eight canoe artels. There were 12 hunters in each kayak artel. According to informants, from 250 to 400 people lived in each dugout. In addition, the places where there were dryers with canoes and pits for storing meat were strictly demarcated between clans. It should be noted that the hunting territory of all clans in all villages was common. On the basis of tribal relations, the main production unit was formed - the canoe artel. Each clan had one, two, three or more canoe artels, depending on the size of the clan. Usually the canoe artel consisted of 12 people. In addition to hunting canoes, each clan

160 D.A. Sergeev Remnants of the paternal family among the Asian Eskimos. "Soviet Ethnography", 1962, No. 6, pp. 35-42

had a large transport canoe for 40 rowers or more for long-distance trips with commercial and military purposes.

The distribution of the prey of the marine fur trade was carried out equally among all members of the genus. The children of the deceased member of the clan were given the same amount of meat, fat, skins as the rest of the members of the clan. Each clan had its own special holidays and tribal traditions. There is, for example, a legend that in Naukan the wife of a hunter from the Nunagmit family gave birth to a whale. When the baby whale became an adult, he was released into the sea, and he annually brought sea animals to the shore, where hunters from the Nunagmit clan lived. This aroused the anger of the hunters from the Mamrokhpagmit clan, and they killed the whale. The legend reflects the enmity that once existed between the clans of Nunagmit and Mamrokhpagmit. Later this hostility ceased.

The Imtugmit clan had a particularly complex festive ritual with various incantations, songs, dances, observing many prohibitions at the festival in honor of the killed bowhead whale, which was held in December. At the end of the holiday, the team that hunted the whale cut their hair in a special way, and only after the collective haircut did the hunters start a common meal, a meal of friendship. Then followed the rite of purification. Until the completion of these rites throughout the holiday, the hunters of the family were forbidden not only to go fishing, but even to appear on the shore.

During the holiday, women in a special festive zhirnik lit a generic fire. By the brightness and evenness of the flame, possible successes and failures in the upcoming fishery were determined. The transfer of fire from one clan to another was strictly forbidden.

It was also forbidden to transfer hot food cooked on ancestral fire from dwelling to dwelling. A similar prohibition existed in the fishery: here, while hunting for a whale, it was impossible to transfer weapons, oars, as well as any items from a canoe of one kind to a canoe of another kind.

Until recently, the Asian Eskimos also preserved family cemeteries. So, over the village Naukan on the hill there is a cemetery, where each clan had its own specific place for burial. The places most convenient for burials were occupied by clans considered natives of this village.

In the 17th century the first meeting of the Eskimos with the Russians took place.

Very close to the settled peoples of the northeast, the Nivkhs also adjoined in their way of life. Their main occupations were fishing, marine hunting and hunting. They were engaged in the manufacture of clothes from fish skin and animal skins, the processing of iron (the manufacture of hunting and fishing tools, utensils, weapons). They lived in villages in "uluses", in winter - in dugouts, in summer - in "cages" on stilts. They rode dogs. They were divided into patriarchal families and had elected elders.

Kamchadals-Itelmens

S.P. Krasheninnikov pointed out that the words "Kamchatka", "Kamchadal" passed to the Russians through the Koryaks, and the Kamchadals called themselves Itelmens. According to V. Atlasov, in the last years of the XVII century. Kamchadals occupied the whole of Kamchatka from Tigil and Uka in the north to the river. Golygina in the south. According to Atlasov, 25 thousand Kamchadals lived in the valley of the river alone. Kamchatka. But this is clearly an exaggerated figure. From conversations with old Kamchadals, from traditions and legends, it turns out that there used to be more villages in Kamchatka, but the villages themselves were much smaller: two or four yurts in each.

V. Atlasov was the first to report that “their yurts are earthen in winter, and summer ones are on poles, three sazhens high from the ground, paved with boards and covered with spruce bark, and they go to those yurts by stairs.”10 Most of the buildings in the village of Kamchadals were outbuildings, booths for drying fish. Sometimes, with one large yurt, there were up to 20 or even more booths. For a short summer, the Kamchadals lived, or rather spent the night, in booths under bark or grass roofs on floorings made of poles covered with grass.

Already from the first reports of Atlasov’s detachment, it became known that the Kamchadals had “whisker bows, whale bows, stone and bone arrows, and iron is not their parent”, that “Kamchadals cut their tails and mix them into clay and make pots to make clay with wool knitted, and from others they sew earmuffs. 162

“While fighting, Kamchadals threw stones from slings from behind the fortifications, and they threw large stones directly from the prison with their hands, fought with sticks and pointed stakes ... And in winter Kamchadals go out on skis to fight. .., and in the summer they go out to battle on foot, naked, and others in clothes. 163

Atlasov found the Kamchadals in clothes made from the skins of sables, foxes and deer, trimmed with dog fur. Honby were women's home dress, honby was put on from the legs. Men at home and in the summer in the crafts were limited to only a roved loincloth. In rainy weather, they wore a cape woven from grass in the form of a cloak.

The Kamchadals borrowed outerwear and footwear from the Koryaks: a deaf kukhlyanka, a hat, trousers and a bag made of deer fur and kamus - skins from deer legs. On the road in winter, a double fur parka was put on over the kukhlyanka. Before putting on a torbaza - khun, fur stockings (pamyan) were pulled over the legs with fur to the leg. Winter hunting footwear among Kamchadals was sewn from fish skin, the leg was wrapped with tonshich - mint grass. Tonsic was rolled up in the form of an insole and put into a bag for warmth. Under Krasheninnikov, a grass wig was considered the best female headdress. Some women sewed their hair into a wig.

The main food of the Kamchadals in the time of Krasheninnikov was dried fish - yukola (noz) from salmon family fish: chinook salmon, chum salmon, red, pink salmon and coho salmon. In early spring, char was caught in the rivers. Late autumn coho salmon was most often frozen and thus preserved for the winter. Some of the fish was smoked. The head with the vertebral bone and entrails was separated from the fish and dried separately for dogs. For dogs, fish was harvested for the winter in pits (“sour fish”).

On fishing trips, fish, cleaned of scales and intestines, were placed between two willow sticks, tied with a willow bast and placed over a fire on four props. Finely chopped nettle leaves were added to the fish. Caviar was dried in the sun and was always eaten with birch and willow bark, finely chopped like noodles. Caviar was harvested for future use in thick hollow grass stalks - "pipes" and dried. It was believed that in this form it is better to store it and take it with you on a hunt.

A prominent place in the food of the Kamchadal-Itelmens was occupied by the meat and fat of bears, rams and pinnipeds: seals, akiba, sea lions and bearded seals. They also hunted deer in the tundra. The meat was fried and boiled; used in raw form

161 N. Ogloblin. Two "skaska" Vl. Atlasov about the discovery of Kamchatka. "Readings of social history and Russian antiquities", book. 3, sec. 1, 1891, pp. 14.-\; Vl. Atlasov was the first to visit Kamchatka in 1697-1699. and gave a description of the newly discovered country.

162 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts. Siberian Order, st. 1422, ll. 1-12.

163 N. Ogloblin. Two "fairy tales" of Atlasov. . ., page 14. 422

only the kidneys, liver, brains and flippers of animals were taken. Even Dietmar in the middle of the XIX century. everywhere I observed the archaic method of cooking mountain sheep meat in pits dug in the ground; a fire was made in the pit and a whole carcass of a skinned mountain sheep was placed in a hot pit with ashes, wrapped in herbs (ram, nettle), the carcass was covered with earth from above, and it was stewed in its own juice.

Steller called the Itelmens "omnivorous animals that do not disdain even fly agarics and, on the other hand, have colossal knowledge in the field of botany ... Usually they know all native plants both by their names and by their properties."

Krasheninnikov, speaking about the food of the Itelmens, said that they eat roots, fish and marine animals. It is no coincidence that he put vegetable food in the first place, since he saw that with vegetable food "a lack of bread, almost like fish, is rewarded." 164

In early spring, as soon as the snow melted, wild garlic was collected in unlimited quantities - field onions. At the end of summer and autumn, they prepared for future use and ate fresh and boiled tubers of kemchiga, saran, oatmeal, stalks of fireweed, shelomaynik, mutton, "sweet grass". They ate and prepared for the future, freezing, shiksha berries; they ate honeysuckle, blueberries, cloudberries and lingonberries, and in some places bird cherry.

There was a walnut trade, women were engaged in it, leaving for some time in the slate cedar forests; they stocked up nuts for the winter. Plant tubers were more often selected from nest-shops, which were made in the ground by housekeeper mice for the winter. Women dug them out of the ground with special hooks - goats-goats. In general, the collection and storage of vegetable food for the future lay on the shoulders of a woman.

Itelmens ate the eggs of birds - gulls, ducks, geese. They collected 1000 eggs and more per household and prepared them for the winter.

Nettles were used to twist threads, which were used to sew clothes and shoes, and nets were knitted from them. Ropes were made from the bast of black alder. Before the arrival of the Russians, the Kamchadals-Itelmens met with the Koryaks-reindeer herders wandering in the mountains of the peninsula, and in exchange for seal skins they received reindeer meat, winter deaf clothes made of deer fur, shoes, hats and mittens from them. The Koryaks borrowed the dog team from them. There were no mixed marriages with the Koryaks. Kamchadals, who lived south of the river. Ichi, met with the Kuriles and entered into marriage with them. Through the smokers they received pottery, even Japanese, and fabrics. But these connections were poorly established, as storms and strong sea waves in the straits separating Cape Lopatka from the Kuril Islands interfered. And although the language of the Kurils was very different from Itelmen, these peoples understood each other.

Krasheninnikov noted that they waged wars “not for honor or glory or to expand the boundaries of their possessions, since they do not know wealth, glory and honor, but to avenge insults, because of food supplies, but most of all for the girls they could to take wives with less difficulty than voluntarily, for their wives were very expensive. 1b5 There were never quarrels over property or housing, because there was enough land, water, plants and animals for everyone.

Before the arrival of the Russians, the Itelmens lived in clans. Usually, representatives of the same genus lived in the basin of one river or a large tributary. If the family became crowded in one village, then one or two families moved up or down the river and founded a new village. On the-

164 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 207.

165 Ibid., p. 366.

they had no command over themselves, "no one could command anyone." The first information about the structure of the social life of the Kamchadals was reported by the same V Atlasov in the second "tale". The Kamchadals, he wrote, fortify their prisons because “clan with clan often fight; that they didn’t pay yasak anywhere, they don’t have a great power over themselves, only whoever they have in which family is richer, they revere him more. And clan against clan they go to war and fight ... And they have wives according to their urine - one and 2 each, and 3 and 4 each ”Marriage was exogamous. The position of women in the Kamchadal family was privileged: they did not start fights and battles in the presence of women. In addition to fishing and hunting, men were engaged in the construction of dwellings, cooking, rowing and went on boats along the rivers with poles. The woman took part in the processing of fish, gathering, worked at home: she sewed, made thread for nets.

Krasheninnikov and Steller, noting the polytheism of the Itelmens, reported that the god of Kamchadals was called Dussheikhtich. In honor of him, a pillar was erected on the plains, they tied it with a tonshich, and, passing by, they always threw pieces of food as a sacrifice to him. Near such a "holy" place, they did not pick berries and did not kill either an animal or a bird. The god of the sea was represented in the form of a bird-fish and was called Mitg. Pilya-chucha, or Bilyukai, who allegedly lived on clouds with camulas and produced thunder, lightning, and rain, was considered the owner of all animals.

Steller reported that the Kamchadals recognized the evil spirit Kannu. His dwelling was considered a very old alder near the Nizhne-Kamchatsky prison. “The Kamchadals shot at her every year, which is why she is full of arrows from the izna-kan.” Gaech was considered the god of the afterlife, the underworld. The earthquake was produced by Tuil when his dog Kozei shook off the snow.

The legends about Kutkh reveal the history of the creation of the world. The creator of the earth Kutkha first lived in heaven, then moved to earth, where he gave birth to a son and a daughter from his wife. The children grew up, got married and gave birth to a son and a daughter, and so gradually Kamchatka was populated. Kutkha, his wife and children wore a dress sewn from leaves, ate birch and tall bark, there were no animals at that time, and they had not yet learned how to fish. Kutkha invented the boat, and the second son of Kutkha invented a way to knit nettle nets and catch fish, he also created animals and began to sew warm fur clothes.

Kamchadals “felt neither fear, nor respect, nor love for the creator and believed that everything on earth could be arranged much better, that happiness or misfortune does not come from God, but everything depends on man; believed that in life on earth everything gradually becomes worse and everything becomes smaller. 166

The concept of good and bad among Kamchadals was peculiar: everything that a person needs and likes is virtuous; everything that is not pleasant and scares away is harmful. The Kamchadals considered boredom and melancholy to be the greatest sin and even preferred death to them. The mortal sin for them was the salvation of drowning or covered with snow, climbing volcanoes. Swearing at sour fish, boiling the meat of various animals and fish in one pot, scraping snow from shoes with a knife was also considered a sin.

Holidays and religious ceremonies were honored to ensure hunting and fishing - whale and bear holidays. Their most holiday was the autumn holiday, which ended with “purification” - passing through hoops of birch twigs.

The discrepancy in the nomenclature of mythological creatures and the big difference in the vocabulary of different groups of Kamchadals show that the Kamchadals - apparently

166 Ibid., p. 410.

dimomu, a conglomeration of tribes and peoples who came to Kamchatka from different directions and at different times. Rapprochement between individual groups of peoples already took place in Kamchatka due to its isolated position among the vast expanses of the sea.

At the very end of the world, on the road from Asia to America, the Aleuts lived - tribes related in language to the Eskimos.

The Aleuts have long lived on the Alaska Peninsula and on the Aleutian Islands. When Vitus Bering discovered the Commander Islands in 1741, they were uninhabited. Nevertheless, the Aleuts have their own name for the Commander Islands - Tanamas, which means "our land". The Aleuts are an island people who lived in close contact with the sea and received from it everything necessary for life. The main occupation of the Aleuts was marine hunting, which supplied them with food and clothing. In a tense struggle for existence in harsh natural conditions, the Aleuts developed in themselves stamina, courage, courage and dexterity, the ability to withstand the elements in any storm. They were famous as brave, fearless sailors. Endurance, endurance and patience are the main features of their character.

I. E. Veniaminov suggested that “the population of the Aleuts in the best of times extended to 25,000 people,” others believe that there were only 12-15 thousand Aleuts.

The Aleuts built their settlements on the shores of the islands. The villages, as a rule, were small - five to eight yurts each. There were several villages on the large islands. The Aleuts had winter and summer dwellings that differed sharply from each other. Winter underground dwelling - Ulyagamakh - has always been common, large. The buildings were oriented in the direction of the winds blowing mainly from east to west. Ulyagamakh looked like a barn, divided into chambers for each family. Usually related families lived in such a dwelling. Some families made special closets inside the wall, where they placed their children or kept their property and food. In summer, the families of the Aleuts moved to live in small barracks - beehives, which served to store fishing tools and household utensils. I. E. Veniaminov noted at one time that “all the wealth of the Aleut consisted in a yurt, a kayak, a park and a kamleika.”

The most necessary items in the life of the Aleuts were kayaks and harpoons. Previously, they had a large 12-oared kayak (ulukhtakh) for collective hunting at sea with a double leather cover, on which 6-8-12 sea lion skins were used, and a kayak (ekyakh), unmatched in seaworthiness, with one hatch, on which usually hunter and went hunting at sea. Kayaks with two hatches were used to train boys in sea hunting; kayaks with three hatches are a later invention. The frames for the kayaks were made by men, and the skins for them were cut and sewn collectively by women.

Gearing up for hunting at sea, the Aleuts put on a kamleika with a hood sewn from sea lion guts over a warm parka made of bird skins. From one gut of a great sea lion came out two kamlikas for adults. In inclement weather, a second kamleyka, made of seal skin, and the same trousers were worn over the sea lion kamleika. Torbazas were worn on the legs, sewn from the skin of various animals: the tops were made from the skin of a seal, the front was made from the skin of seals, and the soles were made from the skin of a sea lion. A wooden hat with an elongated beak-like front part was put on the head to protect against wind and splashes. Sitting in a kayak in such a suit, the hunter fitted himself under the armpits with a tight-fitting belt (of that) and

boldly went to sea in the rain, wind and even in a storm. In the event that the kayak with the hunter capsized, he put it back in place with a wave of his two-bladed oar, and not a single drop of water leaked either through the sleeves of the kamleyka or the hood. The hunter could stand in a kayak to his full height, if necessary.

Parkas, that is, warm and light fur coats without a cut in front, were sewn from the skins of puffin birds by the Aleuts. Eagle cradles with plucked feathers, but with a dense downy cover. Clothes and a hat made of bird skins were very light and warm.

Water was carried and kept at home not in buckets, but in sea lions; to store the fat of a sea animal and yukola, dried fish, they also used bladders and stomachs of seals, seals and sea lions. The stomach - sankhukh - of a small sea lion holds 50-60 pieces of yukola, and the sankhukh of a large sea lion, with skillful packing, included 500-600 pieces. Having finished laying the yukola, the air was sucked out of the sankhukh and the neck was tightly tied with a strap. In such a vessel, yukola was preserved and did not deteriorate for a whole year or longer; the sankhukh protected it from dust, flies, mold and other dirt.

The Aleuts were famous for their exceptional ability to weave mats from sea grass for covering earthen floors in dwellings, baskets, bags for household needs and small bags decorated with ornaments from colored grass, and later from garus. The bone was cut for harpoon tips for hunting sea animals and waterfowl.

The Aleuts ate mainly the meat and fat of marine animals (seal, sea lion, seal, walrus), fish (fresh, smoked and dried - yukola), bird meat and eggs of ducks, geese, gulls, loons, puffins, ipatok. Each household stored two or four barrels of eggs for the winter. The "caviar" of sea urchins, mollusks, seaweed, sea kale, which are found in abundance off the coast of the Commander Islands, were widely used for food. From early spring to the very frosts, wild plants were collected and fed on them, mainly wild garlic, onions, and saran. Bulbs of saran and other edible plants were dug out of the ground with a curved knife, cleaned of the ground, dried on mats and bedding in the sun and wind. Before boiling, the tubers and bulbs were thoroughly washed in several waters and eaten like potatoes. For the future, they stocked up for the winter several barrels of boiled and crushed sarana, tightly packed in barrels, filled with seal fat on top and covered with berries, mainly shiksha. In early spring, the roots of hagelis grass were collected on the hills, they were steamed, which made them tasty and sweet. Hagelis was eaten with sour seal or sea lion fat. Berries (honeysuckle, shiksha, mountain ash) and mushrooms - porcini, boletus, saltwort (unlike other peoples of the north) were collected and stored for future use.

The Aleut society was divided into three groups of classes, as I. E. Veniaminov wrote: honorary, commoners and slaves. Only honorary people had the right to own slaves (kalgs), commoners very rarely had slaves. Kalga could not have his own property: everything he acquired belonged to his master. The price of a kalga was as follows: “... for a kayak and a good parka, they gave a pair of kalgas, that is, a husband and a wife; for a stone knife, for a pair of farts (mats) and for a beaver park they gave one slave each. Each Aleutian village certainly consisted of relatives.

The eldest in the clan (tukkuh) had power over everyone, but when discussing

167 I.E. Veniaminov. Notes on the Islands of the Unalashka Department, Part I. SPb., 1840, p. 165.

most important issues, the foreman convened a court of all honorary members of the family and the elderly. Having outlined the case, he clarified the general opinion, which was considered mandatory for making a final decision. In rare cases, the Aleuts used the death penalty. The most serious and incorrigible criminals were considered a murderer, an evil-speaking chatterer and a betrayer of public secrets. These crimes were punishable by death.

From these legal norms of the Aleuts, one can see how strong the military tension was, the danger of constant internecine wars and skirmishes with neighbors - the Eskimos and Indians, during which almost the entire male population was destroyed.

Women in the Aleut society occupied an honorable position because they had a matriarchy, the remnants of which have survived to this day. Girls were never forced to marry, they chose their own husbands. If the marriage was not successful, the woman was free to leave. Boys were the main labor force in the house. Women ran the household, dressed animal skins, sewed clothes, shoes, utensils, obtained plant food, and stocked up for the winter. Men carried all the burdens of sea hunting, hunting, fishing, made canoes; building yurts was also their business.

The Aleuts had a rich mythology and colorful original art.

Another island chain of the Pacific Ocean, the Kuril ridge, has long been inhabited by the Ainu.

Conclusion

Now you can take a look at the "History of Siberia" within the framework of our volume at a glance.

All the documentary material summarized in the volume clearly refutes the racist views on world history, on the relationship between "small" and "big" nations in it.

The peoples of Siberia have made an original contribution to world culture. Their history is an indivisible and essential part of the history of the Soviet people, and with it the world history of mankind. It begins with the development by man of the space between the Urals and the Pacific Ocean. The initial penetration of man into Northern Asia occurred, perhaps, much earlier than is commonly thought, long before the last, Sartan, glaciation. 20-25 thousand years ago on the shores. In the Angara, Yenisei, Selenga and Lena, communities of Paleolithic hunters already existed, who obtained their food by hunting mammoths, rhinos and reindeer. At the same time, Paleolithic people penetrated here not from any one center, but from various regions of Europe and Asia, primarily from the periglacial zone of Europe, as well as from Central Asia and, probably, from Central Asia - Mongolia.

The development of new areas in the depths of Asia was at the same time the process of the emergence of new centers of culture, including art. This is evidenced by remarkable examples of basically realistic artistic creativity of mammoth hunters, found first at the Military Hospital in Irkutsk, and then in Malta and Buret, the same ones mainly as in Dordogne, in Moravia, on the Don in Kostenki. or in Mezina in Ukraine.

The culture of the Paleolithic tribes of Siberia, as it finally developed by the end of the Ice Age, reveals amazing STABILITY. Here there was no such abrupt turning point as was the "microlithic revolution" in the West. Bypassing it, the ancient tribes of Siberia entered a new, Neolithic, era of their history. This is explained, one must think, on the one hand, by the stability of the ethnic composition of the local population over the millennia, and on the other hand, by the fact that even in the depths of the Paleolithic, and especially at that stage that can be called the Siberian Mesolithic or, with equal right, the Epipaleolithic, there were laid basis for further progress.

At this time, liner guns appear, and then harpoons. The first pet in history was tamed early - a dog.

In Siberia, 4-5 thousand years ago, the descendants of the Paleolithic people, the Neolithic people, were still overwhelmingly at the level of the ancient hunting-gathering and fishing economy. However, this economy could no longer be called primitive. The hunters of the Baikal region have, for example, the world's first Serov bow

reinforced or even complex type. They create a rich set of tools that serve the needs of their hunting industry. They develop an original type of light swinging clothing and, probably, birch bark boats and skis appear. Realistic art, animalistic at its core, is also developing. In a word, a peculiar ethnographic complex of the culture of taiga foot hunters is emerging, which was determined by human life in new landscape conditions: the open spaces of the steppes and tundras of the ice age have now been replaced by taiga, a boundless green sea. At the same time, no less developed and specialized cultures of Far Eastern fishermen and sea hunters appear, and in Primorye and the Middle Amur - also farmers - representatives of a fundamentally new producing economy.

Against the background of this progressive development in the field of material culture and economy, no less important events are taking place in another sphere of the historical process - ethnicity. To the west of the Urals and up to the Yenisei, a group of Neolithic monuments appears as an integral array, which are characterized by such features as pitted and jet ornamentation on vessels and the image of a bird (duck) in art. To the east of the Yenisei in Eastern Siberia, there are peculiar monuments of the Baikal Neolithic culture and other related cultures of taiga hunters. The third large world of Neolithic tribes begins in the upper reaches of the Amur and can be called the Far East, or the Pacific. Within each such region one can trace smaller local subdivisions, which are often interbedded and overlap each other in a mosaic manner. Behind the relationship of groups of Neolithic monuments - archaeological cultures, even more complex relationships of specific ethnic formations can be traced.

Between the Urals and the Yenisei, the process of the formation of the Ugrian-Samoyed ethnic community unfolded. In the East Siberian taiga and the upper reaches of the Amur, that ethno-cultural complex arose that was preserved until recently among the northern Tungus and their counterparts in culture (but not in language) - the Yukaghirs. Groups of tribes lived on the Amur and in Primorye, the culture of which, as evidenced by archeology and ethnography, survived survivably among the Amur tribes of the 18th-19th centuries. - Nivkhs, Ulchis and Nanais. Among the Itelmens and among the settled Koryaks, as well as among the Eskimos, the ancient Neolithic culture lived steadily and dominated until it came into contact with Europeans.

The Neolithic era was thus the decisive ethnohistorical frontier in the past of the peoples of Siberia and the Far East, the period of the initial formation of those ethnic groups and cultures that somehow survived to our time and are in the full sense of the word aboriginal - the initial basis for the further development of the Siberian nationalities.

Later, in the Bronze Age and in the early Iron Age, when stone was replaced by metal in technology, new big changes took place in the economy of a number of Siberian tribes, primarily those who inhabited the fertile Minusinsk Basin, Tuva, the steppes of Western Siberia and the steppe regions. Transbaikalia. Already in the II millennium BC. e. the Andronovo tribes developed a complex cattle-breeding and agricultural economy, the classic example of which then became in the 1st millennium BC. e. way of life of the Tagar tribes in the Minusinsk region. Then pastoralists, mounted nomads with their felt yurts, "animal" style and the first epic poems, with a predatory militant aristocracy at the head, spread in the steppes of Eurasia and Altai. The movements of nomadic tribes and their social system, the ever-increasing needs of the steppe aristocracy for luxury contributed to a sharp expansion of political

sky, economic and cultural ties with other countries, including with the Scythians-Saks and the ancient civilizations of the classical East. At the same time, the expansion of the steppe dwellers, predominantly Iranian in language and culture, began to expand into the areas occupied by the bearers of the ancient hunting and fishing culture. This is how, in particular, the surprisingly “hybrid” art of the Ust-Polui culture arises.

If at first these cultural and political ties were oriented mainly to the west, then at the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. significant changes are taking place. In the steppes of Central Asia, a powerful tribal association of the Huns arises. The expansion of the Huns to the west is unfolding. VI millennium AD e. the leading role in the steppes passes to the Turks. You begin" a new, Turkic, period in the history of Central Asia and throughout the "steppe belt" of Eurasia. The first steppe empires, the first states of nomads, the Turkic Khaganates, were formed, in which new, feudal at the core, social relations occupy a decisive place. The reflection of these events is found in Siberia everywhere where the steppes could roam with their herds - from Khingan and Korea to the Urals.

At the same time, the first states of the Far Eastern tribes arose. In Manchuria, in Primorye and partly on the Amur, first the states of Bohai and the empire of the Khitan Liao appear, and then the even more powerful Golden Empire of the Jurchens (Jin). These states were created at the same time as Kievan Rus, in the 11th-13th centuries, by the Tungus (Bohai and Jin) and Mongolian peoples (Liao). The socio-political evolution and the economy of the Far Eastern tribes reach their highest point at this stage.

But everything was interrupted by new events of a catastrophic scale, which for a long time left their mark not only in the history of Siberia, but also in world history. In the steppes along the Onon and Kerulen, Mongol tribes gather under the banner of Genghis Khan. The conquering Mongols rush first against their eternal enemy - the Jurchens, and then against China. The Mongol conquest destroyed the state and culture of the Jurchens. After a stubborn struggle, many East Siberian tribes, starting with the "forest Mongols", as well as the steppe nomads of Western Siberia, ended up under the rule of the Mongol conquerors for a long time.

Later, a new aggression began from the depths of Asia by the Manchu feudal lords, who created in the 17th-18th centuries. its as powerful as the warlike state. The Manchus conquered China and Mongolia for 300 years. They planted in the countries they occupied, including Mongolia, neighboring Siberia, their Asian orders and brutally enslaved the conquered peoples.

Their policy contributed to the deepening of the stagnation in the development of productive forces among those peoples who were not directly under the control of the Manchus. This stagnation in the Far East and in Manchuria was first caused by the heavy blow which was the invasion of the Mongols and the destruction of the state of the Jurchens. The emergence of the Manchu empire did not contribute to the progressive development of even the very homeland of the Qing dynasty, Manchuria. It served only as a source from which the Manchu feudal lords drew human and manna reserves for new conquests. Primorye and the Amur region, which did not belong to China and the Manchus, generally remained aloof from everything that happened outside their borders: the old primitive communal orders and ancient forms of economy that had developed over the centuries were still preserved there.

The rest of Siberia was sharply affected by the negative impact of harsh natural conditions. Reaching a certain level

in the development of productive forces, the population of the taiga and tundra has exhausted its possibilities. It could no longer go further than hunting and fishing, relying only on its own forces and resources, without progressive incentives, without outside support. Here, subsistence farming reigned supreme, archaic social relations existed that did not arise from the primitive community. At best, there was an interweaving of the primitive communal system with elements of feudalism. Therefore, the fact that the aggression of the Manchu feudal lords collided with the powerful counter force of the Russian centralized state and choked at its borders, which stretched already in the 17th century, was of decisive importance for the further history of Siberia. to the Pacific Ocean.

The inclusion of Siberia into Russia had its own deep reasons and corresponded to the historical necessity. As V. I. Lenin wrote, “Russia geographically, economically and historically belongs not only to Europe, but also to Asia.”1 The entire history of Siberia, starting from the Paleolithic, testifies to the close connection between Siberia and the spaces lying west of the Urals , which more connected than separated the peoples of Eastern Europe and Asia. Such contacts begin already in those distant times, when mammoth hunters begin to develop the northern deserts freed from ice. They continue later, when ethnic communities of Finnish, Samoyedic and Ugric tribes are formed on both sides of the Urals. Then the tribes and their cultures related to the Scythians of the Black Sea region, the Sakas of the Pamirs and their cultures spread down to the depths of Central Asia. Over time, a Sogdian colony settled on the banks of the Angara, and the Turkic tribes, according to the chronicle, "heroic" from the Danube to the river. Yellow.

During the time of the Mongol Empire, the Russian lands experienced a common fate with Siberia and at the same time became a barrier to the conquerors who threatened the rest of the world.

300 years ago, this barrier was pushed to the East to the banks of the Amur and the Sayan Range, this time against new pretenders to dominance in Asia - the Manchu Qing dynasty. And then the peoples of Siberia forever, forever, unite within the limits of one powerful state with the Russian people and other peoples of our Motherland. It was for them a new path to the future, complex and contradictory, but on the whole, from the point of view of a general historical perspective, certainly progressive. Having become part of the Russian state, the peoples of Siberia throughout its territory fell under the rule of tsarism. But at the same time, they came into direct contact with the Russian people, joined the advanced civilization, the high culture of the Russian people, found in it a powerful stimulus for their further development. Their joint struggle for a better future began.

1 V. I. Len and, Poln. coll. cit., vol. 30, p. 326.

Name index 1

Aan Alakhchyn hotun 394

Aan Darkhan-toyon (Khatan Timieriye)

Abaoji Yelü 315, 316

Abd-ar-Rashid 291

Abramov N. A. 355 Abramova Z. A. 11. 31, 49, 71

Abu Dulef 300, 301

Abulgazi 366

Abu-l-Khaira Khoja Mohammed 364, 365

Aguda 326-328, 330-333, 336-338

Agunay 324

Adrianov A. V. 18, 25, 190

Ayysyt-toyon 394

Aiyy-toyon, see Yuryung Aiyy-toyon

Aksenov M. P. 11, 31, 80

Alasun 404

Aldier 384

Alexander the Great 13

Alekseev V. P. 117, 166, 170, 253

Alekseev M. P. 13, 28, 369

Alekseev S. 414

Alihuman 327

Alpysbaev X. 71

Altyn Khans 376

Ambagyan 322, 324

Anahuan 270

Anderson I. 184

Andreev A. I. 5, 14, 15

Andreev G. I. 33, 262

Andreev S. 351

Andreeva Zh. V. 11, 33, 261, 264

Andrievich V. K. 6

Anisimov A. F. 26, 27

Anuchin D. N. 19

An Lu-shan 284

Aolo (Zuyuan) 335, 342

Aristov N. Ya. 19

Arsaan Duolay 393 Arseniev V. K. 22 Arutyunov S A 33 Asada 7

Asu 326, 327, 332

Asimen 329

Atlasov V. V. 416, 417, 421, 422, 424

Attila 303

Auerbach N. K. 25, 26, 63, 69 Akhachu 405

Ahien-shad see Ashina

Ashina (Ahienshad) 267, 269

Ashkenay 363

Bagauddin 19

Badgey 387, 390

Baz-kagan 292

Bai Bayanay 389, 394

Bakay N. 393

Baladata 404

Banzarov D. 380

Baoholi 324, 325

Barberini R. 369

Bars run 302

Bartold V. V. 27, 291, 293, 296, 297,

300, 302, 373, 377, 396

Basandai 363

Batu 364, 365

Bakhrushin S. V. 5, 28, 358, 377

Bayakshin 400

Bekbulat 366, 371, 372

Belov M. I. 416

Belyavsky F. 235

Berg L. S. 73

Coastal N. A. 44, 351

Bering V. 425

Bernshtam A. N. 32, 249, 388

Burro S. 370

Billingshausen F. F. 16

Bilge kagan, see Mogilyan

Bilyukay, see Pilyachuch

Bichurin N. Ya. (Iakinf) 17, 18, 242-252 255, 256, 265-267, 278 279, 281, 290, 291, 300-302, 314, 320, 245, 251 270, 272, 298, 299 ,

Bogdanov M. N. 21, 28

Bogoraz-Tan (Bogoraz V. G. Tan-Bogoraz)

23, 26, 27, 54, 95, 350.

Borowle 384

Boyarshinova 3. Ya. 11, 30

Brunel O. 370

Buddha 290, 372-374

Bumyn kagan 291

Busse F. F. 21, 142

The index includes the names of some genera, tribes and dynasties.

Bushey A. 20

Buyan-biy 365

Byela 328, 365

Bert-hara 390

Waben 334

Wagner L. 370

Vadai 327, 329, 331

Vadetskaya E. B. 11, 165

Weinstein S. I. 11, 32, 227, 253, 286

Waliben 325

Valu 329, 331, 342

Wangenheim E. A. 11.61

Wang Gui 406

Wang Zhaozhou 406

Wanyan 324-326,

Wanyan Xiyin 333

Vasai 329, 331

Vasilevich G. M. 11, 27, 32, 206, 400, 401

Vasiliev V.P. 22, 320, 335, 340

Vasilevsky R. S. 11, 33

Vdovin I. S. 11, 33, 414, 415

Velyaminov-Zernov V. V. 19

Veniaminov I. E. 17, 425,

Verbov G. D. 26, 27, 29

Viktorova L. L. 11, 251

Vitashevsky N. A. 23

Witzen N. 5, 14

Vitkovsky N. I. 20

Vladimirtsov B. Ya. 27, 383

Vorobyov M. V. 33

Wrangel F. P. 409, 410

Wei 266, 269, 270, 279

Wei Wang 337

Weilui 260

Weijun 316

Gavrilov Vasily Brazhnik 369

Gavrilov F. 410

Gaozhengi 315

Gaohou 250

Gaozu 250, 311

Gaocide 315, 317

Gao Yong-chan 341

Gardisi 274 291

Garruth W. E. 38

Gedenstrom M. 16, 17

Georgi I. I. 16

Gerasimov M. M. 25, 44, 46, 56

Herodotus 103, 230, 237

Glusskaya 3. K. 118

Gmelin I. G. 15

Gogolev Z.V. 11, 393

Golubev V. A. 33

Gopat Shah 293, 294

Gorsky V. 23

Gauthier J. W. 370

Grach A. D. 11, 30, 227, 232

Grebenshchikov A. V. 23

Grigoriev A. A. 76, 184,

Grishin Y. S. 213

Gromov V.I. 26, 38.44, 47, 57, 58, 61, 62

Grum-Grzhimailo G.E. 27, 244, 245, 284

Gryaznov M.P. 11, 29, 30, 117, 168, 170, 184, 227, 229, 232, 240

Guangxian 316

Gudulu see Ilteres kagan,

Gurvich I. S. 11, 33 416

Guriev N. A. 153

Guryata Rogovich 13

Davydov D. 215, 216

Davydova A. V. 31, 250

Da Yingzhuang see Yingzhuang

Dalai 333, 335

Dalobian 271

Daoji 337

Da Songlin see Songlin

Da Qinmao see Qinmao

Yeah yanglin see yanglin

Debets G. F. 25, 27, 33, 205

Devlet Giray 372

Derevianko A.P.

Jenkinson A. 370

Jochi 365, 372

Digudey 326-328

Digunai 337, 338, 343

Digunai see Esykuy

Dikov N. N. 11, 31, 33, 93, 212. 221

Dietmar K. 423

Long Durantayi 388

Dmitriev A. A. 20

Dolgikh B. O. 27, 31, 33, 387, 409, 416

Dorbo-Dokshin 384

Dravert P. L. 25

Dulzon A. P. 29, 98, 361

Think L.I. 316

Dongeng 326, 327

Dussheikhtich 424

Dyrenkova N. P. 27

Dyulga Khan 393, 394

Dyakonova V.P. 253, 33, 145, 310

Evtyukhova L. A. 25, 282, 289, 297-299

Edigey 364

Yediger 366, 371, 372

Ekmychey 369

Yermak 5, 10, 13, 19, 358

Ermolova N. M. 262

Efimenko P. P. 58

Zhelubovsky Yu. S. 33

Rui Zong 313, 314

Zabelina N. N. 33

Zalkind E. M. 32

Zaporozhskaya V. D. 55, 200, 296

Zakharov I. V. 318

Zelenin D.K. 26, 27

Znamensky N. S. 18

Zolotarev A. M. 26, 27, 354

Zuev V. F. 236, 356

Zuev Yu. A. 284

Ibak 364, 366, 368

Ivan III 368, 369

Ivan IV 371, 372

Ivaniev L. N. 25, 262

Igichey Alachev 357

Ignatiev I. 414

Idea I. 401

Iyehsit 394

Ilbis kyysa 394

Ilbis Khan 391, 394

Ilteres kagan (Gudulu, Kutlug) 272, 273, 282, 291, 292. 302

Imtugmit 421

Inge 326-328

Yingzhuang (Da Yingzhuang) 315, 316

Yin-zheng 248

Ionov V. M. 23

Yokhelson V. I. 23, 132, 153, 343, 344,

Isunke 380

Ishiha 405-407

Yetmar K. 184

Kalpik 368

Kang Van 404, 406

Kang Zhen 406

Kandangu 410

Kapagan (Mocho, Mojo) 273, 302

Karlgren B. 184

Kartsev V. G. 25, 28, 203

Castren A. M. 17

Katanov N. F. 19, 291, 358

Katkov A. F. 203

Kafarov P. 22, 342, 403

Kashchenko N. F. 13, 61

Kennan D. 7

Kiselev S. V. 24, 25, 29, 30, 159, 168, 184, 187, 191, 261, 276, 297-301

Klements D. A. 18, 19, 21, 23, 386

Kozhbakhty 363

Kozin S. A. 27, 28, 384

KOZLOV P. K. 20

Kozyreva R. V. 11, 33

Kozmin N. N. 28, 296, 377

Komarova M. N. 98> 99, 165, 170, 178,

Kon F. Y. 23

Conrad N.I. 320

Krasheninnikov S. P. 6, 15, 17, 131, 132, 344, 416-418, 421-423

Kreinovich Yu. A. 409

Krivtsova-Grekova O. A. 174

Kropotkin L. A. 21

KsenoTsyuntov G. V. 27

Kudryavtsev F. A. 28

Kuzemenkey 363

Kuznetsov A. K. 20

Kuznetsov S. K. 18

Kuluk-saltan 364

Kupriyanova 3. N. 29

Kurbsky S. 369

Kurbsky F. (Black) 368

Kurmanak 357, 358

Kurov D. N. 371

Kutlug see Ilteres kagan

Kuchum 358, 366, 367, 371, 372, 378

Kydai Bahsy 394

Kyzlasov L. R. 11, 29, 227, 253, 258, 287, 289, 297, 301, 372

KychanovE. I. 11,320

Kalteeki Sabyya 392

Kyuzo Kato 8

Kul-Tegin 20, 273, 274, 282, 292

Kuehner N. V. 27, 267, 280, 281, 297-302

Kupi (Chebi Khan) 272

Landy-Czech 410

Laoshan 247, 250

Larichev V. E. 10, 11, 31, 33, 262, 341

Latkin P. A. 18

Laufer B. 137

Lakha Batyr 390

Levashova V.P. 25, 365

Leventhal L. G. 23

Levin M. G. 8, 33, 347, 354, 409

Lengiel E. 8

Lenin V. I. 431

Lepekhin I. I. 235

Lesner A. 8

Liguanli 249, 260

Likaigou 312, 313

Lilin 260, 261

Limgan 329

Lindenau J. 15, 387

Lipsky A. N. 29. 30, 66, 168, 170

Lee Jin-chung 312

Lomonosov M. V. 6, 7, 370

Lopatin I. A. 132

Lor-uz odyr 356

Luke 326-328

Liao 316, 320, 322-324, 327-334, 338,

341, 379, 430 Latik 369

Magakia 217

Madagou 339

Madygy Törönöy 391

Maykov L. N. 14

Mainov I. I. 23

Makidu 408

Maksimenkov G. A. 11, 165

Malov S. E. 32, 274, 278, 285, 289,

Maltseva N. A. 11 Malyavkin A. G. 320

Mamet (Maxmst) 364

Mametkul 357

Mamrochpagmeet 421

Manduhe 327

Maodulu 326

Marvazi T. 381, 396

Margaritov V.P. 21 261 262

Marco Polo 381, 383

Marx K. 367

Martin F. 18

Martynov A. I. 10, 11, 241

Martyanov N. M. 25

Weight I. 370

Matveev 3. N. 27, 315

Matyushin G. N. 11

Matyushkin F, F. 410

Matyushenko V. I. 11, 100, 170, 179

Mahmet see Mamet

Ma Zhang-show 279

Medvedev G. I. 11, 31, 80

Melioransky P. M. 20, 292

Mercator G. 370

Mehrhart 26

Messerschmidt D. G. 14, 187

Metelius Scipio 233

Middendorf A. F. 134, 135

Miller G. F. 5, 6, 15, 16, 357, 369, 395, 411

Milyukov P. N. 369

Min 22, 403, 404, 406, 407

Mogilnikov G. M. 11

Mogilyan (Bilge kagan) 20, 273, 274, 283, 292

Mode 247, 248, 250, 257

Mokjang 323

Moldan 369

Morgan L. G. 26

Mochanov Yu. A. 33, 119

Mojo see Kapagan Mocho see Kapagan Moshinskaya V. I. 11, 29, 234, 354, 355

Moyun-chur 284-286, 288

Murtaza 366, 371

Muhan 270, 271, 281

Myngong 340

Mailaoseli 316

Menghong 355

Myagkov I. 241

Miaosun 325

Nagenne 326

Nanyang 317

Naryshkin V. V. 412

Nasonov A. N. 367

Nahachu 404

Nekrasov I. A. 151, 221

Nelson N. 89, 90

Neryungin 392

Ningyasu 340

Novitsky G. 14. 97, 359

Notulu Shod 267

Noonangmeet 421

Nurkhani 408

Ovchinnikov M. P. 20

Ogloblin N. N. 422

Ogorodnikov V. I. 8, 28 409 417

Ohryzko I. I. 415, 416

Odun Khan (Chyngys Khan) 394

Oyeongcheon 330

Okamoto R. 133

Okladnikov A.P. 7, 8, 10, 11, 25 77 30, 31, 33, 44, 46, 47, 55, 87 88 104, 118, 119, 127, 128, 136, 137 141, 145, 151, 153 196 203 204 207 215-218 221 253 261-264 291-293 295 296 308 310 314 320 345 347 351 383 384 388 390 392, 396, 405, 409, 412

Oksenov A. V. 20

Olebek-digin 384

Omogoy Bai 388

Omollon 390

Orlova E. P. 11

Osmolovsky G. 23

Osol wola 394

Ossovsky G. O. 18

Pavlinov D. M. 23

Pallas P. S. 15, 16

Panichkina M. 3. 65

Panov V. A. 23, 403, 407, 408

Panyady 371

Patkanov S. K. 20, 355

Pekarsky E. K. 23

Peredolsky V. V. 203

Perm Trifon 358

Perfiliev M. 387

Peter I 5, 232

Petri B. E. 21, 25, 26, 60, 65, 383

Petrun V. F. 87

Pignatti W. 19

Pilyachuch (Bilyukai) 424

Pliny 103

Pozdneev A. M. 21

Pozdneev D. 266, 310

Polashu 326

Field B. P. 411

Polyakov I. S. 18

Popov A. A. 26, 27

Popov G. A. 28

Popov P. 23, 317, 403, 406

Potanin G. N. 21

Potapov L. P. 11, 26-28, 30, 274

Potapov R. L. 232

Przhevalsky N. M. 63

Prokofieva E. D. 359

Pronina G. I. 11

Pujiang 328

Torture 369

Peiman 337

Pyatkin B. G. 11

Radlov V. V. 19, 20, 30, 159, 187

Razin A. I. 261

Rashid ad-din 373, 382, ​​385

Redrikov D. N. 25

Remezov S. U. 5, 14, 365

Riga M. I. 11

Rozov G. 320

Rubruk W. 274

Rubtsova E. S. 33

Rudenko S. I. 8, 30 32 227, 244, 256,

Rumyantsev G. N. 11 32 Rust A. 43 Rygdylon E. R. 185 Rynkov K. M. 26, 27 Ryabushinsky F. P. 23

Sabyryky 392

Savenkov I. T. 18.25, 118

Savinov D. G. 232

Sagay 327, 328

Sagan-Setsen 385

Saliha 334, 338

Salnikov K. V. 179, 238

Sapunov B. S. 33, 74

Sartaktai 293

Sarychev G. A. 16. 351

Sayapin A. K. 221

PorkV. V. 31

Northern Qi 271

Northern Zhou 271

Sedna 54, 550

Sedyakina E. F. 11, 31

Seydyak 366

Sergeev D. A. 11, 33, 347, 420

Seroshevsky V. 24

Siluandi 247

Silakshagmit 420

Xizong (Hela) 333-337

Skryaba V. 368

Slovtsov P. A. 5

Slyunin N. 128

Sungjong 323

Sorokin V. S. 174, 178

Sosnovsky G. P. 24-26, 44, 62, 69, 213, 242, 243. 245, 250

Sohkhor Duoay 392

Spassky G. I. 17

Spafari N. G. 13

Stadukhin M. 412, 415

Steller G. W. 15, 32, 131, 423, 424

Stepanov N. N. 10, 11, 34

Stephen of Perm 368

Stralenberg I. F. 14, 393

Stroganov 357

Saturday 340

Sui 267, 271, 280, 283, 310, 311

Song 333, 334, 338 340

Songlin (Da Songlin) 315

Simatsyan 242 243, 245, 250

Sam YA 317

Seerkeen Sesen 388

Xiubao Shounu 335

Shunko-haan Shuge toyon 394

Syagogmit 420

Xiao Xiong-ning 323

Xiaoxiaoxian 317

Xiaofuli 332

Taizu 404

Talitskaya I. A. 355

Talko-Gryntsevich Yu. D 20 242

Tan 267, 273, 297, 302, 312, 377

Tan-Bogoraz V. G. see Bogoraz-Tan

Tanshihai 252, 253, 307

Tardush Khan 271

Tatishchev V. N. 14, 15

Temujin see Genghis Khan

Tengri 283

Teploukhov S. A. 24, 25, 159, 184, 187

Thiatabit Bootur 390, 391

Toba Way 253

Tobo 270, 271, 283

Tokarev S. A. 26-28, 29, 32, 390, 392

Tokkash 363

TOLSTOE S. P. 183

Thomsen W. 16, 20

Tonyukuk 273

Tokhtamysh 364

Travkin I. S. 368

Tugarinov A. Ya. 63, 123

Tudiji 310, 311

Tuli (Yanhang) 271

Tuluy 339, 340

Fog 247, 248

Tumen 267, 270

Tundalakh 406

Tongtuhe 249

Tygyn 387, 390

Taylor A. 26

Tyumenets V. 387

Tuerey 392

Tyagrul 371

Tian Zhu-cheng 405

Uvarov A. S. 48

Ugunai 325

Ogedei 339, 340, 379, 380

Udabu 339, 340

Ukimay 333

Ulagashev N. U. 27

Ulu (Shizong) 338, 339

Umansky A. P. 303

Uncabil-Khosun 409

Uraev R. A. 241

Uren-Khosun 409

Usun Durantayi Suruksut 388

Wuzhu 334, 335

Ushaty P. 369

Wells G. 94

Uyasu 328-332

Fanshi 328

Fedorov A. 3. 22

Fedoseeva S. A. 11, 39, 119

Firsov Late 387

Fushehu 338

Fengwan 333

Khamzina E. A. 31

Khangalov M. N. 21, 385, 386

Hanlibu 333

Hanpu 324, 332

Khatan Timieriye see Aan Darkhan-toyon

Heihuan 328

Heli 271, 272, 280, 284

Khlobystyna M. D. 181

Khodukin Ya. N. 25, 60

Khomporuun Hotoy aiyy 394

Good P.P. 25, 31

Khramova V. V. 361

Kublai 402

Khudukha-beki 382, ​​384

Hushahu 335, 339, 340

Hela see Xizong

Helibo 325, 328

Hatt G. 151

Zeitlin S. M. 61

Jin (Golden Empire, Jurchen) 11, 307, 320, 324, 332-335, 339,

340, 342, 375, 379, 405, 430

Jinxing 310, 311

Jin Yu-fu 313-315, 317, 318

Zuorong 312-314, 317

Zongben 337

Zuyuan see Aolo Qibushi 327

Qing 248, 408, 430, 431

Qin Yin-zheng see Qin Shihuangdi Qinmao (Da Qichmao) 315, 318

Qin Shi Huang (Qin Yin-zheng) 248

Qisi Biyu 3 12

Qiqi Zhongxiang 312

Tsevan Rabtan 379

Chagatai 339

Changwenxu 314

Changchun 373, 375, 376

Chebi Khan, see Kupi Chegra 364

Chekanovsky A. L. 20, 59, 60, 400

Chenlin 340

Chernetsov V. N. 25-27, 29, 96, 100, 241, 304, 355

Chernyshev N.A.100

Chersky I. D. 20, 48, 59, 60

Zhang Xingji 313

Zhang Xuan 315

Zhanmoha 338

Zhanqiang 249

Zhidu 326-328

Zhilihai 325

Zhizhi 249

Zhou 247, 271, 283

Zhonghin Yue 247

Zhuchi 339, 384

Genghis Khan (Temujin) 16, 303 339 340, 364, 372, 379-381, 384, 385, 430

Chorbogor Batyr 390

Chubukov Tretiak 372

Chugunov S. M. 18

Chulo Khan 271

Chuluro Selergun 398

Chyngys Khan see Odun Khan

Shabolio (Shetu) 269, 271, 278

Shavkunov E. V. 11, 33, 307, 317

Shalgan 400

Shaman (Samai) 400

Chardin T., de 89

Shakhmatov A. A. 13

Sheibani Khan 364

Shengun 330

Shetu see Shabolio

Shidihuan 328, 329

Shilu 324, 325

Shintavul 399

Shitumyn 325, 327, 329, 330, 341

Shizong see Ulu

Schlozer A. 6

Schmidt P.P. 22

Schneider E. 168

Schott W. 299

Shrenk L. I. 22, 131, 132, 135, 156

Staden G. 369

Sternberg L. Ya. 22, 26, 131, 133, 138

Shenggun 330

Shende 316

Shcheglov I. V. 5

Edgen 401, 402

Eichwald E. I. 17

Elibao 327

Ellay-Botur 388

Engels F. 86, 367

Ergis G. W. 32, 392

Esykuy (Digunai) 341, 342

Yuan 381, 402, 403

Jungwang 329-331

Yunji 339

Yuryung Aiyy-toyon 388, 393, 394,

Yabolak 364 Yaglakar 284

Yalpinma, N. M. 20, 21, 274

Yamgurchey 364

Yankovsky M. I. 21

Yangling (Da Yangling) 317

Yang Zhong-jiang 89

Yanhan see Tuli

Yastremsky S. V. 23

Yash Ak bash 289, 290

Bogoras W. 23, 26

Castren M.A.17

Chavannes E. 271

Fong Chia-sheng 316

Giddings I. L. 350

Jochelson W. 23, 131, 411

LiuVMau-tsai 267, 269-272, 277-281, 283

Maenchen-Helfen O. 267

Messerschmidt D. G. 14

Okladnikov A. P. 8, 221

Patkanov S. 356, 357

Ponosov V. V. 89

Pullejblank E. G. 284, 288

Rafney F. 346, 347, 349

Ralph E. 346, 349

Ruclenko S. I. 8

Shirokogoroff S. 397

Strahlenberg F. J. 393

Teilhard de Charbin P. 89.

Wittfogel K. A. 326

geographic index

Abakan, city 260

Abakan, r. 14, 68, 166, 268, 281, 298, 299, 378

Abakan steppe 19, 190

Abakan prison 15

Avvakumovka 264

Aginsky National District 216

Aginskoye 215

Agitsky town 366

Asia 6, 7, 9, 10, 26, 40, 43, 44, 49, 59, 72-76, 85, 90, 92, 93, 97, 139, 144, 151, 154, 200, 257, 307, 310 , 314, 370, 381, 395, 419, 425, 428, 430-432, 443

Alazeya 409, 410, 411

Alashan 268

Abazin 400

Aldan 33, 95, 119, 120, 122, 207, 209, 387, 401

Alekseevsky settlement 178

Aleutian Islands 23, 91, 154, 425

Altai-Sayan Highlands see Sayano-Altai Highlands

Altai (Altai Mountains) 11, 13, 15-19, 29, 30, 40, 41, 44, 65-67, 69-71, 78-80, 85, 159, 161, 162, 172, 186, 194, 196 , 211, 217, 218, 227, 228, 230-233, 239, 266, 268, 269, 271, 272, 274-279, 281, 282, 284, 288, 296, 302-304, 306, 360, 376 , 381, 382, ​​429

Altyrsky ulus 378

Altysar ulus 377

Alchuk 324, 325

Alaska 32, 89, 90, 93, 151, 347, 419, 425

Amga 209, 387

Amguem 221, 412

Amgun 401

America 26, 38, 93, 139, 141, 151, 154, 345, 419, 425

Amnokkan 317

Amu Darya 40, 96, 179, 185

Amur 7, 22, 28, 32, 42, 66, 69, 72, 86, 89-91, 94, 95, 116. 126-141, 145 147-149, 153, 156, 252, 264 265 268, 307- 309, 320, 321, 334, 343, 392, 396, 401-407, 429-431

Amur Bay 261, 262

Amur region 21-23, 132, 135, 262

Anadyr Estuary 412, 413

Anadyr prison 416

Anadyr 151, 222, 350, 409, 410, 412, 415, 416

Angara 20-28, 31, tab. 38-39, 41, 44, 45, 47, 49, 51, 56-61, 65-67, 70-72, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 88, 94, 104, 105, 107, 111, 113, 117, 119, 120, 124, 125, 132, 199, 201, 206, 210, 211, 268, 291, 292-294, 297, 387, 396, 400, 428, 431

Angkola see Angara

Andreevskaya parking 96

Andreevsky lake 96, 100

Andronovo 24, 178

Cape Antalya 234

Anuchinsky district 319

Anbian 316, 318

Anyuan 318

Anyang 184, 185

Anyui 401, 412

Aral Sea 249

Argun 213.251, 268

Arktika 38, 39, 64, 76, 95, 127, 343, 346-348, 419

Arctic Coast 348

Artemgres 142, 220

Assyria 230, 233

Astrakhanka 91

Astrakhan Khanate 358

Astrakhan 371

Asuchen 327, 328

Atargan 344, 345

Afanasiev Hill 24, 161, 162, 164

Afontov II, III pl. 38-39, 58, 62-

64, 69 Afontova Gora 18, 25, 44, 62, 63, 65, 68,

70, 71, 78, 79, 85, 105, 119, 203,

Africa 42, 43, 68, 77 Achinsk 71, 377 Lake Ayat 354

Badai 44, 65

Bazaikha 18, 117, 118, 203-205

Baydinskiye caves 296

Baikal 13, 21, 28, 31, 39, 44, 49, 59, 61 65, 72, 94, 184, 196, 206, 210-212, 214, 215, 218, 249, 266-270, 272, 291, 292, 295, 302, 381, 382, ​​387, 388, 396, 400 Baikal coast 292 Bayraki 381 Bai-Khaka 373 Bactriana 230

Balagansk 31, 44, 60, 292-294 Balagachevo 361, 362 Baltic Sea 103 Baltic 76, 94, 133 Balkhash 268, 284 Baraba steppe (forest-steppe - Baraba)

19, 237, 239, 363, 366, 372 Cape Baranov 16, 347, 350-352 Bargudzhin-Tukum 382, ​​384 Barguzin 292, 387 Bardakovka 354 Barents Sea 370 Barkul 269 Barlyk 376 Barsovo settlement 18 Barun-Kondui 379

Bateni 24, 25, 117, 170

Bashadar 227

Bashadar barrows 30

Bashkiria 303

Nameless key 87

Bekdegeul 42

Beklemishev 213

Bektemirovskaya site 44 Belaya, r. 31, 44, 45, 57, 58, 65, 79, 80, 84, 86, 151, 221, 222, 412

Beloglazovo 303

Belogorye 359

Beloe, oz. 377

Belarus 78

White Iyus 377, 378

Belkachi 120, 122

Beltyry 161

Berezov 235

Berezovka table. 38-39, 249

Berezovsky region 355

Berezovsky District 355

Berezovsky jail 370

Bering Sea 32, 346, 411-416, 419

Bering Isthmus 26

Bering Strait 46, 89, 90, 95, 151, 207, 346, 352, 419

Beshbalyk 273

Bibikovo 74

Biy-Khem 268

Binzhou 332

Birobidzhan lowland 308

Biryulskoe 44

Biryusa 18, 79, 387

Biryusa B 62

Biryusinskaya parking 79

Blagoveshchensk 9, 89 148

Blagoveshchensky district 308

Near Elbany 29, 240

Middle East 40

Bogdo-ola (Gaochang) 268, 269

Bogtu-yul 361

God's Lake 377

Bokujiang 403

Bolon-Ojal 134

Big, r. 416

Bolshaya Rechka 240

Bolshezemelskaya tundra 94

Big Anyui 412

Big Threshold 377

Big Khingan 21, 268

Bom-Kemchik 291

Boro-horo 268

Bosporus 303

Bohai (Bohai State) 11, 27, 307, 313-320, 337, 341, 405, 430

Bratsk 7, 31, 111, 119, 124

Bratskaya HPP 6, 28, 31

Fraternal Stone 106

British Isles 37

Bugachan 208, 209

Buga-Chuchigay 380

Budulan 212

Buirnur 381

Buret 25, 41, 44-51, 57-61, 65, 66, 68, 70-72, 79, 86, 428

Burinsky district 239

Buryatia 28, 32, 44, 184, 300

Buryatskaya ASS.R 7, 383

Bukhori 324

Bianhan 313

Besteeh 392

Bian 333, 339, 340

Babylon 233

Vagay 237, 366

Vaigach 367

Vankarem 350, 351

Vasyugan 354, 359, 360

Great, r. 416

Great Mangu State 335

Hungary 227, 355

Venyukovo 91

Upper Amur Region 140, 398, 401

Upper Kama region 303

Upper Ob 99, 170, 234, 239-241

Verkhneudinsk 216

Verkhneudinsky district 215

Upper Chemy 99

Upper Amur 89

Upper Vilyui 119, 123

Upper Yenisei 117, 268, 285, 286, 289.291, 360, 372-374

Upper Lena 55, 65, 72, 295

Upper Ob 29, 98, 99, 100, 169, 170, 240

Upper Capital (Bohai; Huiningfu, Shanjin) 316, 333, 335, 337, 338, 342

Upper Tavda 234

Verkholensk 295, 388

Verkholenskaya Gora 17, 26, 31, 44, 60, 65, 67, 69, 80, 82, 83, 88, 105

Verkhoyansky Ridge 401

Byzantium 2/0

Vilyui 28, 33, 95, 119, 123-125, 207-210, 387, 392, 396, 401

Vishera 354, 368 Vladivostok 9, 28, 32, 88 94 141 142, 220, 263, 407

Inner Asia 39

Inner Mongolia 116, 314

Military Hospital 20, 44, 48, 59, 60, 63, 428

Voznesenskoe 138

Voykar town 358

Volga 249, 303, 371

Volgo-Oksky district 104

Volga Bulgaria 305

Vorobyevo 113

Crow River (Kula-ky) 360

East Asia 40, 43, 74, 75, 82, 91.92, 116, 127, 131, 144, 145, 201, 213,

255, 314, 320, 340

Eastern Europe tab. 38-39, 41, 49.59, 76, 96, 104, 194, 211, 251, 303,

Eastern Capital (Bohai) 317, 319, 333,338

Eastern Transbaikalia 212, 216

East Sea 323

Eastern Primorye 264, 314

Eastern Urals 85, 96

Eastern Sayans 117, 268, 289, 372

Eastern Altai 30

East Dan see Dundango East Kazakhstan 228, 232, 286, 291

Eastern Ocean see Pacific Ocean

Eastern Tibet 21

East Turkestan 271, 290, 307

Woju 313

Vychegda 368

Vietnam 74, 92

Weikou 323

Gansu 269

Gaoli see Goguryeo

Gaochang see Bogdo-ola

Garrison Garden 318

Gelgyai 121

Gizhiga 416

Himalayas 40, 71

Kirin 405, 408

Smooth, r. 143-145

Smooth I 144

Glazkovsky burial ground 20

Glukharinaya river (Sangel-ky) 360

Gobi 40, 89, 90, 141, 257, 266, 268,270, 271

Gobi Altai 268

Holland 370

Golygin 421

Mountain Shoria 66

Gornoaltaysk 40-42

Mountain Farms 74, 342

Gorny Altai 30, 227, 266, 282, 286

Gorkoe, oz. 24, 25

Greenland 37, 151, 419

Gromatukha, settlement 148

Gromatukha, r. 148

Guisui see Guihuanchen

Guihuachen (Kukuhoto, Guisui) 268, 273

Goose Lake 216

Gyda tab. 36-37

Guilou 313, 314

Gian see Yenisei

Davydov 388

Dalai Nor 268

Far Eastern Territory, see East

Far East 7, 8-11, 18, 22 27 30 32, 33, 42, 72-75, 80, 87, 90 94 116, 117, 127, 128, 132-134 136 138-141, 144, 145, 148 , 168, 170, 184, 185, 201, 213, 218, 219, 241, 251 403, 408, 409, 429, 439

Daubihe 319, 331

Nine 130, 139

Dezhnev, Cape 411

Delune-Baldock 377, 379

Demyanka 354, 355, 358

Demyansk town 355

Den Terek 373, 374

Derestuyskiy Kultuk 20

Derestuy burial ground 249

Desary, see Yezersky ulus

Jasybay 25

Jebel 82, 96

Dzhezkazgan 183

Jida 214, 216

Dzungaria 267, 379

Dzungarian steppe 19

Dzungarian Alatau 268

Dili see Tyr

Dinan 316

Dingli 316, 318

Doolin 403

Dordogne 428

Ancient Greece 138

Dugin see Tukin

Dunayka 145, 149, 150

Dongbei 307

Dongdanguo (Eastern Tribute) 316, 322, 324

Dongmo 312, 313

Dongning 404

Dongjingchen 319

Dunhua (Jianzhou) 405, 407

Duren 242-244

Dus-Dag (Salt Mountain) 375

Dyndybay 183

Dengzhou 314

Eurasia 57, 74, 158, 165, 187, 217, 303, 429, 430

Jewish Autonomous Region 264

Europe 26, 37, 38, 40, 43, 44, 50, 52, 53, 58, 59, 68, 72, 76, 77, 82, 83, 85, 89. 97, 127, 139, 230, 257, 303 , 428, 431

Egypt 230

Yechersky (Isarsky) ulus (Desary) 377

Catherine's parking lot 100

Ekaterininsky, with. 142

Yelan (Elan region, Yelan province) 325, 330, 332. 337. 341-343

Yelan, R. 324

Elizarov tab. 38-39.

Yelovka 186

Emder-wash 355

Enzyayam ("big river"), see Yenisei

Yenisei 7, 11, 13, 14, 18, 28, 29, 32, tab. 38-39, 40, 41, 44, 59, 61, 63, 65-68, 70, 72, 76, 79, 80, 85, 94, 95, 104, 105, 116-119, 123, 159, 162, 165 166 168-170 172 177 178 180 183-187 189 191 194 196 203-205 217 241 249 257 258 260 261 274 275 285 , 291, 296, 297-299, 302, 359, 360, 361, 370, 373, 377, 378, 395, 396, 400, 428, 429

Yeniseysk 361, 387

Yenisei Territory 71, 116

Yenisei Ridge 117

Yepanchi yurts 366

Ermolaevsky settlement 117, 203

Yellow (Huanhe), r. 140, 211, 215, 268-270, 321, 333, 339, 431

Zhehe 184 Zhigalovo 292 Zhigansk 125-127, 387 Zhirkov 125 Crane River (Karalky) 360

Transbaikalia 11, 13, 15, 17, 20, 73, 82, 83, 86, 88, 116, 145, 184, 185, 210-218, 232, 239, 242, 243, 245, 246, 250, 252, 253 , 256, 261, 307, 379, 380, 381, 385, 386, 395, 396, 402, 429

Transbaikal region 215

Zabochka-Kokorevo I 64

Zavolochye 368

Zavyalova, Fr. 344

Zadvizhensk 249

Zaisan 268

Zaysanovka 143, 144

Western Europe 13, 26, 49, 58, 76, 87,

Western Mongolia 27, 244, 245, 284

Western Transbaikalia 213, 216

Western Baikal 295

Western Priobye 304,

Western Urals 40

West Siberian forest-steppe 303, 304

West Siberian region 96

Western Sayans 268, 271, 274, 289

Western Altai 269, 272, 274

Western Kazakhstan 178

Western ulus (Siberian Khanate) 365

Arctic 63

Zarubino 83, 381, 384

Zauralie 233, 237-239, 353, 367-371

Zeya Valley 42

Zeya-Bureya lowland. Zeya 41, 43, 145, 148, 308, 392

Golden Horde 364

Ivanovka 142

Ivanovo 249

Oriole 31, 215, 250

Ivolginskoe, with. 216

Ivolginsk settlement, see Nizhne-Ivolginsk settlement

Lime Hill 342

Izirsu 377

Izykh Chaatas 258

Yilanzhou 373, 375

Iligulun 328

Ilim 31, 387

Ilm Pad 20, 242, 243, 245

Ilyushkina Sopka 74

Iman 308 38-39, 94,392,400, 409, 410

Indian Ocean 233

Indochina 75, 265

Indonesia 268, 270, 272, 273

Ipalaigai 359

Ipiutak burial ground 347

Iran (Persia) 230, 233, 270, 277, 295

Iranian Plateau 40

Irkutsk 9, 17, 20, 41, 44, 48, 59, 60, 65 88 115, 124, 196, 294, 428

Irkutsk province. 17

Irkutsk HPP 28, 3.8, 25.97, 234 237, 241, 249 268, 285, 354, 355, 358, 359, 36 11, 364-369, 372, 378

Irtysh Black 268

Isarsky ulus, see Yezersky ulus

Iset 237, 238

Isker 19, 358

Spain 38

Issyk-Kul 268

Iturup 157, 158

Ityrkhei 296

Ichchilyakh 208, 209

Ishim 237, 364, 378

Ishim forest-steppe 237 Iyus 16, 379

Kaa-Khem see Upper Yenisei Kaa-Khem district 275

Kabansk 292, 381

Kazan Khanate 358, 364, 371

Kazan 371

Kazakhstan 77, 172, 173, 179 180 183, 185, 217. 227

Cossack 31

Kazylgan 229

Kailin 335

Kayrak-Kumy 40

Kaiyuan 403, 404, 407

Kalashnikova pad 31

Kalgan 251

Kama 353, 354, 357, 368

Stone islands 20, 31, 113

Stone Log 182

Stone Cape 153

Pebbles 221

Kamchatka (Kamchatka Peninsula) 11, 15, 17, 23, 28, 33, 93, 128, 129, 132, 134, 153, 154, 156, 343, 344, 346, 410, 412, 415, 416, 417, 421 , 422, 424, 425

Kamchatka, r. 93, 343, 416, 421

Kamchatka region 33

Isthmus of Kamchatka 416

Kamyshta 166

Canadian Arctic Archipelago 419

Cancor 357

Kanchalan 412

Kaochan (Turfan) 268, 269, 271

Kapova cave 40

Karaga 416

Karakorum (Kharahorin) 20, 260, 379

Kara-Kum (Black Sands, Heisha) 272.273

Kara-Kurgan 190, 195

Karal-ky see Crane River Karasuk 24, 162, 167, 182

Karasuk 111 161, 164

Kara-hol 274

Karachin town 366

Karashar 267, 268

Karelia 104, 125

Kara Sea 367, 370

Karypospat-urdat-vosh 355

Kasatka 157

Kasatka Coast 157

Caspian Sea 249, 381

Katanga, see Tunguska Middle, Tunguska Lower

Katun 44, 78, 79, 268

Kashgar 268

Kashlyk (Siberia) 364, 365, 366, 371

Kem-Yenisei see Yenisei Kemerovo 9

Kemerovo region. 258

Kergedan 357

Kerulen 251, 268, 381, 430 Ket 359, 360, 378

Kievan Rus 430

Kilchu 330

Kiprino 99

Kyrgyzstan 32, 297, 303, 397

Kyrgyz steppe 19

Kirensk 61

Kirovsky, pos. 142, 220

China 1, 41, 73, 89, 233, 242, 247, 248, 250-252, 265, 267, 269-274, 277, 3] 1-3 16, 319, 320, 332, 333, 338-406, 430

Kiya 258, 361, 362, 37?

Knyazhev town 366

Kobdo 268, 376

Goguryeo (Gaoli) 308, 311 314 315, 317, 319, 331

Principality Code 369

Kozlova pereima 96

Kozlovsky burial ground 304

Kokonovskie burial mounds 237

Kokorevo I, IV tab. 38-39, 62-64, 78

Gokju 330

Kokel 255-257

Kolyma 16, 94, 126, 151, 347, 350-352, 409-412, 415, 419

Kola Bay 210

Commander Islands (Tanamas) 128, 425, 426

Komsomolsk-on-Amur (Komsomolsk) 89, 134, 150, 264

Konda 25, 89, 150, 353, 354, 372

Condon (Post) tabl. 38-39, 89, 129,130, 133-135, 137, 139, 150, 219, 264

Konduisky town 21, 379

Konghomjin 330

Copenskoe settlement 297

Kopet-Dag 40

Korean Peninsula 311, 315, 319

Korendo 400

Korea 73, 129, 141-145, 265, 320, 323.327, 331, 407, 430

Kore 315-317, 320, 323, 324, 326, 328,329, 331-333, 338

Kosogol 216, 267, 376

Kostenki I 53, 59, 60, 428

Kosva 354

Kotokel 212

Kochergino 25

Kochetovo 373

Kosho-Tsaidam 273

Kraskino 319

Kraskinskoe settlement 319

Krasnoturansk 187

Krasnoyarsk 18, 25, 44, 62, 79, 95.117-119, 169, 179, 185, 203, 377.378, 381

Krasnoyarsk HPP 28, 30

Krasnoyarsk forest-steppe 204

Krasnoyarsk Sopka 342

Krasnoyarsk Territory 30

Krasny Yar (Angara) 44, 60, 71, 84

Krasny Yar (Ob) 186

Cross, hall. 411, 412

Krivinskoe 24

Crooked key 87

Krotovo, II, VII 100, 170

Round Hill 319

Kruzenshtern, cape 151

Where 41, 218, 294-296

Kudinsky steppe 292

Kulyrge 275, 278

Kuadeeevo 66

Kuznetsk 376

Kuznetsk steppe 271

Kuznetsky Alatau 17, 258, 299

Kuznetsk burial ground 100, 104

Kuibyshevsk (Rubetsu) 158

Kukelevo 33, 264

Kuku-hot see Guihuachen

Kulayka 241

Kula-ky see Raven River

Kulary 366

Kullaty, settlement 120-122, 207-209

Kullaty-Yuryakh, r. 121, 208

Kultuk 20, 153, 154

Kulunda steppe 241

Culegan 359

Kungur cave 14

Kundat-yul 361

Kunkur 212

Cuckoo 354

Kurgan 238

Kurgan region 6, 7, 238

Kurilsk 157

Kuril Islands (Kuril Ridge, Kuriles) 11, 28, 33, 91, 154, 156-

158, 346, 423, 426

Kurile Lake 344

Kurota 30, 161

Kusyantun 90

Kılarsa I 122

Kyrgyz-nur 296

Kytyl-Dyura 392

Cam see the Yenisei Cam-camjut see the Yenisei Kateme 392

Qianzhou 373, 375

Kyakhta 20, 61

Camp Garden 98

Rooks 117, 185

Ladeyskoe settlement 203

Lazovsky district 264

Laiyuan 323

Lalin 403

Lampyl-ky, see Eagle River

Lama, see Baikal

Laptev, sea 38, 71

Lariak 354

Arctic Sea see Arctic Ocean

Arctic Ocean see Arctic Ocean

Lena 44, 55, 61, 65-67, 70, 72, 76, 77 84, 94, 95, 104, 113, 119, 123, 125-127, 151, 201, 206-209, 211, 292, 296, 381, 382, ​​387, 388, 392, 95, 396, 400, 401, 409, 428

Lenyanabad 40

Leningrad 9, 16, 94, 204, 380

Leninsky district 33

Lenkovka 31, 67, 79-81, 83

Lop-nor 268

Lawva 234, 354, 368 I Spatula 423

Leulan 249, 444

Lukechen 327

Lailyuhe 332

Liaodong 268, 317, 324, 404, 406

Liaodong Bay 270

Liaoning 404

Liaoyang 313, 322, 324, 340

Lyapin town 369

Lyapinskaya parish 357

Magadan 344, 345

Mayhe, der. 74

Maihe, r. 74, 143, 261

Makarov 65

Malay Archipelago 145

Malaya Derbina 119

Malaya Perm 368

Small Pad 262, 264

Minor Heta tab. 38-39

Small Kopyony 24, 164

Small Anyui 412

Small Yenisei 285, 286

Small Cat 41

Small cape 178

Malta 25, pl. 38-39, 41-52, 55-61, 65, 66, 68, 71, 72, 79, 86, 428

Mammoth Cave 48

Mangazeya 29

Manga see Cupid

Manzurka 381

Manhai, Mt. 218, 295, 296

Mankhai settlement (Manhai) 295, 296

Manchuria 22, 89, 145, 217, 248, 265, 267, 284, 313, 319, 320, 324, 339, 343, 381, 402, 404-408, 430

Mariinsk 258

Mariinsky district 18

Markhachan 44, 65

Majilin 329, 331

Bear Islands 351, 352

"Bear cheeks", gorge 136

Mezhegey settlement 373

Mezhegey mines 374

Mezin 58, 428

Meret I, II 99

Miass 237, 238

Mussel 230, 233

Milimishihan 327

Minus 218

Minusinsk 18

Minusinsk (Khakass-Minusinsk) depression 10, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25, 117, 159, 165, 170, 184-187, 189, 196, 242, 255, 257, 258, 275, 277-279, 281 , 296-299, 302, 373,

29, 30, 44, 62 172, 176, 181, 204-206, 240, 260, 266, 272, 282, 285, 286, 429

Minusinsk Territory 212, 213, 429

Minusinsky district 25

Mikhailovka 258i 24, 27, 159, 172, 210,

Burial Grounds 98

Mogoytuy 216

Moisenka 161

Moluccas 201

Molchanovo 29, 360

Mongolia 5 20 21, 32, 38, 40, 41, 59, 63, 66 69, 75, 86, 89, 116, 41, 145,

180, 184, 21,1 215, 217, 218, 228, 232, 242 243, 245, 248. 250, 251, 255. 260 266, 267, 269, 272, 274, 281, 282, 288, 289, 300, 307, 311, 313,

372, 373,379, 381, 382, 384, 386, 428, 430

Mongol Empire 385, 386, 431

Mongolian People's Republic (MPR) 44, 89, 215, 216, 251, 273 Mongolian Altai 40, 267, 268, 270,

Moravia 428 Moraika 170 Moscow 9, 369, 370-372

Muscovite state, see Russian state

Mokhovaya, r. tab. 38-39

Mojie 316, 317

Mudanjiang (Khurkha-bira) 316, 319, 405,

Mukden 322, 403

Moulin 407

Munch 120-122

Muslyumovo 249

Mongun-taiga 275, 277

Naa-Khem see Small Yenisei

Nazarov 19

Nayfeld 309, 310

Narym Territory 241, 305

Narym prison 360

Naukan 350, 421

Nakhodka, bay 73

Misunderstandings, oh 151-153

Nerchinsk 13, 212

Nerchinsk district 15

Lower Amur Region 395

Lower Irtysh 305

Lower Ob 11, 29, 96, 97, 232, 234, 241, 303, 304, 355

Lower Chulymye 306

Lower Seredkino 31

Nizhne-Ivolginsk settlement 243, 244, 249, 250, 251

Nizhne-Kamchatskiy Ostrog 424

Nizhnekolymsk 151

Lower Amur 128, 133, 134, 139, 141,

142, 145, 147, 150, 157, 334, 401-403

Lower Tobol 364

Lower Angara 123

Lower Berezovka 212

Lower Buret 44

Lower Kolyma 346

Lower Lena 122, 151

Lower Ob 14, 99

Nikolka 343

Nikolskoye settlement 343. 344

Novaya Zemlya 367, 370

Novgorod (Veliky) 367, 368

Novgorod Land 367

Novgorod Republic 367, 368

Novo-1 rigorievka 249

Novokuskovskaya parking 98

Novopetrivka 33 145i 146, 148-150

Novopetrivka 1, II, 146 149 150

Novopokrovka 150, 310

Novoselovo 176

Novosibirsk 8, 9, 29, 186

New Siberian Islands 63

Nogliki 154, 156

Noin-Ula 20, 242, 244, 246, 249

Noin-Ula kurgans 256

Nonnie 317, 320, 322

Nurgan (Nulukhan, Nurukhan) 403-407

Nurgan Sea 407

Nyaksimvol 234

Nian Shan 268

Obdorsky Ostrog 370

Gulf of Ob 235, 370

Obusin burial grounds 386

Ob 11, 17, 18, 25, 29, tab. 38-39, 44, 94, 96, 97, 165, 172, 177, 180, 185, 186, 190, 234, 235, 241, 266, 268, 275, 303, 306, 354, 356, 359-361, 363, 366, 367, 369-371, 376

Ob-Yenisei interfluve 306

Ovyursky district 289

Oglakhty burial ground 249, 255

Odolin 403

Ozen-Ala-Belig 229

Oymak 373, 374

Oirotia 27

Okinina 384

Windows 380

Okunev ulus 165

Okunevsky burial ground 168

Olekma 387, 396

Olekminsk 120, 125, 209, 392

Olenek 95, 401, 409

Oleneostrovskiy burial ground 210

Reindeer sovkhoz (on Mayhe) 143

Olga, bay 261

Olga, pos. 264

Olginsky district 264

Olginsky, about. 151, 152

Olkhon 292, 295, 296

Om 238, 365, 366

Ongin-goal 268

Lake Onega 125, 127

Onon 20, 212-214, 216, 250, 268, 379, 381, 430

Ordos 61, 116, 184, 185, 227 248, 249, 270

Ordynske 100

Eagle River (Lampyl-ky) 360)ro 400

Orkhon29260 59. 266. 268, 273, 285, 291, 302.373,376,381

Osinovka 73, 74, 88. 91, 143, 308. 402

Aspen Lake 149, 150, 309

Osinovsky hill 73-75, 142

Osinovskoye settlement 87

Otuken 271-273

Okhotsk 416

Sea of ​​Okhotsk 154, 395, 400, 415, 416

Okhotsk coast 11, 33, 151, 153,

344, 346, 395, 400 Eshurkovo 65, 67, 68, 71, 82, 105

Pazyryk 217, 227-230, 233

Pazyryk, r. 227

Palana 416

Pamir 40, 431

Parabel 359, 360

Guy 416

Parthia 230

Pachanga 360

Beijing 23, 314, 339

Pelym 354, 355, 368

Punjab 42

Penzhina 416

Penzhina Bay 415

Resettlement point 44, 203

Perm 249, 368

Persia see Iran

Pershino 239

Sandy, Peninsula 22, 32, 33, 262, 263

Petersburg see Leningrad

Peter the Great, Hall. 32, 90

Petrovskaya 388

Petropavlovsk (Kamchatsky) 134, 153

Pechora 234, 305, 353. 368, 369

Pechora Land 367

Pidengshui 329

Pingliang 268, 269

Written, der. 100, 101

Written, oh 388

Plemkhoz, parking 122

Volga region 184, 358, 371

Podgornoe 24, 241

Understone 297

Dryness 161

Pokrovskoe 120, 208, 209

Polynesia 139

Plc 264, 265

Poland 370

Polar Loberezhye 76

Arctic Circle 95, 125

Pomorie 370, 371

Popelki 264

Popigay 94

Port Bajin 286

Posyet 261

Potchevash 237

Mail see Condon

Cisbaikalia 385

Amur Region 32 33, 72, 92, 116, 127, 129, 132, 135, 137, 218, 221, 261, 264, 340, 395, 401, 402 404 406, 408, 430

Angara region 104, 292, 384, 395, 400

Aral Sea 103, 104, 183

Baikal region 10, 20, 25 27, 31, 44, 71, 76, 79, 80, 82-84 86-88, 95, 96, 104, 105, 107-109, 111, 113-121, 123, 124, 127 , 133, 139 148, 153, 196-198, 200, 201-205, 207-211, 222, 242, 292, 293, 372 381-387, 390, 400, 428

Baltika 76, 236

Priirtyshe 11, 233, 234, 238, 239, 303-305, 366

Caspian lowland 40

Prikamye 305, 357, 368, 372

Primorsky Krai 72, 141, 142, 308, 319

Primorye 21, 22, 32, 33, 73, 87, 88, 90, 93 94 127, 130, 132-135, 141-145, 150 153, 156, 157, 218-221, 261, 262 264, 265, 308 , 309, 314, 316, 319 320, 324-326, 329-332, 337, 340, 341-343, 406-408, 429, 430

Priobye 29, 97, 104, 241, 305, 353, 359, 362, 363

Pritobolye 233

Primorye 239-241, 362, 363

Urals 13, 24, 78, 85, 118, 172, 217, 233, 242, 357, 358, 368, 371, 372

Prikhankay lowland 308

Black Sea 165, 190, 217, 431

Prichulymie 362, 363

Pugangshui 324

Pustozersky Ostrog 370

Pujal 324

Pyeongyoungjin 330

Phusun 218

Panniolin 327

Pyasina 370

Pyatirechye 329

Razdolnoye 88, 90, 402

"Rachevo Settlement" 359 Rome 277

Horn town 370

Russian Empire see Russian State

Russian state see Russian state

Russia see Russian state of the RSFSR 104, 204, 210

Rubetsu, see Kuibyshevsk Rusanova, b. 416

Russian Plain 40 .

Russian state 6, 7, 9, 13, 14, 1о, 18. 19, 22, 23, 28, 30-33 48, 187 217, 305, 310, 353, 367-372, 381, 386, 395, 408, 410, 431

Russia see Russian state

Ryrkapiy 415

Ryutino 111

Saadak-Terek 376

Saadakh yyaabyt 392 Sagli 228, 231, 254

Sagly-Bazhi II (Sagly barrows) 227, 229, 232

Sagly valley 228

Sayn Shand 141

Sakachi-Alyan 136, 137-140, 309

Salbyk 191

Salbyk burial mounds 195

Salekhard I, II 25, 234, 236

Samus, p. one hundred

Samus I. II, III 98, 100, 101, 169-172,178

Samuska 100

Sangar-Khaya 208

Sanga-Yuryakh tab. 38-39

Sangel-ky see Glukharinaya river

Toboggan Cape 61, 65, 66, 72, 216

Sanwei 404

Sanzhou 332

Saragash 25

Saralinsky district 297

Sargatka 237

Sargol 139

Sakhalin 11, 22, 28, 33, 128, 133, 154-156, 220, 221, 346, 401

Sayano-Altai Highlands (Sayan-Altai, Altai-Sayan Highlands) 117, 159,

166, 170, 186, 266, 270, 274, 275,285, 306, 362, 363

Sayan HPP 28, 30

Sayan prison 15

Sayan (Sayan Mountains, Sayan Range, Sayan Highlands) 14, 17, 18, 86, 165,

172, 252, 258, 266, 271, 285, 287,296, 299, 302, 377. 431

Svirsk 31, 109-111

North Asia 30, 44, 53, 59, 69, 71.76, 82, 94, 116, 121, 126, 127, 141,

North America tab. 38-39, 89, 91,

Northern Europe 26, pl. 38-39, 80.83, 112, 127, 136

North India 40

North Korea 307, 317

Northern Manchuria 14

Northern Mongolia 75, 274

Northern Scandinavia 211

Northern Sosva 25, 97, 234, 235, 369

Northern Yakutia 77, 222

Northern Japan 90, 310

Northern Trans-Urals 367

Northern Primorye 142

Northern Urals 234

Northern Black Sea region 218

Northern Altai 27, 360, 362, 363

Northern Kazakhstan 71, 303

North China 21, 38, 140, 253, 266,300, 307, 339

Arctic Ocean (Arctic Ocean. Arctic Sea) 5, 16, 47, 72,

76, 94, 126, 207, 211, 306, 370, 400, 409-411, 414, 415, 419

Northern Tibet 228 Northeast Asia 7, 9, 10, 22, 26, 33, 46, 73, 93, 131, 132, 150, 151,346, 408

Northeast Tuva 372

Northeast Pomorie 370

Northeast Kazakhstan 304

Northeast China 407, 408

Northwest Asia 20, 367, 370.

Northwest America 132

Northwest Europe Table 38-39

North West India 71

Northwestern Mongolia 21, 286, 296

Northwestern Yakutia 95

Northwest Bohai 316

Saddle, cape 262

Selemdzha 401

Selenga 22, 44, 61, 65-70 72 84 104 106, 206, 211-216, 250, 266-

273, 284, 285, 292, 381, 384 387 428

Selenginsky district 15

Semyonovka 31

Semipyatnaya, pad 261, 264

Semirechye 288, 290

Senkina Shapka 143, 264

Sergeevna 148, 149, 308

Heart-Stone 415

Serov burial ground 31

Siberian 365

Siberian land 369, 371

Siberian Khanate (Siberian "yurt") 13-15, 19, 358, 364-368, 371, 372,378

Siberia, sat. see Kashlyk Cape Sivuy 343, 344

Siglan 345

Sidemi 21, 261, 262

Sikteeh 207, 209

Silla 315, 317

Silgumja 209

Silyaohe see Shara-muren

Sinara 238

Blue rocks 264, 265

Xing Liao 317

xingxiang 328

Xinjiang 89

Xipinghe 335

Shirataki 90

Sireniki 32, 350, 420

Sikhote-Alin 87, 320

Scandinavia 14, 127, 211

Scythia 196, 217

Slavyanka 341

Sobakina, b. 117

Soviet Union (USSR) 5-7, 9, 28, 33, 34, tab. 38-39, 44, 47, 78, 205

Sogd 288, 290

United States of America (USA) 6, 8

Sokolchi 264

Salt lake (Harlon-kel) 66

Sortynya 97

Sosnovka 373

Sosva 354, 359

Sotnikovo 215

Sottinsky Nasleg 121

Spafareva, Fr. 344

Mediterranean 40

Middle Trans-Urals 233

Middle Volga 305, 372

Middle Amur Region 72, 116, 145, 395, 401

Middle Irtysh area 237

Middle Ob 234, 241, 306. 363

Central Siberian Plateau 72

Middle Amur 11, 33, 74, 145, 148-150, 264, 309, 323, 429

Middle Yenisei 62, 64, 79, 116-119, 169, 185, 187, 299. 360

Middle Irtysh 237, 304, 361, 364

Middle Ural 353, 355

Middle Chulym 241, 360

Central Asia 17, 22, 24, 38, 40, 41, 71, 77, 78, 82, 86, 96, 103, 104, 144, 165, 179, 185, 211, 217, 218, 228, 230, 233, 239, 242, 249 260, 266, 270, 277, 290, 293, 296, 303, 320. 376, 386, 428

Central Lena 72, 119-122, 124, 125, 391.401

Medium Ob 25

Middle Capital (Bohai) 333

Sretensk 212

Splices 44

Stanovoy Ridge 401

Starodubskoye II 155, 156

Old Muslim (Tatar) cemetery (Tomsk) 98-100

Old Siktah 122

Arrows 119

Suban 337

Subin 325

Sug Hole 287

Suji 242, 284

Suzuhe, settlement 264

Suzuhe, r. 264

Suifong 88, 136, 143, 261, 264, 324, 326-329, 331, 332, 341, 342, 402

Suiyuan 184, 270

Sulino 249

Sumangin 122

Sungari 72, 251, 308, 316, 317, 320, 322, 324, 403, 405-407

Suruktah Khaya 125

Susuyskaya parking 220

Suchan 21, 45, 73, 142, 145

Bitch 131, 133, 135, 137. 139

Sim (Chirombu) 395

Syr-Daria 40, 185

Syr Chaatas 258

Saganut burial ground 382, ​​383

Xia see Tangut kingdom

Xianbi 251

Xiande 316

Xianzhou 322

Tavda 304, 353-355, 358, 364, 368

Tagarsky, about. eighteen

Tagar Lake 25

Tagisken 183

Tajikistan 78

Tadush 87, 88. 90, 91, 148

Thailanl 75

Taigonos 344, 416

Taimyr Peninsula (Taimyr) 94,

Talitsky, settlement 71 Tambara 258

Tanamas see Commander Islands Tangut Kingdom (Xia) 333. 338, 339

Tannu-ola 268

Tanyurer 412

Gaowen 403

Tapar wash 355

Tartas 239

Tarukishi 90

Tarja 134, 153

Taseeva, b. 20, 379

Tasty-butak 174, 178

Tas-Khaza 168

Tatar Strait 220

Taui mountain 344

Tashatkan town 366

Tashkent 40, 179

Tashtyk 25, 258

Teletskoye, oz. 376

Tere-Khol 286

Tes 24, 161

Tetyukhe, bay 32, 262

Tetyukhe, r. 134, 141, 142

Tetyukhe (Tetyukhinskoye settlement) 142, 144, 153, 218

Tetyukhinsky cape (hill) 141

Teshik-Tash 133

Tibet 63, 71

Tibetan Plateau 40

Crucible 415, 416, 421

Tiligul 249

Pacific Ocean 5, 9, 16, 33, 71, 76, 91, 94, 96, 145, 154, 343, 409. 411, 414,

415, 427, 428, 431

Toba (Taibo) 309

Toba Wei 316

Tobol 237, 238, 354, 358, 361, 364, 367, 368, 378

Tobolsk 13, 18, 237, 358

Tobolsk District 355

Todaiji 319

Toyon Aryy 392

Tola 59, 266-268, 273

Tologoy 215

Tommot 122

Tomsk 9, 18, 61, 98-100, 170, 172, 178, 179, 186, 239, 361, 376

Tomsk region 29, 360, 361

TOMSK BURIAL 18, 98, 99, 204

Tom 13, 14, 17, 101, 170, 179, 186,

204, 241, 306, 361, 379

Tone tour 365

Torgalyk 375

Toyanov Gorodok 361

"Pipe" 117, 119, 204, 205

Tuba (Ulsa) 189, 281, 298, 299, 378

Tuban ulus 378

Tuva 8, 11, 28, 30, 71, 194, 215, 227-233, 253-257, 266, 267, 269 272, 274-277, 281-291, 372-376, 429

Tugozvonovskoye burial 303

Tukin (Dugin) 270

Tumangan (Tyumen-ula) 142 264, 402, 407

Tumat-taiga 373

Tumnin 401

Tumyn 328

Tunguska Lower 123, 395

Tunguska Middle (Podkamennaya) 123.

Tunka 17, 384

Tunkinsky region 292

Tunkinsky district 383

Tongjiang 323

Tuoi-Khaya 123-125

Tour 304, 353-355, 358, 364, 366

Turgay 361, 362

Turgai burial ground 362

Turkmenistan 78

Turukta 121

Turukhan 395

Turfan see Coachan

Turpan oasis 89

Tuyakhta 227

Donghaejin 330

Tym 154, 241, 359

Tyr (Dkli, Teli) 405, 406

Tali see Tyr

Tyumen region 6, 7

Tyumen Khanate 364, 368

Tyumen 96, 304, 364

Tyumen-ula, see Tumangan

Tien Shan 40, 268, 303

Ubsanur 268, 375

Weighting, r. 221

Uda 44, 61, 216

Uzun-both 190, 195

Uibat 18, 19, 166, 281. 298

Uybat steppe 19

Uibat Chaatas 25, 300

Uyghur State (Uyghuria, Uyghur Khaganate) 286, 317

Ukraine 78, 428

Ukulan 209

Ulalinka 41-43

Ulaanbaatar 61, 216, 268, 273

Ulan-Ude 9, 10, 31, 40, 212, 215

Ulan-Khada 21, 26, 118, 204

Ulsa see Tuba

Ulug-Khem see Upper Yenisei Ulug-Khem district 275, 373

Ulug-Khorum 228

Ulu-Kem see Upper Yenisei

Unga 31, 293-295

Unga settlement 293, 294

Wolba, oz. 125

Walba, parking lot 122

Walbinsky kardal 126

Ural Mountains (Ural, Ural Range) 5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 37, 69, 71, 72,

78, 85, 94, 96, 98, 103, 104, 180, 236, 38. 239. 252. 305. 353, 354, 366-

369, 372, 428. 429. 430, 431

Urilsky, about. 33

Harvest 44, 78, 79

Urumqi 268

Urungu 268

Uriankhai (Orankai) 407

Uryankhai region 22, 27, 244 245

Usolka 379

Ussuri 91, 136, 137, 150, 252, 264 308, 320, 324, 406

Ussuriysk 21, 22, 32, 73, 74 136, 141-143, 145, 264, 318, 319, 341, 342

Ussuri Bay 261, 262

Installation 87, 148

Ust-Aldansky district 121

Ust-Belaya (Angara basin) tab. 38-39, 80, 82-84

Ust-Belsky burial ground (Chukotka) 151, 210, 221-223

Ust-Yerba 178

Ust-Il 213

Ust-Kanskaya cave 41, 44, 71

Ust-Kurenga 97

Ust-Kurengskoe burial 104

Ust-Kuyum 161

Ust-Kyakhta 65

Ust-Maya 122

Ust-Poluy 234-237, 354

Ust-Poluy settlement 234

Ust-Seminskaya parking 44, 70

Ust-Sobakinskaya parking 203, 205

Ust-Talkin 294 Ust-Tesi 25

Ust-Timpton 122

Ust-Udinsky burial ground 31

Ust-Tsilemskaya Sloboda 370

Ustyug 367, 368

Utachen 327

Cliffs 221

Utu-Elga 293, 294

Wuhuan 251

Wushiji 405

Ushkanka 251

Ushkovskoye, oz. tab. 38-39, 93, 153

Uelensky burial ground 347, 349, 350

Fedorovka 249

Fedyaevo 44

Fergana 288, 290

Filimoshki 41, 43

Finland 236, 355

Fominskaya, parking 44

Fofanova 201, 211, 212

France 6, 53, 54, 58

Furdanchen 342

Fuyu 313, 315, 316

Fairbanks 89

Khabarovsk 91, 92, 134, 136, 138, 264. 407

Khabsagay 381

Hai Dongshengguo see Bohai

Haichuan 329

Khakassia 24, 165, 282

Khakass Autonomous Region 25

Khakass-Minusinsk basin, see Minusinsk basin

Khalkha 248, 376, 387

Hamju 330

Khangai 268, 271

Khanka 74, 91, 141, 219, 264, 407

Hara Aryy 392

Khara-Balgasun (Kharabalgas) 20, 302

Khara-Busun 213

Harazargay 292

Haranarin 268

Kharakhorin see Karakorum

Harbin 407

Kharinskaya Sopka 219, 220

Harlon-Kel see Salt Lake

Hariyalaakh 391, 392

Khasan district 319

Hashan 403

Khatanga 94

Khatyn Aryy 392

Khem see Yenisei

Khashkhay 296

Khemchik 268, 287, 289, 291, 376

Khingan (Khingan Mountains) 217, 251, 401, 430

Khinskaya pad 82, 84-86, 118

Hirkhira 380

Khirkhirinsky town 379, 380

Khodjikent cave 40

Hoiningfu see upper capital

Hokkaido 90, 140, 156, 315

Honshu 315, 346

Khorinsk 61

Horo-Yurege 122

Huai 334, 338

Huaihuan 270

Huaiyuan 318

Huaiyang 338

Huanghe, see Yellow. Khubsugul 268

Hulawen 404 Hulan 407

Hooligay 403

Hulyum Sunt 97

Hunan 339

Hungari 138

Hongchun 328

Hunongjiang 403

Khurkhabir see Mudanjiang Hebei 339

Heisha see Kara-Kum

Helan (Helanfu Hailan) 32, 135, 332, 337, 403 ) ^~

Helan, r. 330 Henan 333, 334 Hengtei 268

Caizhou 340

Central Asia 21 38 40, 41, 62, 63, 66, 70, 71, 76, 82 86, 89, 90, 93, 116, 127, 136, 210 211, 215, 227, 228, 232, 233, 248 257 266 267 269 270 272 274 280 281 284-286 288 293 295-301 303 340 376 381 428 430 431

Central Europe tab. 38-39, 43

Central Manchuria 325

Central Mongolia 21

Central Tuva 228

Central Chukotka 94

Central Yakutia 69, 77, 95 123, 388, 392

Central Altai 30, 227

Central Kazakhstan 71, 183, 184 304

Central Tien Shan 179

Jian-gun (Gegun, Kyrgun) 296, 297

Jianzhou see Dunhua

Jargulu 405

Tsigenovsky (Segenutsky) ulus 381

Cyclodrome (Lokomotiv) 31, 115

Tsingalinsky yurts

Ciulatan 405

Chaa-Khol 289, 374

Chaa-Kholsky district 275, 373

Chalaghan 403

Changboshan (Changbaishan) 308, 309, 320

Chaoxian 313

Chapigou 145, 319

Chapel Mountain 381

Chastinskaya 61, 66, 72

Frequent, fall 31, 82, 84-86, 118

Chatyr-Kul 179

Chaun mountain 346

Chaun Bay 412, 414

Chegitun 350, 351

Chekurovka 126

Chelyabinsk 239

Chelyabinsk region 238, 239

Cheremushnik 44, 65, 81

Chernigovka 74

Chernovaya, r. 165, 166, 168, 169

Draft VI 161, 164

Black Sea 217, 249, 303

"Black Sands", see Kara-Kum

Black Iyus 377

Four-pillar, about. 350, 351

Czechoslovakia 58

Zhaozhou 403

Zhen 312, 313

Zhenhua 323

Zhoukoudian 75

Chikayevo 221

Chikoy 44, 242

Chimga-tura 364, 366

Chinyaev settlement 365

Circuo 123

Chirovoe, oz. 221, 222

Chirombu see Sym

Chita 40, 94, 214

Chita region 215, 379, 380

Chichka-yul 361

Chona 123, 124

Chongpyeong 329

Chokh-chur-Muran 77

Chugai Kuz (Zongcai Shan) 272

Freaks 238

Chukotsky District 346

Chukotsky Peninsula (Chukotka) 11, 17, 28, 32 33, 46, 93, 151, 210, 221, 223,

346, 350. 412, 416, 417

Chukchi Sea 412, 413

Chukchi coast 222

Chukochya, r. 415

Chulym 16, 19, 29, 186, 241-258, 359-362, 377, 378

Chulym-Yenisen basin 187

Chulym-Yenisei Plain 62

Churumal 374

Chusovaya 71, 354, 357

Cheongcheonggang 323

Chasty Yag 97

Shagonar 287, 289, 373

Shandong 315, 338, 339

Shanxi 334

Shanjin see upper capital

Shara-muren (Silyaohe) 141, 268

Shelagsky, Cape 411, 415

Sheremetyevo 136, 137, 139

Shidukha 405

Shilka 116, 212, 214, 216, 268, 307, 309

Shilkinskaya cave 116

Shilkinsky plant 116

Shihshit 384

Shishkin 33, 35, 65, 113, 153, 295, 296

Shishkinsky rocks 381, 388

Schmidt, cape 415

Shokhtoy 294

Shuaibin 318

Shui-dada 403

Shuidungou 61

Shunnuzhi 322

Ymyyakhtaah, lake. 121

Ymyyakhtah, parking lot 122

Evoron 130, 140

Edzin-goal 268

Ekven burial ground 347

Ekichuverweem 350

Expeditions, Bay 261

Elegest 373-375

Elygytkhyn 151, 221

Enurmin 415

Erdeni-Tzu 260

South, r. 71, 367

Southeast Asia 40 41 73-75, 91, 121, 201

Southeast Tuva 373

Southwestern Turkmenistan 96

Yugra Land (Yugra) 20, 367, 369

Yuedeyskaya parking 120

South Asia 43, 75, 77

Southern Manchuria 403

South Sosva 355

South Tuva 278

Southern France 49

South Yakutia 123

Southern Transbaikalia 248

Southern Trans-Urals 179, 233

South Primorye 87, 402

Southern Altai 228, 275, 362

South Deer Island 125, 127

Apple Ridge 401

Yaya burial ground 100

Yakitikiveem 94, 221

Jaxart 183

Yakutsk 9, 77, 120-122, 185, 207-209, 388

Yakut ASSR (Yakutia) 7, 11, 28, 31, 76, 116, 119-127, 148, 153, 207-

211, 218, 221, 291, 292, 345, 347, 352, 385, 387, 388, 390-392, 394,

Yakut province. 23

Yakutsk region 393

"Yakutsky vzvoz" 388 I

Yakutsk-Vilyui depression 77

Yalu 320, 323, 324

Yamal tab. 38-39, 353

Yana 387, 392, 410

Yandogai 347

Yanzhan 314

Yanchihe 319

Japan 7, 8, 73, 83, 90, 93, 134, 140, 145, 315, 319, 320

Japanese Islands 90, 91, 132-134, 142, 144, 145, 156, 158, 265, 319, 402

Sea of ​​Japan 87, 141, 154, 307, 317, 323

The peoples of the North and the Far East are called small. This term includes not only the demography of the ethnic group, but also its culture - traditions, customs, way of life, etc.

The legislation clarified the concept of smallness. These are peoples with a population of less than 50 thousand people. Such manipulation made it possible to “throw out” the Karelians, Komi, and Yakuts from the list of northern peoples.

Who's left

What are known today small Russia? These are Yukagirs, Enets, Tuvans-Todzhins, Kereks, Orochi, Kets, Koryaks, Chukchis, Aleuts, Eskimos, Tubalars, Nenets, Teleuts, Mansi, Evens, Evens, Shors, Evenks, Nanais, Nganasans, Alyutors, Veps, Chulyms, Tazis , Chuvans, Soits, Dolgans, Itelmens, Kamchadals, Tofalars, Umandins, Khanty, Chulkans, Negidals, Nivkhs, Ulta, Sami, Selkups, Telengits, Ulchi, Udege.

Indigenous peoples of the North and their language

All of them belong to the following language groups:

• Saami, Khanty and Mansi - to the Finno-Ugric;
• Nenets, Selkups, Nganasans, Enets - to the Samoyed;
• Dolgans - to the Turkic;
• Evenks, Evens, Negidals, terms, Orochs, Nanais, Udeges and Ulchis - to the Tungus-Manchurian;
• Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens speak families;
• Eskimos and Aleuts - Eskimo-Aleut.

There are also isolated languages. They are not included in any group.

Many languages ​​have already been forgotten in colloquial speech and are used only in the everyday life of the old generation. Mostly they speak Russian.

Since the 90s, they have been trying to restore the lessons of the native language in schools. This is difficult, because he is not well known, it is difficult to find teachers. When learning, children perceive their native language as a foreign language, because they rarely hear it.

The peoples of Russia: features of appearance

The appearance of the indigenous peoples of the North and the Far East is monophonic, in contrast to their language. According to anthropological properties, the majority can be attributed to Small stature, dense build, light skin, straight black hair, dark eyes with a narrow slit, a small nose - these signs indicate this. An example is the Yakuts, whose photos are given below.

During the development of the north of Siberia in the 20th century by the Russians, as a result of mixed marriages, some peoples acquired a Caucasoid outline of faces. The eyes became lighter, their incision was wider, blond hair began to appear more and more often. For them, the traditional way of life is also acceptable. They belong to their native nation, but their names and surnames are Russian. The peoples of the North of Russia try to adhere nominally to their nation for a number of reasons.

Firstly, to maintain benefits that give the right to free fishing and hunting, as well as various subsidies and benefits from the state.

Secondly, to preserve the population.

Religion

Previously, the indigenous peoples of the North were mainly adherents of shamanism. Only at the beginning of the 19th century. they converted to Orthodoxy. During the Soviet Union, they had almost no churches and priests left. Only a small part of the people kept icons and observes Christian rites. The majority adheres to traditional shamanism.

The life of the peoples of the North

The land of the North and the Far East is of little use for agriculture. The villages are mainly located along the shores of bays, lakes and rivers, since only sea and river trade routes work for them. The time at which goods can be delivered to the villages across the rivers is very limited. Rivers freeze quickly. Many become prisoners of nature for many months. It is also difficult for anyone from the mainland to get to them in the villages. At this time, you can get coal, gasoline, as well as the necessary goods only with the help of helicopters, but not everyone can afford it.

The peoples of the North of Russia observe and honor centuries-old traditions and customs. These are mainly hunters, fishermen, reindeer herders. Despite the fact that they live according to the examples and teachings of their ancestors, in their everyday life there are things from modern life. Radios, walkie-talkies, gasoline lamps, boat engines and much more.

The small peoples of the North of Russia are mainly engaged in reindeer herding. From this trade they get skins, milk, meat. They sell most of it, but they still have enough for themselves. Reindeer are also used as transport. This is the only means of transportation between villages that are not separated by rivers.

Kitchen

The raw food diet prevails. Traditional dishes:

• Kanyga (semi-digested contents of the stomach of a deer).
• Deer antlers (growing antlers).
• Kopalchen under pressure).
• Kiviak (carcasses of birds, decomposed by bacteria, which are stored in the skin of a seal for up to two years).
• Deer bone marrow, etc.

Work and trade

Some peoples of the North have developed But only the Chukchi, the Eskimos are engaged in it. A very popular form of income is fur farms. They breed arctic foxes, minks. Their products are used in tailoring workshops. They make both national and European clothes.

In the villages there are mechanics, sellers, mechanics, nurses. But the majority of reindeer herders, fishermen, hunters. Families who do this all year round live in the taiga, on the banks of rivers and lakes. They occasionally visit villages to buy various products, essential goods or send mail.

Hunting is a year-round activity. The peoples of the Far North of Russia hunt on skis in winter. They take small sledges with them for equipment, mostly dogs carry them. Most hunt alone, rarely - in the company.

Housing of small peoples

Mostly these are log houses. Nomads move with plagues. It looks like a tall conical tent, the base of which is reinforced with multiple poles. Covered with chum deer skins sewn together. Such dwellings are transported on sledges with deer. Chum is put up, as a rule, by women. They have beds, bedding, chests. In the center of the plague there is a stove, some nomads can see a fire, but this is rare. Some hunters and reindeer herders live in the ravines. These are rack houses, also covered with skins. They are similar in size to a construction trailer. Inside there is a table, a bunk bed, an oven. Such a house is transported on a sleigh.

Yaranga is a more elaborate wooden house. There are two rooms inside. The kitchen is not heated. But the bedroom is warm.

Only the indigenous peoples of the North are able to build such dwellings to this day. Modern youth is no longer trained in such a craft, as they mainly seek to leave for the cities. Few remain to live according to the laws of their ancestors.

Why do the peoples of the North disappear?

Small nations are distinguished not only by their low numbers, but also by their way of life. The peoples of the European North of Russia retain their existence only in their villages. Once a person leaves, and over time, he moves to another culture. Few settlers come to the lands of the Northern peoples. And children, growing up, almost all leave.

The peoples of the North of Russia are mainly local (autochthonous) ethnic groups from the West (Karelians, Vepsians) to the Far East (Yakuts, Chukchis, Aleuts, etc.). Their population in their native places is not growing, despite the high birth rate. The reason is that almost all children grow up and leave the northern latitudes for the mainland.

In order for such peoples to survive, it is necessary to help their traditional economy. Reindeer pastures are rapidly disappearing due to oil and gas extraction. Farms lose profitability. The reason is expensive food and the impossibility of grazing. Water pollution affects fisheries, which become less active. Small peoples of the North of Russia are disappearing very rapidly, their total number is 0.1% of the country's population.

The next volume of the "Peoples and Cultures" series is devoted to the ethnography of the indigenous peoples of the North-East of Siberia: the Ainu, Aleuts, Itelmens, Kamchadals, Kereks, Koryaks, Nivkhs, Chuvans, Chukchis, Eskimos, Yukagirs. This is the first generalizing work, which presents a detailed description of the ethnic cultures of all the Paleo-Asiatic peoples of the Far East. The book introduces the reader to the results of the latest research on anthropology, archeology, the ethnic history of these peoples, traditional economy, social organization, beliefs, customs and holidays, unique folk and professional art, folklore, social life. New materials from museums, state archives, and private collections are introduced into scientific circulation. Of particular interest are the photographic materials of the Northern Expedition of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the 1950s-2000s.
For ethnologists, historians and a wider range of readers.

• Indigenous peoples of the Far East: economy, life, culture.
• Consequences of Russian colonization.
• State policy towards the indigenous peoples of the Far East

Indigenous peoples of the Far East: economy, life, culture
The Russian Far East is not a single ethnographic region. Historically, the ethnic map of the region was extremely varied. Hundreds of tribes and clans inhabited a vast territory from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the borders of China and Korea. In the reports of Russian explorers of the XVII century. Chukchi, Koryaks, Eskimos, Kamchadals, Yukaghirs, Tungus, Aleuts, Gilyaks, Natki, Achans, Goldiks, Solons, Daurs, Duchers and others are mentioned. Far Eastern aborigines have come a long way of their development. They were the first to settle in the taiga and tundra, came to the shores of the Arctic and Pacific oceans, created unique cultures. The features of the historical path of the natives of the Far East and the originality of their cultures largely depended on the geographical environment against the background and conditions of which these peoples lived.

In ethnic terms, the territory of settlement of the Far Eastern aborigines represented several large areas, each of which has its own specifics, due to the geographical environment, the process of the historical development of peoples, their belonging to a particular language group, the production activities of peoples and relationships.

The Far North-East of Asia - the Chukchi-Kamchatka ethnographic region - is inhabited by the Chukchi (self-name - Chavchu); Eskimos (self-name - Innuit); Koryaks (self-name - namylan, chauch), Itelmens (Kamchadals), Aleuts (Unchans). The formation of these peoples, according to sources, began during the protracted Neolithic period. Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens are the autochthonous population of Chukotka, Kamchatka. Their ancestors - the natives of the Far Northeast - were continental hunters of wild deer, and also hunted sea animals and were engaged in fishing. Inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic relations were poorly developed. At the beginning of a new era, the Eskimos appeared in the Far Northeast with their specialized culture of marine hunting. They influenced the production activities, culture and language of the Chukchi and Koryaks. In turn, the language of the Eskimos absorbed a significant amount of the Chukchi-Kamchatka vocabulary. According to I. S. Vdovin, with the advent of the Eskimos, conditions appeared for the gradual development of the exchange of products of the marine fur trade for products of land hunting and reindeer breeding.

By the beginning of the XVII century. socially, the peoples of the Far Northeast were at the stage of the primitive communal system. In terms of language, they belonged to the Paleo-Asiatic and Eskimo-Aleut groups. By the end of the XVII century. the population of the Far North-East, according to I. S. Gurvich, B. O. Dolgikh, was 40 thousand people. The economic activity of the peoples of the Far North-East had a complex character. Thus, the Eskimos and Chukchi sea fur hunting was combined with hunting, fishing and gathering, and fishing, the leading branch of the economy of the coastal Koryaks, was combined with sea fur hunting. Pastoral reindeer husbandry coexisted with wild deer hunting. Fishing was the main occupation of the Itelmens, and land and sea hunting and gathering were ancillary. The Aleuts were engaged in sea hunting.

The taiga-tundra regions of the Okhotsk coast, Northeast Asia and the north of the Amur region were the residence of the Evens (Lamuts, self-name - Even, Oroch), Evenks (the old name is Tungus), Yukagirs (self-name - Odul), who were also at the stage of the primitive communal system . The languages ​​spoken by these peoples belong to the Tungus group of languages. The ethnogenesis of the Yukagirs, Evens and Evenks (Tungus) is complex. Many researchers of Siberia consider the Yukagirs as direct descendants of the most ancient aboriginal population of the north of the Far East - continental hunters of reindeer and fishermen. According to I.S. Gurvich, the Yukagir tribes, for all their isolation, were in contact with the northeastern Paleo-Asian, Tungus-speaking peoples and themselves took part in their ethnogenesis. In the middle of the XVII century. Three Yukagir tribes lived in the north of the Far East - Khodyns, Chuvans, Anauls. The autochthonous tribes of Siberia took part in the ethnogenesis of the Tungus (Evens and Evenks). A.P. Okladnikov, G.M. Vasilevich believe that once the distant ancestors of the northern Tungus lived near Lake Baikal. From the south and southeast, Turkic, Mongolian, Manchurian tribes came to the Baikal region, which mixed with the local population and, probably, gave rise to Evens and Evenks. Later, the ancient Tungus began to migrate both to the west and to the east up to the coast of Okhotsk. However, according to researchers, the ethnic features that make it possible to distinguish Evens from Evenks developed after the arrival of Russians in Siberia. By the middle of the XVII century. the number of Evens and Evenks amounted to 8.4 thousand people. All these peoples led a nomadic lifestyle. They were divided according to the type of management into foot and deer. For the former, fishing, gathering and hunting were of paramount importance in the economy. The second were engaged in reindeer herding and hunting for wild deer. They also had a few herds of domestic deer, which were used as transport animals.

The third major ethnographic region - Amur-Sakhalin - covers the Amur region, Primorye, Sakhalin. These are the areas of residence of Nanais (self-name - Nani, former - Goldy), Ulchi (self-name - Olchi), Udege (Ude, Udege), Orochs (self-name - Nani), Oroks (old name - Ulta), Negidals (self-name - Elkan, Beyenian ), Nivkhs (the old name is Gilyaks), Ainu. There is no consensus among researchers about the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Amur region and Sakhalin. Is not it. Schrenk argued that the Nivkhs are the original inhabitants of the Lower Amur and Sakhalin, and their Tungus-speaking neighbors - the Ulchi, Oroks, Nanais - are very late newcomers who borrowed from the Nivkhs the basic methods of economic activity and forms of life. In turn, the Tungus-speaking groups, according to L.I. Shrenk, had a great influence on the Nivkhs. L. Ya. Sternberg, having studied the Tungus-speaking peoples, came to the conclusion that the Ulchi, Nanais, Orochi and Oroks are representatives of a single tribe (nationality). Based on the analysis of similarities in some elements of dwellings among the Nivkhs and the peoples of Northeast Asia, it was concluded that the ancestors of the Nivkhs came from more northern regions. A.P. Okladnikov believed that already in the Neolithic on the Amur and Sakhalin, the culture of the ancestors of the modern Nanai, Ulchi and Nivkhs began to take shape. According to A.P. Derevyanko, at the beginning of a new era, the agricultural population of the Mohe had a great influence on the peoples of the lower Amur, and exchange relations developed between them. All these nationalities were at the stage of disintegration of tribal relations. The inhabitants of the south of the Far East in the Neolithic period, judging by the archaeological data, led a settled way of life. Fishing was the basis of their economy. In the period of the early Iron Age, the population of the middle and upper Amur had already switched to agriculture. Agriculture was combined with hunting and, possibly, reindeer herding, which led to the penetration of the Tungus tribes into the Amur valley. Among the Nivkhs, such crafts as blacksmithing, boating, rope weaving, dressing of animal skins and fish skins have reached a fairly high level of development. The Nanais achieved great skill in building boats, in the manufacture of various types of sleds, skis, etc. Nanai products made of birch bark were distinguished by high artistic merit. Metal casting has long been known to the Orochs. The Ainu, in addition to fishing and hunting, were engaged in ocean fishing. Agriculture was mainly developed among the Duchers and Daurs. Agricultural products provided the needs for bread, cereals and flour. Some of them were exchanged. In addition to agriculture, the Daurs were engaged in horse breeding and hunting. Horses were used for riding. Daurs were also known for crafts. They sawed logs and beams, built dwellings and made boats, wove ropes and ropes from nettles, and knew how to work metal. In essence, the economy of all the peoples of the south of the Far East was complex, semi-natural in nature.

The natives of the southern part of the Far East actively developed interethnic contacts. Nivkhs, Ulchis, Nanais were engaged in the exchange of raw materials and local products. In the process of communication, interethnic marriages were concluded. For example, among the Ulchi, clans of Nivkh, Nanai, Negidal origin arose, and among the Nanais - Ulch, Nivkh, etc. Linguistically, most of these peoples belonged to the Tungus-Manchurian language group, the Nivkhs to the Paleo-Asiatic language group. In the documents of the pioneers of the XVII century. Daurs, duchers are mentioned, who were at a higher stage of social development, led a sedentary lifestyle, experienced a strong cultural influence from the Manchus and Chinese. The language of the Duchers was close to the Tungus-Manchu language, and that of the Daurs was close to Mongolian.

The centuries-old history of indigenous peoples is complex. Despite all the difficulties of life in the harsh climatic conditions of the Far East, the natives managed to create a rich material culture. The material culture of the natives was maximally adapted to the harsh geographical conditions of the region, the nature of production activities, taking into account those materials, means, products that nature provided them with the required amount: taiga, rivers, ocean. Traditional occupations corresponded to tools and means of transportation. The tools of the sea hunting, the means of transportation by sea among the Eskimos and the settled Chukchi had much in common. For hunting cetaceans, walruses, seals, the Eskimos and Chukchi used a rotary harpoon. In addition to this device, the Koryaks used fixed tips made of bone with symmetrically arranged teeth-beards. They were also used for hunting small pinnipeds. The Chukchi and Eskimos used nets made of thin belts to catch seals. Land hunting tools were rather uniform among all the peoples of this region: bows, spears, arrows with stone, iron, bone tips of various shapes and purposes; spears, darts, belt loops. Tools and means of fishing - constipation, snouts, spears, hooks, etc. The main means of transportation by sea for the Eskimos, Chukchi, Aleuts were canoes and kayaks. The petroglyphs of Pegtymel give an idea of ​​the use of canoes for hunting marine mammals, and kayaks for hunting wild deer at river crossings. The Itelmens and Koryaks used baty-boats, hollowed out of a single log, to sail along the rivers and in the bays. The settled population - Koryaks, Chukchis, Eskimos and Itelmens - used deer, dog teams, various types of sledges (for light driving, for transporting goods, children), and walking ski-poles as transport. The Yukagirs hunted the land animal with a bow and arrows. In fishing on rivers, lakes, and bays, they used a variety of tackle: rides with muzzles, hooks, spears, horsehair nets, hooks, etc. The Evens and Evenks used sleds to which the nomads harnessed deer. For the Yukaghirs, rafts, light birch bark shuttles, dugouts served as a means of transportation in summer along the rivers; The natives of the south of the Far East - Nanai, Ulchi, Nivkh used hooks, traps, nets from wild hemp and nettles in fishing. Large fish and sea animals were caught with harpoons. The Ainu used harpoons with detachable bone or iron tips to catch large fish. Seines - tools for collective fishing - appeared relatively late, when fish began to be caught for sale. Adzes, which performed the functions of an ax, were widespread among the natives. With their help, wood, bone, walrus tusk were processed. The Russian explorer of Kamchatka, S.P. Krasheninnikov, noted that even in the middle of the 17th century. The natives of Kamchatka made their tools - axes, knives, spears, arrows, needles - from deer and whale bones and stone. Boats, bowls, troughs and so on were hollowed out with axes. At the same time, as archaeological excavations in Sarychev Bay have shown, the natives of Northeast Asia were familiar with iron in the 1st millennium AD. e. But the widespread use of iron tools became possible only with the arrival of the Russians.

The natural conditions in which the Far Eastern natives lived and their economic activities determined the nature of the settlements, the type of dwelling, the way of life, and clothing. Archaeologists have found that permanent settlements were only among those peoples who led a sedentary lifestyle and were mainly engaged in fishing or sea hunting. At the same time, the settled peoples - the Eskimos, the coastal Koryaks, the Nivkhs, the Ulchi, the Nanais - had both permanent settlements and temporary ones - fishing, seasonal. The nomadic peoples (Chukchi, Koryaks), who were engaged in taiga hunting and reindeer herding, did not have permanent settlements. The main settlements were winter. Some settlements of the Eskimos and settled Chukchi have been in one place for tens or even hundreds of years. The Itelmens lived in summer in temporary villages, where they were engaged in fishing, and in winter they moved to settlements consisting of dugouts. For the majority of the settled population of the Amur, the main life was concentrated in winter villages, where there were barns, as well as summer dwellings. The types of dwellings were varied. In Kamchatka and Chukotka, semi-dugouts with an entrance through a smoke hole in the roof were widespread. Such dwellings in the XVIII century. were preserved among the Itelmens and Koryaks, several related families lived in them. Reindeer Chukchi and Koryaks had a portable yaranga (yurt) in which they lived all year round. It was a multifaceted frame with wooden supports and a roof. Sometimes a vestibule made of poles covered with deer skins was attached to the winter Koryak dwelling. The Itelmens moved in the summer to a booth - these are round or quadrangular double buildings, based on nine or twelve pillars. The Aleuts lived in dugouts, and in the summer they settled in land dwellings. The Yukaghirs lived in large settlements - prisons in dugouts, in the summer they moved to logged rectangular buildings. The winter dwelling of the Even nomads was a portable conical tent. For settled groups, a log house or semi-dugout with a hearth made of poles coated with clay served as a winter dwelling. The settled Nanais, Ulchis, Orochs, "grassroots" Negidals and Nivkhs had permanent dwellings in the 17th-18th centuries. was a building in the form of an ordinary house with pole frames, a roof, an earthen floor, with pit heating. The summer dwelling of each nation differed in form and design. For example, the Daurs lived in settlements (of 60–70 frame-type houses). The buildings resembled the ground dwellings of the peoples of the Amur region and Manchuria. Settlements (fortress-towns) were surrounded by earthen ramparts and walls. Around them were fields, places of grazing. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. the peoples of the Far East gradually mastered the technique of Russian log house construction. Russian stoves appeared, and bunks or beds were installed in place of the cans. Russian izba at the beginning of the 20th century. became the main type of housing.

The clothes of the peoples of the Far East developed in ancient times and changed over the centuries. The nature and type of clothing of the natives was influenced by climatic conditions, fishing activities of peoples. The peoples of Northeast Asia used deaf clothes of the northeast type. Winter clothing for men was a short double kukhlyanka. Koryaks and Itelmens wore kukhlyankas with a hood and a small bib sewn to the front of the collar. Among the Aleuts, winter clothing made from bird skins (parkas) was common. In summer, they wore worn out winter clothes, and also sewed special summer clothes from thick smoke, rovduga (suede), guts of marine animals, and bird skins. The clothes of the Evens, Evenks, Yukaghirs were of a swing type and cut and had two variants of the cut of the caftan: it was sewn from skins, less often from rovduga; he also served as summer clothing. The Yukagirs sewed clothes from dressed deer skins; had armor, kuyaks and helmets made of bone plates. Nanais, Ulchis, Nivkhs, Oroks, Udyges wore overcoat type clothes with a doubled left floor. They sewed clothes from cloth, suede, fish skin. Ainu winter clothes are dressing gowns made of cloth, animal skins or elk skin. In summer, the Ainu wore headbands, and in winter, fur hats. Festive clothes did not differ in cut from everyday clothes, but they were richly decorated with embroideries, appliqués, fur mosaics, and beads. The Koryaks sewed fringe and tassels of thin white mandarka sewn with colored beads on festive clothes, appliqués in the form of stripes cut from mandarka with denticles. The Itelmens sewed festive parkas from sable, deer or dog fur, decorated the fur with decorative stripes. During the celebrations, the Aleuts put on a new parka, richly decorated with fur straps.

The food of the Far Eastern peoples was also varied. The main food of polar hunters - Eskimos, coastal Chukchi and Koryaks - is walrus, seal and whale meat in various forms (ice cream, boiled, dried). Whale skin was eaten raw; venison was highly valued. Vegetable food, seaweed, shellfish served as seasoning. The Itelmens' main food was fish - "Kamchatka bread". They used dried fish (yukola), smoked and pickled fish. Russian traveler V. M. Golovnin noted that “Kamchadals very rarely salt fish. A small part is smoked, the rest is dried in the air or fermented; that is, they put fresh fish in a hole and bury it in earth, where it spoils and rots. Such an abomination is called sour fish here, but Kamchadals are extremely fond of sour fish. The Evens and Evenkis ate mainly the meat of deer and elk, which was prepared by drying in the sun in finely chopped form. Soup with the addition of blood was cooked on meat broth. From the intestines they made sausage, from dried fish - yukon, and from dried fish - flour. In the summer they consumed large quantities of reindeer milk, berries, wild garlic, and onions. The main drink is tea with reindeer milk and salt. The food of the population of the southern part of the Far East was mainly fish. They used fish in different forms: boiled, raw, canned. Soups from fresh or dried fish, as well as from meat, were prepared with many seasonings - wild herbs and roots. A lot of fish oil was added to a dish of purchased products (cereals, pasta, noodles). It was also eaten with berries, which were used in large quantities in salads, mainly from fish and various roots. Tea was brewed from chaga, lingonberry leaves, mint, wild rosemary shoots, etc.

The centuries-old experience of the life of the indigenous peoples of the Far East is reflected in the spiritual culture. Being the creators of a unique spiritual culture and original applied art, they made an invaluable contribution to the treasury of world culture.

Folklore occupied a significant place in the spiritual life: myths, fairy tales, legends. All the peoples of the Far North had a myth about a cultural hero - the Crow-Creator. In Chukchi folklore, Raven's main feat is getting light. Raven stole the Sun from evil spirits, created mountains, rivers, people and animals, using seal bones, wood chips, grass and flint as material. In Eskimo myths, there are stories about the creation of the Raven land. In the Koryak-Itelmen myths, much attention is paid to Raven's family life: his wife, brother, sister, as well as children and grandchildren usually appear. Heroic tales among the peoples of the Far North-East arose in the era of the decomposition of the tribal system and the beginning of the stratification of primitive society. The main protagonist of the heroic tales is a human wolf-hunter, distinguished by physical strength and ingenuity. The basis of many heroic tales were genuine historical events: major clashes, internecine feuds between individual communities and families. So, in the Chukchi tales, the Koryaks act as opponents, in the Koryak tales - the Chukchi. In Itelmen folklore there is a single cycle of legends about the hero Tylval.

Among the peoples of the south of the Far East there are cosmogonic, totemic and other myths. Cosmogonic myths tell about the origin of the universe. For example, the myths of the peoples of the Amur region tell about the participation in the creation of the world of the Swan and the Eagle. Totemic myths tell about the relationship of a person with an animal, which then becomes the patron of the family. So, the Orochi and Nanais considered the tiger as their ancestor, the Nivkh - the bear. They all believed that animals, if they wanted to, could always take off their skin and become human.

Folk decorative art occupied an important place in the life and way of life of the natives. It reflected not only the original aesthetic worldview of peoples, but also social life, the level of economic development and interethnic, intertribal ties. The traditional decorative art of the peoples has deep roots in the land of their ancestors. A vivid evidence of this is the monument of ancient culture - petroglyphs (drawings-scribbles) on the rocks of Sikachi-Alyan. The art of the Tungus-Manchus and Nivkhs reflected the environment, aspirations, creative imagination of hunters, fishermen, gatherers of herbs and roots. The original art of the peoples of the Amur and Sakhalin has always delighted those who came into contact with it for the first time. The Russian scientist L. I. Shrenk was very struck by the ability of the Nivkhs (Gilyaks) to make crafts from various metals, decorate their weapons with figures made of red copper, brass, and silver. A great place in the art of the Tungus-Manchus and Nivkhs was occupied by cult sculpture, the material for which was wood, iron, silver, grass, straw, combined with beads, beads, ribbons, and fur. Researchers note that only the peoples of the Amur and Sakhalin were able to make amazingly beautiful applications on fish skin, paint birch bark, and wood. The art of the Chukchi, Eskimos, Koryaks, Itelmens, and Aleuts reflected the life of a hunter, a sea St. John's wort, and a tundra reindeer breeder. For many centuries they have achieved perfection in walrus bone carving, carving on bone plates depicting dwellings, boats, animals, scenes of hunting for a sea animal. The famous Russian explorer of Kamchatka, academician S.P. Krasheninnikov, admiring the skill of the ancient peoples, wrote: “Of all the work of these other peoples, which they do very cleanly with stone knives and axes, nothing was more surprising to me than a walrus bone chain ... She consisted of rings, similar to chiseled smoothness, and was made from one tooth; her upper rings were larger, the lower ones smaller, and her length was a little less than half a yard. I can safely say that, in terms of the purity of work and art, no one would consider another for the labors of a wild Chukchi and made with a stone tool.

Throughout the historical development of the peoples of the Far East, their songs were formed. The most ancient layers of musical culture are manifested in the "bear holiday" of the peoples of the south of the Far East. The main hero of the songs and tales of the Yukagirs was a smart and brave hare. Folklore - legends, myths, legends - kept the norms of law, ethics and morality. Traditions of musical art were passed down from generation to generation. The most widespread was a circular dance, round dance. The performance of songs and dances was accompanied by worgan music. The holidays ended with mass games, during which they competed in wrestling, running, archery. A very important place in the culture of the aborigines belonged to the art of dancing. Among the Eskimos, Chukchis, Koryaks, Itelmens, game dances were widely practiced. Ritual dances were of a magical nature, dedicated to the end of the hunt or the seeing off of the souls of the killed sea animals in the sea, or the solemn meeting of the hunted sea animals. They were performed by older women to the accompaniment of a tambourine or singing. The performers, dancing, imitated the habits of animals, tried to "appease", cheer him up.

Special dances are inherent in Evenks and Evens. Round dances were common among them, which moved in a vicious circle, along the course of the Sun, to the tune of the performers themselves.

Consequences of Russian colonization

The inclusion of indigenous peoples in the Russian state was of particular importance for the historical development of the indigenous population. Constant contacts with the Russian people led to various changes in the life of the indigenous population. This process was progressive, but difficult. Gradually, the involvement of the semi-subsistence economy of the aborigines in the all-Russian economy brought the Far Eastern peoples out of their primitive isolation and isolation. Under the influence of the Russian population, some of the aboriginal groups began to engage in horticulture and livestock, which were mostly subsistence. Many groups of the indigenous population gradually moved from reindeer herding, hunting and fishing to fur hunting and fur trading in exchange for manufactured goods and European products, others, changing the nature of reindeer herding, moved from small herds to large herds.

In the XIX - early XX centuries. the farms of the indigenous population were drawn into the sphere of capitalist production. Furs are gaining commercial importance, products of reindeer breeding, fishing, and sea fur hunting have partially entered the market. The emergence of commodity-money relations contributed to the decomposition of the patriarchal-tribal system among the indigenous peoples. Gradually, the custom of dividing large meat prey, the most valuable hunting products (for example, antlers), disappeared. Private ownership of fishery products was extended; personal property appeared even among members of the same family: husband, wife, children. By the beginning of the XX century. national communities were divided into rich and poor. Separate representatives of the wealthy elite moved to the cities, breaking with their national environment. Ancient customs, norms of customary law, traditions were forced out of the indigenous population by private property interests. However, this process in different peoples had its own characteristics. Among the Nanai and Ulchi, the tribal organization disintegrated by the middle of the 19th century. For the Nivkhs, this process was slower. To the least extent, the changes affected the natives of the northern territories - the Koryaks, Chukchi, Evens and others. Social transformations in their midst were held back by continued isolation from the rest of the world, intermittent contacts with Russian, Japanese and American merchants and industrialists. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. migration and mixing of the population both within one group and between different ethnic groups intensified. In general, from the XVII to the beginning of the XX century. The ethnographic map of the region has significantly changed and become more complex: the territories of groups engaged mainly in appropriating industries (Koryaks, Eskimos, Itelmens) have decreased and, on the contrary, reindeer herders (Evens, Evenks) have significantly expanded their territories.

The accession of the Far Eastern lands to Russia also had negative sides. The fiscal policy of tsarism, to a certain extent, contributed to the conservation of archaic social relations, doomed the natives to harsh exploitation and material stagnation. Unbearable yasak, lack of medical care, unsanitary living conditions, abuses of the administration, harassment by merchants and Cossacks gave rise to the desire of the natives to free themselves from the oppression of the newcomer Russian population. In the XVIII - early XX century. there were several major clashes between indigenous peoples and Russian explorers. The most serious skirmishes took place on the coast of Okhotsk, Kamchatka, Chukotka. The Chukchi were the most stubborn in their struggle. The rampant robbery of Russian and foreign entrepreneurs affected the state of the economy of the indigenous peoples of the Far East. The number of sea game animals, valuable fur-bearing animals, and valuable species of fish has sharply decreased. The indigenous population was shamelessly exploited by both Russian merchants and industrialists, and their own. For furs and fish they paid with goods of the lowest quality; trading operations were often accompanied by the drinking of natives with vodka.

As a result of the decline of the traditional economy, there was a shortage of food, and the death rate of the indigenous population from starvation, epidemics of measles and smallpox increased sharply. So, according to Academician L.I. Shrenk, in the 1850s. 5216 Gilyaks (Nivkhs) lived in the Amur region, and the 1897 census registered only 4642 people. Such a difficult situation of the natives persisted at the beginning of the 20th century. The wide spread of previously unknown diseases, mass alcoholism led to high mortality, mental and physical degeneration. The aborigines' opportunities for farming were further reduced due to the withdrawal and redistribution of land in favor of Russian and foreign entrepreneurs, and the commercial exploitation of the indigenous population. The indigenous population, not being able to live off their traditional crafts, was forced to learn new occupations: to work for hire in the extraction and salting of fish, hay and firewood, and construction. In the mines and mines of the Amur region, Sakhalin, workers from among the indigenous people appeared.

State policy towards indigenous peoplesFar East

The Far East attracted the tsarist government of Russia as a territory for the implementation of the resettlement policy, while it tried to prevent the negative impact of the Russians on the indigenous peoples of Siberia and the Far East. In 1822, the Charter on the management of foreigners was adopted. It attempted to legally define the position of the indigenous population. The charter was imbued with the desire to preserve not only economic well-being, but also the original way of life. The government, despite all the measures, failed to legalize the flow of Russian colonization of the North, the Far East, which invaded deep into the lands, constantly violating the rights of foreigners. In 1892, a new regulation on foreigners was adopted, which was in effect until 1917. According to this law, a department of elders was established in the Amur region, subordinate to police or volost departments. By 1916, a special “Regulation on the management of foreigners in the Amur Territory” was adopted and began to operate, developed with the direct participation of the Amur Governor-General N. L. Gondatti. According to this "Regulation" most of the peoples of the south of the Far East were equated with the peasant class. However, the measures taken by the tsarist government did not have the desired result due to their unsystematic, episodic nature, and also due to the fault of the local authorities, who bypassed all decisions. At the same time, indigenous peoples, as subjects of the empire, were exposed to the destructive manifestations of the policy of indifferent, passive attitude of the authorities regarding raising their living standards, their health, literacy, and maintaining national culture.

The situation that developed in the country during the First World War, the revolution and the subsequent civil war and foreign intervention aggravated the position of the indigenous peoples. The threat of the collapse of the country due to the claims of the interventionists and the fierce struggle of internal socio-political forces hit the economy of the areas inhabited by aborigines painfully. The fishing economy was in crisis, there were no connections with the southern regions, the trade in furs and timber fell and, as a result, the population decreased. It was possible to stop the process of extinction of indigenous peoples only in the 1920s. under Soviet rule.

The most important feature of the state policy of the Soviet government in relation to the indigenous peoples was that, unlike the policy of the tsarist government, it was carried out not only with the aim of saving these peoples from extinction, but, mainly, a qualitative change in their culture, way of life, way of life. In a short time they were to become full-fledged and full-fledged citizens of the country. The country needed huge natural resources for restoration and construction. The attention of the state was riveted to the eastern regions. Minerals, timber, furs, fish, water resources - all these riches were hidden in the Far Eastern land. Back in the years of the Civil War, the Committee for the Study of Natural Resources was created in Moscow, which in the 1920s. launched a broad activity in Siberia and the Far East. In his work, he faced the problem of the state of the aboriginal population. Numerous expeditions to the places of residence of the northern peoples in the early 1920s. revealed a horrific picture. Due to the military-political events of 1917-1922. these peoples were on the verge of extinction, so the Committee for the Study of Natural Resources in the 1920s. took a number of measures aimed at maintaining the life of the northerners. Often this was expressed in the gratuitous supply of food, weapons, ammunition, and the provision of reindeer for use. Many areas of fishing and hunting grounds were returned to the peoples. They were exempt from state and local taxes.

In 1924, under the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Committee for Assistance to the Peoples of the Northern Outskirts was created, which began to deal with the problems of the indigenous peoples of the USSR. Local committees were soon formed. In 1926, the Far Eastern Committee of the North was established under the Far Eastern Executive Committee under the leadership of the outstanding organizer and scientist K. Ya. Luks. The inhabitants of the Amur region, Chukotka and Kamchatka called him the head of the "Big Committee". The main task of the activities of the central and local committees was to study the life of indigenous peoples and to provide them with assistance in the conditions of new social relations. These institutions organically fit into the created management system.

In the second half of the 1920s. the policy of lending and pricing in relation to indigenous people has changed. Local products of crafts found a market, the purchasing power of the local population grew. Cooperative forms of management were born. In 1927, about 70 seasonal fishing artels were registered in the lower reaches of the Amur. These were the simplest partnerships based on collective labor, associated with state and cooperative organizations in supply and marketing relations. There were no hard limits on the production of fish for own consumption.

At that time, marine hunting was of great importance. In 1927, 800 bearded seals, 2205 seals, 927 belugas were caught in the Amur Estuary. At the same time, local residents handed over 1/5 of the products to the state and cooperative enterprises, and used the rest in their farms. Thus, by the end of the 1920s. the economic situation of the Nivkhs has improved significantly due to the expansion of the ability to use natural resources for traditional use. During this period, many Nivkh families got acquainted with animal husbandry, the sale of livestock for them was carried out on preferential terms. In 1927–1928 40% of Nivkh farms had horses, 16.7% - cattle, 20% - poultry, 82.7% - dogs. Horticulture also developed. In 1924, 30% of households had vegetable gardens.

However, a number of factors hindered the modernization of farms. These include tribal relations, lack of a common culture, remoteness of places of residence. To overcome them, the Committee of the North undertook organizational, political and administrative measures. During 1927–1936 according to his decision, 18 northern cultural bases were built, including 4 in the Far East. They were intended to solve pressing life problems and serve the needs of the population. The cultural base included a complex of social, economic and cultural institutions: a shop, a school, a hospital, a bathhouse, a native's house (something between a club and a hotel).

Features of the socio-economic development of the peoples of the Far East, their living conditions (the size of the territory, small population, remoteness from the centers of the country), the nature of their crafts gave rise to traditions of free use of fishing grounds. Interethnic ties were also facilitated by the exchange of locally produced products. However, the peculiarities of the way of life and culture of the indigenous peoples contradicted the policy of accelerated construction of socialism, which had been carried out in the country since the late 1920s. – early 1930s As a result, the indigenous peoples experienced the negative consequences of industrialization and collectivization, which were exacerbated by the ill-conceived national policy of the state. There is an opinion that in the conditions of the industrial development of the Far East, the national traditions, way of life, customs, economy of small peoples, in principle, could not be preserved.

The first blow to the fragile ethno-social environment of the peoples of the Far East was inflicted in the 1930s and 1950s. XX century, when collectivization began among them. The creation of collective farms and state farms was provided with financial support from the state. The first agricultural artels appear in 1928. By 1930, among the indigenous population of the Far East, there were already several dozen fishing and hunting collective farms. The decisions of the party and state bodies became the basis for collectivization. In many ways, they did not take into account the peculiarities of the situation of the indigenous peoples of the North, they were distinguished by formalism and ill-conceivedness. The Far Eastern Executive Committee decided to carry out collectivization among the ethnic groups of the North as part of a tough political course in 1931. Although the pace of collectivization was different for the territories, the indigenous inhabitants of the Amur region were 95% collectivized already in 1934. This indicator testified to the mass coercion of residents to enroll in collective farms . Historians are aware of documents that testify to a weak attempt by the ruling elite to justify the excesses in the dispossession policy, to find the true culprits of violence against the people. Also since the late 1980s. materials about illegal repressions of citizens became public. "Enemies of the people" were also found among the Far Eastern peoples, hundreds of people were thrown into the camps of the NKVD. But nothing could justify the threat of starvation. The country was hard going through the consequences of collectivization. There was a gradual displacement of the indigenous peoples from the traditional forms of management: hunting, fishing, sea fur hunting.

A special role in the economic transformations in the Far East (?) was assigned to the Integral Cooperation (Integral Union), established in 1926 to supply and market products, promote fishing, and lend to the aboriginal population. An analysis of its activities showed that excessive attention to the national fishing areas for furs and valuable species of fish, low purchase prices forced hunters to rapaciously destroy fur-bearing animals in order to ensure their existence. Social competition, overfulfillment of plans led to the undermining of biological resources, did not ensure the reproduction of fish stocks, fur and sea animals. This was especially characteristic of the fishermen of the Khabarovsk and Nizhne-Amur regions. In this regard, the activities of the Integral Cooperation in 1938 were terminated.

Only from the second half of the 1930s. positive changes began to emerge. Along with traditional crafts (hunting, fishing, reindeer breeding), collective farms began to engage in vegetable farming, cage fur farming, and beekeeping. In order to mechanize traditional trades, motor-fishing stations, marine fur-slaughtering stations, sea-animal plants were opened, which served as MTS in agricultural collective farms. But it was not possible to overcome the deep consequences of continuous collectivization to the end. In 1935 An independent economic unit was created - the Middle Amur Rybaksoyuz. It united 48 fishing collective farms, territorially located in two districts (Komsomolsky and Nanaisky) with a total length of 500 km along the banks of the river. Amur. Collective farms were created on the ground, that is, in the camps of the traditional use of natural resources by the indigenous population. Moreover, the number of collective farmers was constantly increasing, and the planned targets for catching fish grew significantly from year to year, despite the fact that during its entire existence the Rybaksoyuz has never coped with the task assigned to it.

Simultaneously with collectivization, a number of settlements were liquidated, sometimes forcibly resettled in unsuccessfully located villages. A unified approach began to be implemented in life, the peculiarities of cultures, customs, and lifestyles of indigenous peoples were not taken into account at all. This policy led to the destruction of people's connection with the traditional economic system, to the loss of the national and cultural identity of peoples, to their forced inclusion in another way of life alien to them.

After the Great Patriotic War, the remaining population was settled in enlarged collective farms; in some localities, national and Russian collective farms were merged.

In the 1950s–1960s The life of the indigenous people began to improve due to changes in the material and technical support of collective farms, but the process of resettlement from traditional settlements to enlarged settlements continued until the end of the 1970s. Separation from the native soil (native village) of many families, their resettlement to new places led to the rapid destruction of the national culture. In the 1960s with the organization of industrial farms, the alienation of the natives from the hunting economy began. This process had a particularly strong impact on the life of the Negidals, for whom hunting has always played an important role. They were gradually forced out by alien hunters from the lands. At the same time, some conclusions of scientists regarding the negative consequences of resettlement and the ability of the hunting resource base to ensure the sustainable development of the fishery without the threat of extinction from starvation continue to be controversial. Habitat of the Indigenous Minorities by 1950–1970 has been significantly transformed; the population could no longer live on the existing resource base. At the same time, there was no necessary critical mass of the population among the natives, which could live according to the laws of their fathers and grandfathers. The artificial concentration of the population, the "internalization" of children, the loss of communication between generations, all this led to alienation from the past traditional way of life.

The activities of local Soviet authorities were accompanied, on the one hand, by a total impact on the traditional ethnic cultures of the peoples of the North in order to increase their modernized potential, on the other hand, by the deployment of large-scale social programs designed to minimize the possible negative consequences of such modernization. The real changes that took place in the life of peoples in the 1930s–1960s, interpreted by official propaganda and substantiated by Soviet science as unequivocally positive, for a long time did not make it possible to notice, much less make public, the negative consequences of such a policy.

At the same time, one cannot fail to note the positive shifts in the position of indigenous peoples that have occurred as a result of policies aimed at maintaining health, developing education, and changing their lifestyle.

In the 1920s Traveling medical teams became the main form of medical care for the indigenous population. In the Far East, such detachments first appeared in 1924. At first there were 2 of them, later there were 23. Since 1932, they began to create a permanent network of feldsher and medical stations in crowded places. Many diseases were cured, and people believed in the effectiveness of medicine. Within ten years of the 1926–1928 Aboriginal Census. in the districts and districts of the Far East, the number of indigenous peoples by 1937 increased from 49,902 to 62,761 people, which accounted for 123% of the increase.

The situation was also bad with the literacy rate of the natives, which was 3%. After the establishment of Soviet power, the eradication of illiteracy began. Schools and mobile learning centers were opened. When organizing studies, the peculiarities of the life of the population were taken into account. In the adopted resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of July 25, 1935 “On universal compulsory primary education”, it was prescribed to conduct universal education in the Far North no later than 1934, and for areas with a nomadic population by 1935. In 1934, the general literacy of the indigenous of the population was 25%, and the Nanai - 50%. However, despite the measures taken, including the introduction of universal primary education in the country, it was not possible to enroll all children in school even by 1940.

The creation of national scripts took place in 1931–1936. Nanais, Nivkhs, Ulchis, Evenks, Chukchis began to use Russian letters. This contributed to the inclusion of the peoples of the Far East in the world cultural process. The publication of magazines, newspapers, books in national languages ​​testified to certain successes in cultural policy. However, even here there were some kinks. The unification of the educational process had a particularly painful effect on the schooling of children. Since 1963, in all schools located in areas densely populated by indigenous peoples, the process of teaching in native languages ​​has ceased. The Russian language supplanted national languages, printed publications began to decline. The ousting of national "survivals" was considered an indispensable condition for the formation of a person with a socialist worldview. Many traditions, rituals, beliefs were condemned, many positive and invaluable customs of antiquity were subjected to ideological pressure. The way of life among the peoples has changed radically and has become little different from the way of life of the Russian people. The color and attractiveness of national villages, household utensils, clothing, games and entertainment are a thing of the past. All this together caused great damage to the upbringing of the younger generation of indigenous people.

The dual result of Russification is recognized by scientists in relation to all the small peoples of the country, including the peoples of the Far East. Along with the negative manifestations of the policy of planting Russian culture, national cultures have reached significant heights, which is confirmed by the formation of scientific, creative intelligentsia from among the small peoples. A major role in this was played by higher educational institutions created to train national personnel - the Institute of the Peoples of the North, opened in 1926 in Leningrad, the branch of the peoples of the North at the Khabarovsk Pedagogical Institute, opened in 1934. Dozens of people gained worldwide fame, among them such writers , as Nanaian G. Hodzher, Udege D. Kimonko, Ulch A. Valdyu, Chukchi Yu. Rytkheu, Nivkh V. Sanga, singer and collector of folklore of the peoples of the North K. Beldy, Doctor of Philology S. Onenko, Doctor of Historical Sciences Ch. Taksami and etc.

In the 1960s–1980s various and in many respects contradictory trends in the social development of the indigenous peoples of the North were identified and consistently strengthened. An increase in the standard of living of the population, the stability of socio-economic development contributed to an increase in their numbers.

Dynamics of the number of indigenous peoples of the Amur region

Nationalities					1989 to 1959 (%)
Udege
Negidals

Small peoples were finally involved in the economic turnover. In the country, employment in social production in 1970 was 88.3%, in the region - 89%. The proportion of the population employed in social production (out of the entire able-bodied population) among the indigenous peoples of the Lower Amur in 1970 was: among the Nanai - 80.9%, Ulchi - 76.2%, Nivkh - 73.9%, Udege - 77.1 %., including the male population, respectively - 89.5%, 82.6%, 84.2%, 88.6%. In the first case, the decrease in indicators gave lower, in comparison with men's, women's employment. This was due to the persistence of national traditions, a temporary reduction in the demand for labor due to the reorientation of the national fishing collective farms to new industries. The socio-professional differentiation of the rural population of the peoples of the Lower Amur was growing. By the end of the 1970s. the share of those employed in collective farm production among the Nanais - rural residents was 59.7%, the Ulchi - 40.4%, and the rural population was quite widely employed in the state sphere of the national economy. In industry and public education, it ranged from 8.2% to 20.8%. The Nanai and Ulchi mostly lived on collective farms that specialized in fishing. In the 1960s–1970s there was a change in the sectoral structure of fishing collective farms - the share of fish production was reduced in favor of other industries. This led to a redistribution of labor within the collective farms, between collective farm and state production in the countryside, and also between town and country. More than 40% of the Nanai and about 60% of the Ulchi in the 1970s. were employed in state production, which could not but affect the preservation of national crafts and habitats. Negative phenomena generated by ill-conceived and hasty modernization began to grow. The Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR dated February 7, 1980 "On measures for the further economic and social development of the regions inhabited by the peoples of the North" was a belated step and could not fundamentally change the unfavorable situation.

The significant loss of national cultures of the indigenous peoples of the North, the ongoing and intensifying attack on their habitat from year to year - these are the results of such a policy. In the region, the consolidation of settlements continued during these years. In the Khabarovsk Territory, 50 small villages, which were predominantly inhabited by ethnic minorities, ceased to exist.

During the years of perestroika, scientists were involved in the development of state policy towards indigenous peoples who develop the state concept for the development of the indigenous peoples of the North, taking into account both positive and negative experience in solving the most complex interethnic problems in the country and abroad. In 1989, a large team of scientists led by the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences proposed a concept for the social and economic development of the peoples of the North for the period up to 2010. Within the framework of this concept, the key problems of supporting and developing the country's indigenous peoples were identified. These include issues of socio-economic, socio-cultural, medical and social development, the problems of resettlement, the architectural environment of life, the system of self-government of indigenous peoples

However, the hasty and ill-conceived policy of restructuring the entire economic mechanism in the second half of the 1980s. ultimately led to the collapse of the economy and the deterioration of the situation of the entire population of the country, including the indigenous peoples.

The employment of the aboriginal population in social production was less than 50% of its population. This major problem arose after the cessation of state support that existed during the years of Soviet power, the collapse of consumer cooperation that accepted wild plants from indigenous peoples, a significant reduction in the number of deer, and the collapse of fishing collective farms. According to the opinion of the Governor of the Khabarovsk Territory, V. I. Ishaev, expressed in the early 1990s, the situation has developed in such a way that “... it has become clear and understandable that the Far East is falling out of the economic space of Russia.” Society's understanding of the importance of the problems that arose radically influenced the awakening of national self-consciousness. The development of national movements was especially active in the late 1980s. of the last century, when people's fronts, movements, political parties begin to be created. The indigenous peoples of the North did not bypass this process either. In 1990, on March 30, in Moscow, at the first Congress of the Indigenous Peoples of the North, the Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East was created. It included 30 regional ethnic associations created on a territorial and territorial-ethnic basis, some of them were created at the time of the congress: in the Koryak Autonomous Okrug, in the Kamchatka, Magadan, Sakhalin, Amur regions, Khabarovsk Territory. After the congress, associations of indigenous peoples are being actively created in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, and Primorsky Krai. Associations are being formed: a branch of the Inuit circumpolar conference of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, an association of the Aleut people "Ansarko" of the Kamchatka region. In 1997, the Far Eastern Union of the Indigenous Minorities of the Russian Federation was formed as a representative of the regional and ethnic Associations of the Indigenous Minorities of the Far East.

The supreme body of the Association of Indigenous Minorities of the North, Siberia and the Far East is the congress, convened once every 4 years. Between congresses the Coordinating Council headed by the President works. SN Kharyuchi was elected the first President. P. V. Sulyandziga became the President of the Association of Indigenous Minorities of the North of the Far East. The Association held 3 congresses of indigenous peoples. By 2000, 3 large-scale projects have been implemented. The first project is aimed at developing the institutions of the indigenous peoples of the North and includes three parts. The first is “indigenous peoples to indigenous peoples”. In February 1998, representatives of regional associations established close contacts with the Inuit community in Canada and studied their experience. The second part is “government to government”. The State Committee for the Development of the North of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Indian Affairs and the Development of the North of Canada discussed aspects of the development of the policy of the two countries in relation to the Arctic. One of the successful results was the provision of humanitarian aid in Chukotka in January 1998. The third part of the program is the provision of modern technological equipment to associations of indigenous peoples.

The second project “Development of circumpolar cooperation of indigenous peoples in the protection of rights and habitats” at the theoretical and methodological level was implemented by 2000. Seminars and conferences on the problems of the indigenous peoples of the North have been held, a data bank has been created on project proposals from the regions, data are being collected on environmental problems. The association strengthens its influence on monitoring the processes of development and rehabilitation of the environment.

At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. Indigenous peoples of the Far East are faced with numerous problems that are of vital (vital) importance to them. The situation in some cases worsened for them by the beginning of the 21st century. But it is impossible to consider the situation as catastrophic. Statements about the disappearance of small peoples from the ethnic map of the region are, to say the least, erroneous. The ethno-social problems of small peoples are not something unique and exclusive in the world. In countries where indigenous peoples live, similar tasks of helping them are solved.

In the life of the peoples of the Far East, there are also processes of slow development towards a market economy. The authorities are faced with the task of creating conditions for effective "adaptation" to the new socio-economic and political conditions, developing protective mechanisms against the negative impacts of ill-conceived reforms and restructuring. For several years, the perseverance of regional authorities, the public, scientists, specialists from various sectors of the economy managed to “turn the tide” towards the revival of the economy and culture of the Far East. This, in turn, provides a broad opportunity to address the pressing issues of life and further progress of indigenous peoples. In 2004, the 10th anniversary of the world's indigenous peoples, declared by the UN, ended. The main guidelines for development have been determined. In the Far Eastern regions of the Russian Federation, measures have been outlined and are being implemented to overcome the negative consequences of state policy in the socio-economic sphere. The reduction in the number of individual indigenous peoples takes place in modern conditions, but it cannot be called catastrophic.

Indigenous Minorities of the Khabarovsk Territory (according to census data)

All population
Peoples of the North Including:
Udege
Negidals

In the Khabarovsk Territory, the "Basic Directions for the Development of Indigenous Minorities for 2002-2005" have been approved. For three years, 4 regional laws, more than 20 resolutions of the governor and the regional government on the development of small peoples have been adopted. The development of the Program for the Development of Indigenous Minorities for 2006-2008 is nearing completion. The issue of representation of indigenous peoples in the legislative duma of the region is being worked out.

Since 2001, there has been a protected item in the regional budget that provides for the allocation of funds for the socio-economic development of the indigenous peoples of the North. More than 10 million rubles are planned to be allocated in 2005, 7.5 million of which are included in the federal budget. Work is being carried out in two main directions: to create normal living conditions and to boost the economy of national villages. There are such programs as "Fresh Bread" - installation of bakeries, "Clean Water" - construction and repair of water supply sources, training and advanced training of personnel for national enterprises. For the economic potential, the idea of ​​creating basic enterprises in national villages is being implemented. About 19 million hectares of hunting grounds, more than 100 fishing grounds have been allocated to national farms, the volumes of wood harvested by them reach up to 100 thousand cubic meters per year, the catch of slaves of various species in 2004 reached 2,700 tons. The problems of preserving the catch of fish remain, often it is sold for a pittance at the place of catch, which causes damage to the state, nature and the population itself, which does not receive decent pay for their work. There is also no system for processing and selling wild plants. At the stage of organization is the regional center "Priamure", intended for these purposes. Processing of various taiga fees will be carried out on the basis of Forest Products LLC. Over the past 3 years, 10 sawmills have been transferred to national farms. The national community "Amur" from the village of Sinda in the Nanai region launched a wide range of work. She managed to develop logging and lumber production, in 2004 a brick factory was opened in the village.

Gradually, the issue of training specialists from among the indigenous peoples of the North and replenishing the labor resources of the Far East is being resolved. There are schools that have the status of schools of the indigenous peoples of the North, for example, in Nikolaevsk-on-Amur there are two of them: medical and pedagogical. Students receive free education, being fully supported at the expense of funds from the regional budget. A branch of a technological college was opened in the Bulava village of the Ulchi district; in 2004, the first graduation of 14 young specialists took place. At the same time, the problem of employment persists, of which only half got a job. Purposeful work with indigenous peoples is carried out at the Far Eastern Medical University, the preparatory department of which is financed from the regional budget. Khabarovsk State Pedagogical University has been training specialists at the Faculty of Indigenous Peoples since 2003. The regional government is developing programs in various areas: publishing books in national languages, preserving cultural values, supporting healthcare and education.

According to experts, speaking about the protection of the rights and interests of indigenous peoples, solving their problems, it should be recognized that this requires the development and implementation of the principles of a new policy of the Russian state on the basis of cooperation and partnership of all sectors of human and civil society, taking into account international experience and a frank and objective recognition of the whole complex of difficulties that have arisen in the preservation of the unique culture of the indigenous peoples of the North.

Civilizational changes in the modern world could not but affect the process of economic and socio-cultural development of small peoples living in different countries. Russia in the 20th century, which entered the period of global changes associated with revolutions, world wars and attempts to create a democratic state, invariably faces the most important problem of creating or maintaining conditions for the original development of indigenous peoples.

Of the 45 Indigenous Peoples (Indigenous Minorities) of Russia, a significant part of them live in the Far East. The Khabarovsk Territory is inhabited by Nanais (Golds), Ulchis, Negidals, Nivkhs (Gilyaks), Evens (Tungus-Lamuts), Evenki (Tungus), Udege (Ude), Orochi. In Primorsky Krai - Evenks (Tungus), Nanais (Golds), Orochs, Udeges, Tazy; Sakhalin region - Evenks (Tungus), Oroks, Nivkhs; Magadan region - Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Chukchi, Yukagirs (oduls), Chuvans; Kamchatka region - Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Aleuts, Koryaks, Itelmens (Kamchadals); Amur region - Evenki (Tungus); in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug - Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Eskimos (Inuit), Koryaks, Kereks, Chuvans (etels); in the Koryak Autonomous Okrug - Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Aleuts (Ungans), Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens (Kamchadals), in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) - Evenks (Tungus), Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Yukagirs (oduls), Dolgans. When examining areas of compact residence of indigenous peoples in the Far Eastern regions of the Russian Federation, other small nationalities are noted. So, in the Khabarovsk Territory live the Chukchi, Koryaks, Aleuts, Nenets, Khanty, Mansi, Dolgans, Eskimos. Indigenous peoples of the Amur region live compactly in 54 villages. Among the Indigenous Minorities, only Evens and Evenks live in the subjects of the Far East and beyond, the number is 17,199 and 30,163 people, respectively (data for 2000). The remaining peoples are settled both compactly and throughout the region.

Indigenous peoples of the Far East (data for 2000)

	population	Places of settlement in the Far East
Evenki (Tungus)		Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Amur region, Sakhalin region,
Evens (Tungus-Lamuts)		Magadan Region Kamchatka Region, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Khabarovsk Territory
Negidals		Khabarovsk kr,
Nanais (golds)		Khabarovsk kr, Primorsky kr.
		Khabarovsk kr,
		Sakhalin region,
		Khabarovsk kr, Primorsky kr.
Udege (Ude)		Primorsky kr. Khabarovsk kr.
Aleuts (Ungans)		Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Kamchatka region,
Eskimos (Inuit)		Chukotka Autonomous Region,
		Magadan Region
		Kamchatka region, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Koryak Autonomous Okrug,
Itelmens (Kamchadals)		Kamchatka Region, Koryak Autonomous District,
		Chukotka Autonomous Region,
		Khabarovsk kr, Sakhalin region
Yukagirs (oduls)		Magadan Region Republic of Sakha (Yakutia),
		Primorsky kr.
Chuvans (etels)		Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Magadan Region
		The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

In general, the peoples of the North are small in number - this is one of their specific features. Their small number is not the only factor influencing the nature of ethnic processes, including linguistic and cultural assimilation and the preservation of native languages. The level of urbanization of peoples is lower in the autonomous regions than outside them. Ethnic processes proceed more rapidly if the foreign environment is long-standing and significant. Peoples who have preserved their traditional economy better preserve their national culture and, as a rule, their native language. A number of indigenous peoples tend to move beyond the traditional settlement zones to other areas. At the same time, the stable centuries-old settlement of small peoples is confirmed by the phenomenon of constancy identified by researchers as a characteristic feature of the ethnos, which ensured the regional stability of their life. It is a historical national property and wealth of the small peoples of the Far East. It must be taken into account when solving a complex of economic, medical and social problems in the places of residence of the indigenous peoples.

There are changes in the nature of traditional sectors of the economy, employment of the population, and in the ratio of types of labor. Differentiation of types of activity progresses. Indicators of the nature of employment of the population still differ significantly in individual regions of residence of the peoples of the North. If among the peoples of Sakhalin and the Lower Amur, the percentage of those employed in traditional areas reached 25%, then in the Chukotsky and Koryaksky districts it was 80%, which is explained by differences in the settlement and demographic structure of the regions.

Studies in the 1990s show that alienation from the past traditional way of life among the indigenous peoples is a fait accompli. In the conditions of technogenic civilization, the adaptation of the aboriginal population to the changed factors of vital activity is weak, competitiveness is low. The peoples of the North, being in their native habitats, are forced to adapt, to develop resilience, flexibility, and mental stability. At the same time, one cannot rely only on the internal potential of peoples, their ability to self-renewal, because this process can drag on for many decades and its consequences will be devastating.

Negative trends in the position of the aboriginal population were identified by scientists in the late 1990s. The traditional structure of the economy has not been fully preserved anywhere. It exists in the form of separate elements: hunting, fishing, reindeer herding equipment; a set of national clothes, means of transportation (boats, skis, sleds), techniques and methods of fishing. The number of people engaged in applied types of national craft is decreasing. Among the interviewed Nivkhs and Negidals, only 54.9% are engaged in such activities, namely: dressing skins, knitting nets, making skis, making clothes, shoes, carving, and embroidery. No more than 57% expressed a desire to master the types of crafts. The previous socio-economic development has changed the structure of professional skills, lifestyle, needs, spiritual values. Orientation by the state of peoples towards their return to their original culture, towards the revival of national types of economic management without serious financial, material, organizational support, without involvement in social production is disastrous.

The processes of degradation of industrial-type production in the areas inhabited by indigenous peoples of the North have had a decisive impact on employment in the “official economy”. The reduction in the share of social production in the country's economy has led to the problem of employment in various sectors. The solution to this problem is associated with a change in the entire socio-economic situation in the areas where the indigenous peoples of the North live. Over the past ten to fifteen years, the number of people who believe that traditional crafts should be the main occupation has decreased. The reality is that, with all the costs of socio-economic development, taking into account the egalitarian-distributive system of socialism, the indigenous peoples of the North have become conditionally subjects of established production relations. Therefore, the revival of all types of economic activity should occur at the junction of the community-clan (collective), state-territorial and private business.

The identification of this problem in the context of fulfilling the tasks of overcoming the heavy legacy of the past in the policy of the central authorities in relation to the Far East is directly related to an important point. This is the definition of the regional constitutional and legal status of the indigenous peoples of the Far East. According to experts, it is a set of constitutional rights, freedoms and obligations of citizens of the Russian Federation, representatives of indigenous peoples living in the Far East, enshrined in the norms of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Charters of the subjects of the Far Eastern region and specified by sectoral legislation, as well as constitutional guarantees that ensure the exercise of these rights.

At the international level, this problem has been solved especially actively in recent years. Since 1995, the United Nations has declared the International Decade of the World's Indigenous Peoples. The purpose of this action is to strengthen international cooperation in solving the problems facing indigenous peoples in such areas as human rights, culture, health, environment, education. Almost every year was held under a certain motto:

• 1996 - "Indigenous peoples and their connection with the land"
• 1997 - Indigenous Health
• 1998 - "Education and language"
• 2000 – “Rights of Indigenous Children”

Many legislative acts and various resolutions have been adopted in Russia. For 1996-1998 The Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation held 15 hearings on the problems of indigenous peoples. The following decisions are the result of active legislative activity of the state:

• Law of the Russian Federation "On national-cultural autonomy" of June 17, 1996;
• Law of the Russian Federation "On the Fundamentals of State Regulation of the Socio-Economic Development of the North of the Russian Federation" dated June 19, 1996;
• Law on Employment of the Population in the Russian Federation, 1996;
• RF Law “On Education” 1996;
• Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 31, 1997 No. 1664 "On reforming the system of state support for the regions of the North";
• Regulations on the State Committee of the Russian Federation for the Development of the North. Approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of June 30, 1998;
• Law of the Russian Federation “On Guarantees of the Rights of Indigenous Minorities of the Russian Federation; April 30, 1999;
• Law of the Russian Federation "On the general principles of organizing communities of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation" of July 20, 2000;

Apparently, the main document for the protection of the rights and interests of the indigenous peoples of Russia is the federal law "On Guarantees of the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Russian Federation". For the first time at the federal level, the possibility of legal regulation of issues vital for indigenous peoples is provided. This allows the work of Article 69 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation on guaranteeing the rights of indigenous peoples in accordance with the generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of Russia. At the same time, a number of issues arise that require further legal and practical elaboration. These should include the following:

• the space of the law and the circle of subjects and objects of law in the locks of the mechanism of the law;
• resolution of the problem of employment of the indigenous population;
• habitat and its influence on the development of ethnic groups;
• the correlation of the role of the federal state and local authorities, ensuring the representation of indigenous peoples, in creating conditions for preserving their identity and a decent standard of living for them;
• resolution of the issue of ownership, possession and use of lands of various categories;
• exercising the right to compensation for damages to the habitats of indigenous peoples.

Specialists of the Far East subject the federal law "On the general principles of organizing communities of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation" to serious analysis. It can be concluded that it is not aimed at protecting the rights of small peoples. The impression of the Law is as follows: in order not to think for a long time, they combined certain provisions of the Law on Public Associations with Chapter 4 “Legal Entities” of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, and this legal “vinaigrette” was served for the “digestion” of the indigenous population. Article 5 of the Law states that "the activities of communities are non-commercial", and in Article 17, paragraph 3, "communities have the right to sell the products of labor produced by their members." If the community is a non-profit organization, then for what activities is it provided with tax benefits and benefits (Article 7, Clause 1)? Article 8, paragraph 4 of the Law allows the admission of members of the community of persons who are not related to small peoples, who carry out management and engage in crafts traditional for small peoples. But now the entire rural population of the Far East is on the verge of survival, which, due to lack of work and money, is forced to engage in personal subsidiary farming, as the main activity, trade, temporary work in the city.

In general, by the beginning of 2000. according to a number of researchers and scientists, the most acute ethno-social problems are:

• Destruction of traditional economic and cultural types;
• Degradation of historical and cultural areas that have long been inhabited;
• Decrease in the birth rate as a result of the rejection of the installation on large families;
• Increase in the number of incomplete families;
• Assimilation with Russians and other resettlement population;
• Changes in the sex and age structure of nomadic householders, leading to the separation of potential brides and grooms;
• An increase in the number of single men and women associated with the complication of concluding marriage unions between representatives of certain ethnic groups of the Far East;
• Growth of out-of-wedlock birth rate and increase in mixed marriages;
• Growing socio-demographic and environmental crises in the places of traditional residence of indigenous peoples;
• Destruction of the traditional way of life;
• Eradication of "religious prejudices" (shamanism, animism), which for centuries have regulated the interaction of representatives of indigenous ethnic groups with each other and with the "enclosing landscape";
• An increase in the number of suicides and alcoholization of the population as one of the forms of response to the collapse of the traditional worldview in the course of integration into an industrial society
• Detachment of the education of indigenous children from their traditional economy;
• Mass unemployment.

The creation of a legal framework for resolving the accumulated problems over the past decades made it possible to determine some guidelines for the further work of state, public organizations, and the communities of indigenous peoples themselves. At the same time, the adopted laws revived production activities, but failed to ensure the effective operation of the communities themselves. New economic conditions, socio-psychological factors prevent the peoples of the Amur region from being actively involved in production activities. Unemployment, which has engulfed the whole of Russia, is manifested on a particularly large scale among the natives. In particular, in Primorye in 1996, the Samarga Udege had 64% of the unemployed, the Iman Udege had 60.5%, the Bikin Udege, Nanais and Orochs from. Krasny Yar - 58.3%, among the basins of the Olginsky district - 8.9%. The purchasing power of pension allowances has decreased 10 times. The average monthly salary of the Bikin Udege in the public sector is much lower than the subsistence level. In the late 1990s, studies of individual places of residence in Primorsky Krai revealed serious problems in the provision of housing, education, health status, and the birth rate. According to a sociological study conducted on the Lower Amur in early 2000. the proportion of the able-bodied population from among the indigenous peoples of the North, not employed in social production, was a significant part, exceeding more than half, and in the Nikolaevsky district 73.2%. At the same time, SIPN households were employed in agriculture - 90.8%, animal husbandry - 15.4%, hunting - 11%, fishing - 66.4%, berry picking - 62.7%, mushrooms - 57.3%. Most likely among the indigenous peoples there is a redistribution of activities. A significant share is occupied by traditional types of work, which make it possible to better achieve an acceptable level of providing families with food and consumer goods. At the same time, the situation in the early 2000s allows you to correct the opinion about the situation of the indigenous peoples of the Far East. According to the researchers, the idea of ​​higher unemployment rates among indigenous peoples, as well as the extremely low level of socio-economic status of their families, is a significant exaggeration. Evidence of the fallacy of the stable public opinion about the plight of peoples is another indicator identified by sociologists - the material and technical security of their families. In 1999 in the ethnic families of the Lower Amur, with the level of officially registered incomes that were two or more times less than the subsistence level, only 8.6% of families did not have any equipment, 4% owned cars or trucks, 18% - motorcycles, 37% - motor boats , 2.6% - snowmobiles, 32.3% - TVs, 54.7% - refrigerators, 64.7% - washing machines. At the same time, the level and quality of life of the surveyed families of indigenous northerners almost did not differ from Russian families living in the same villages.

Currently, there is a real consolidation of indigenous peoples, caused by changes in both global and domestic development. Therefore, the new policy of the Russian state towards small peoples should take into account the peculiarities of their life. The most important instrument of state policy in relation to the indigenous peoples is the federal target program "Economic and social development of the indigenous peoples of the North until 2010", which is aimed at "creating conditions for the sustainable development of the indigenous peoples of the North in places of compact residence based on the restoration of traditional nature management and management on the basis of the existing natural, industrial and infrastructural potential”.

To solve the pressing problems of the further development of a unique original culture, it is important to study the historical path traveled by the peoples of the Far East. It was preserved in the conditions of a radical breakdown of the established order, the formation of a new type of statehood, the development and implementation of state policy, which did not always meet the interests and needs of ethnic groups. Therefore, an important factor in the coexistence and mutual enrichment of the cultures of all the peoples of our country is the care and maintenance of the progress and prosperity of small peoples.

The publication was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation (RGHF) project No. 08-01-16099d

Responsible secretary of the series
"Peoples and Cultures"
L.I. MISSONOVA

Reviewers:
candidate of historical sciences V.G. SMOLITSKII,
Doctor of Historical Sciences Ch.M. TAXI

Peoples of the North-East of Siberia / otv. ed. E.P. Batyanova, V.A. Turaev; Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology im. N.N. Miklukho-Maclay RAS; Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Peoples of the Far East FEB RAS. - M. : Nauka, 2010. - 773 p. - (Peoples and cultures). - ISBN 978-5-02-036993-1 (in translation).

The next volume of the series "Peoples and Cultures" is devoted to the ethnography of the indigenous peoples of the North-East of Siberia: the Ainu, Aleuts, Itelmens, Kamchadals, Kereks, Koryaks, Nivkhs, Chuvans, Chukchis, Eskimos, Yukagirs. This is the first generalizing work, which presents a detailed description of the ethnic cultures of all the Paleo-Asiatic peoples of the Far East. The book introduces the reader to the results of the latest research on anthropology, archeology, the ethnic history of these peoples, traditional economy, social organization, beliefs, customs and holidays, unique folk and professional art, folklore, social life. New materials from museums, state archives, and private collections are introduced into scientific circulation. Of particular interest are the photographic materials of the Northern Expedition of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the 1950s-2000s.
For ethnologists, historians and a wider range of readers.

Through the "Academkniga" network
ISBN 978-5-02-036993-1
©Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology. N.N. Miklukho-Maclay RAS, Institute of History, Archeology and
ethnography of the peoples of the Far East of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2010
© Russian Academy of Sciences and Nauka Publishing House,
series "Peoples and Cultures" (development, design), 1992 (founded year), 2010
© Editorial and publishing design. Publishing house "Science", 2010

FOREWORD
The collective monograph "Peoples of the North-East of Siberia" presented to the readers is the next volume of the "Peoples and Cultures" series. It was prepared as part of the "Peoples and Cultures" project implemented by the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in cooperation with scientific centers of the Russian Federation and a number of foreign countries with the support of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation and the Nauka publishing house. The preparation of the manuscript was carried out within the framework of the research project of the Russian Humanitarian Foundation No. 05-01-01167a.

The monograph is dedicated to the Ainu, Aleuts, Itelmens, Kamchadals, Kereks, Koryaks, Nivkhs, Chuvans, Chukchis, Eskimos, Yukagirs - indigenous peoples
North-East of Siberia - a special ethno-geographic region of the Far East, which includes the eastern part of Yakutia, Chukotka, Kamchatka, about. Sakhalin, Commander and Kuril Islands. The aboriginal ethnic communities living in this part of Russia are the original inhabitants of these territories, the creators and keepers of unique cultures that form an important part of human civilization. For many centuries, the inhabitants of the North and the Far East have mastered the Arctic and mountain-taiga landscapes, adapted to extreme natural conditions, and developed original traditions. The vast territories inhabited by the aboriginal peoples of the Northeast are the most important resource regions of Russia. Historical colonization and modern industrial and economic activity almost always contained a complex conflict between the traditional life support systems of the natives and industrial innovations, the demands of immigrants from the European part of the country, who became numerically predominant.
As shown by recent experience in the implementation of international oil and gas projects on about. Sakhalin, a solution to the fundamental conflict of interest noted above has not yet been found. Fishing, reindeer herding and sea animal hunting are under constant threat and suffer serious damage, often without support and compensation from companies and the state. The future of the aboriginal economy is likely to be culturally oriented modernization. Apparently, this strategy should combine the development (taking into account modern technologies) of traditional occupations as a condition for maintaining ethnocultural continuity and new, more profitable and specialized occupations in the economy, including private entrepreneurship.
One of the conditions for the implementation of such a strategy is the involvement of representatives of indigenous peoples in the field of higher education and the system of professional development. Well-trained specialists for education, health care, management, science, entrepreneurship are an indispensable prerequisite for the progressive development of the indigenous peoples of the region. The measures taken in this direction during the Soviet era cannot be underestimated. However, in modern conditions, the policy of "soft acculturation" requires special attention and delicacy. It is especially important that trained specialists remain in the region and work for the benefit of their peoples and for their own pleasure. Of course, this is realistic only with a serious and comprehensive approach to the economic, social and cultural development of the northern territories.
The cultures of the peoples considered in the volume, especially their languages, are in a vulnerable position. Assimilation in favor of the dominant cultural systems (Russian or Yakut), the widespread assertion of all-Russian cultural norms, as well as the spread of global cultural phenomena through modern means of communication, television, and international contacts determine new, more complex cultural strategies.
Complex and ambiguous in its consequences is the problem of the loss of native languages ​​and the transition to the Russian language. The crux of the problem is whether the data can
cultures to be reproduced and developed on a different language basis. World practice shows that the consequences can vary. The relationship between acculturation and assimilation, which was written about at the end of the first half of the last century by R. Linton, R. Redfield and M. Herskovits (Redfield, Linton, Herskovits, 1940), varies in each specific case. It is encouraging that the indigenous peoples of the region, after centuries of being part of the Russian state - with all the attendant difficulties - have discovered remarkable properties of adaptation to dramatically changing external conditions and the ability to maintain functional traditions - those traditions that still meet the needs of people today.
From the point of view of state interests, it is necessary, in particular, to understand that in the future, representatives of the small peoples of the Northeast will constitute one of the foundations for the development of this territory of the country. It is they who will remain the bearers of adaptation practices, unique folk knowledge, and unique spiritual values. The preservation and provision of the socio-economic and ethno-cultural development of the peoples of the North-East is a national priority and one of the important priorities of the world cultural heritage.
The strategy of state policy towards the peoples of the region, as well as the peoples of other "aboriginal" areas of the country, should be
support of ethno-cultural orientations, strategies of these peoples and their social segments. Equally wrong are the rigid paternalism that was carried out in the USSR, and the "museum approach" of preserving the old way of life with all its might, which is often called for by some scientists and activists of national movements (usually, by the way, those who prefer an urbanized way of life).
People should have the right to choose. And the authorities are obliged to provide opportunities for the implementation of this choice.

The preparation of this volume was coordinated by the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology, Russian Academy of Sciences, together with the Institute of History, Archeology, and Ethnography of the Peoples of the Far East, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences. Well-known researchers of history, ethnography, archeology, folklore, languages ​​of the peoples of the Northeast from scientific centers of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Vladivostok, Magadan, Khabarovsk, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Yakutsk were involved in writing the monograph.
The book provides general information about the studied peoples, discusses their ethnogenesis and ethnic history, characterizes the material and spiritual
culture, social and family relations. Particular attention is paid to ethno-cultural processes in the Soviet period and post-Soviet transformations associated with the growth of the ethnic self-consciousness of the northern peoples, with changes in the economy, culture, in relation to their native language, religion, and traditions.
A separate essay is devoted to each of the peoples. The volume of the essay, its structural and content features are determined by the size of the people under consideration, the degree of its ethnographic study and the ethnic representativeness of one or another sphere of its culture.
New archival documents and materials of ethnographic expeditions have been introduced into scientific circulation. Funds and collections of domestic and foreign museums, archives, including the American Museum of Natural History (New York), the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the State Archives of the Russian Federation, the Russian State Archives of Ancient Acts, the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after. Peter the Great (Kunstkamera), district and regional archives, statistical offices, household lists of rural administrations. A rich illustrative material is presented, most of which is published for the first time. Of particular interest are photographs from the IEA RAS Photo Archive (Funds of the Northern Expedition) taken in 1950-2000. during the field work of the Institute staff in the North-East of Siberia, as well as photographs of samples of bone carving art from the collection of V.A. Tishkov. The preparation of photographs for printing was carried out by M.B. Leibov and N.V. Khokhlov. The illustrations published in the volume are accompanied by brief annotations with a mandatory indication of the shooting location in accordance with the modern administrative-territorial division.
The editors of the series express their gratitude to the director of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. Peter the Great (Kunstkamera) Yu.K. Chistov, head of the Siberian Department of the MAE L.R. Pavlinskaya, director of the Museum of Oriental Peoples A.V. Sedov, who allowed the use of illustrative materials from the funds of these museums for the preparation of the volume, as well as to researchers who submitted photographs from their personal archives for the volume: T.S. Balueva, E.P. Batyanova, SV. Bereznitsky, M.M. Bronstein, A.Yu. Vakhrushev, K.A. Dneprovsky, N.A. Krenke, N.A. Meshtyb, O.A. Murashko, V.V. Podmaskin, A. Sukhonin, V.A. Turaev, N.V. Khokhlov, T.S. Shentalinsky, V.I. Shadrin.

We express our sincere gratitude to the reviewers of the volume: Ph.D. V.G. Smolitsky and Doctor of Historical Sciences. Ch.M. Dachshunds.
We thank the staff of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences Ph.D. V.V. Stepanov - the author of electronic maps, G.P. Petukhov, E.A. Yurin and N.V. Pavlov for the technical preparation of the volume, N.L. Petrov, her colleagues.

V.A. Tishkov, SV. Czech

Foreword (V.A. Tishkov, SV. Cheshko) 5
Introduction (E.P. Batyanova, V.A. Turaev) 8
Languages ​​of the peoples of the North-East of Siberia: the current situation (N.B. Bakhtin) 19
Anthropological characteristics of the indigenous peoples of the North-East of Asia (T.S. Balueva) 33
Ancient cultures of the North-East of Russia and the ethnogenesis of the North-Eastern Paleo-Asians (A.I. Lebedintsev) 46

Ainu

Chapter I. General information (V.A. Turaev) 74
Chapter P. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history (V.A. Turaev) 76
Chapter III. Economy and material culture (V.A. Turaev) 83
Chapter IV. Social organization (V.A. Turaev) 89
Chapter V. Spiritual culture (V.A. Turaev) 92

ALEUTS

Chapter I. General information (N.A. Lopulenko) 96
Chapter II. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history (N.A. Lopulenko) 102
Chapter III. Economy and material culture (N.A. Lopulenko) 108
Chapter IV. Social organization and family and marriage relations (N.A. Lopulenko) 123
Chapter V. Spiritual culture (N.A. Lopulenko) 130
Chapter VI. Social and cultural development in the XX century (N.A. Lopulenko) 138

ITELMENS

Chapter I. General information (V. A. Turaev, A. P. Volodin, O. A. Murashko) 140
Chapter II. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history (I.S. Vdovsh, V.A. Turaev) 146
Chapter III. Traditional economy (V.A. Turaev) 155
Chapter IV. Material culture (V.A. Turaev) 163
Chapter V. Social system and social relations (I.S. Vdovsh) 178
Chapter VI. Spiritual culture (A.P. Volodin, S.F. Karabanova, N.V. Kocheshkov,
N.K.Starkova) 182
Chapter VII. Modern ethnic processes and social movement (O.A. Murashko) 195

KAMCHADAL

Chapter I. General information (O.A. Murashko) 201
Chapter II. The history of the formation of Kamchadals (O.A. Murashko) 205
Chapter III. Traditional culture (O.A. Murashko) 213
Chapter IV. Social structure (O.A. Murashko) 227
Chapter V. Spiritual culture (O.A. Murashko) 231
Chapter VI. Transformation of ethnic identity and culture of Kamchadals in the Soviet and post-Soviet periods (O.A. Murashko) 236
Chapter VII. Kamchadals of the Magadan Region (L.N. Khakhovskaya) 247

KEREKI

Chapter I. General information (E.P. Batyanova) 262
Chapter II. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history (E.P. Batyanova) 266
Chapter III. Household activities and material culture (E.P. Batyanova) 268
Chapter IV. Social organization and family relations (E.P. Batyanova) 286
Chapter V. Spiritual culture (E.P. Batyanova) 289
Chapter VI. Transformations in the ethnic status of the Kereks in the Soviet and post-Soviet periods (E.P. Batyanova) 296

KORYAKS

Chapter I. General information (V.A. Turaev) 299
Chapter II. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history (V.A. Turaev) 303
Chapter III. Traditional economy (V.A. Turaev) 308
Chapter IV. Material culture (V.A. Turaev) 321
Chapter V. Social organization (V.A. Turaev) 347
Chapter VI. Spiritual culture (V.V. Gorbacheva, E.G. Demidova, M.Ya. Zhornitskaya, L.Ya. Ivashchenko, N.V. Kocheshkov) 351
Chapter VII. Ethnocultural processes in the Soviet and post-Soviet periods (E.P. Batyanova) 372

NIVHI

Chapter I. General information (V.A. Turaev) 380
Chapter II. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history (E.V. Rudnikova) 383
Chapter III. Traditional economy (V.A. Turaev) 388
Chapter IV. Material culture (V.A. Turaev) 397
Chapter V. Social organization (E.V. Fadeeva) 412
Chapter VI. Family ritual (E.V. Fadeeva) 416
Chapter VII. Spiritual culture (N.V. Kocheshkov, N.A. Mamcheva, S.N. Skorinov, L.E. Fetisova) 422
Chapter VIII. Nivkhs in the post-Soviet period (V.A. Turaev) 442

CHUVANTS

Chapter I. General information (E.P. Batyanova) 445
Chapter II. Main types of economic activity and material culture (E.P. Batyanova) 452
Chapter III. Public and family relations (E.P. Batyanova) 474
Chapter IV. Spiritual culture (E.P. Batyanova, T.S. Shentalinskaya) 478
Chapter V. Ethnic development of the Chuvans in the Soviet period and post-Soviet transformations (E.P. Batyanova) 499

CHUKCHI

Chapter I. General information (V.A. Turaev) 507
Chapter II. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history (I.S. Vdovin) 510
Chapter III. Economy and material culture (I.S. Vdovin, E.P. Batyanova) 517
Chapter IV. Social organization and family and marriage relations (I.S. Vdovin, E.P. Batyanova) 544
Chapter V. Spiritual culture (E.P. Batyanova, I.S. Vdovin, S.F. Karabanova, N.V. Kocheshkov, V.A. Lytkin, V.A. Turaev) 553
Chapter VI. Ethnic and social processes in the Soviet and post-Soviet periods (E.P. Batyanova, V.A. Turaev) 571

ESKIMOS

Chapter I. General information (N.A. Lopulenko) 583
Chapter II. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history (N.A. Lopulenko) 588
Chapter III. Economy and material culture (N.A. Lopulenko) 590
Chapter IV. Social organization and family and marriage relations (N.A. Lopulenko) 606
Chapter V. Spiritual culture (N.A. Lopulenko) 611
Chapter VI. Social and cultural development in the XX century (N.A. Lopulenko) 631

Yukaghirs

Chapter I. General information (N.V. Pluzhnikov) 636
Chapter II. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history (N.V. Pluzhnikov) 640
Chapter III. Economy and material culture (N.V. Pluzhnikov) 643
Chapter IV. social organization. Family and marriage (N.V. Pluzhnikov) 664
Chapter V. Spiritual culture (N.V. Pluzhnikov) 668
Chapter VI. Ethno-cultural development of the Yukagirs in the Soviet and post-Soviet times (V.I. Shadrin) 677
Bone carving art of the peoples of coastal Chukotka (M.M. Bronshtein) 686
Archival material 711
Bibliography 712
Accepted abbreviations 768