One of my favorite topics. About medium-range missiles. How Von Brown failed to launch the world's first satellite

Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) "Jupiter" is a direct descendant of the "Redstone" missile, which was created under the leadership of W. Von Braun at the "Ordnance Guided Missile Center". "Redstone" had a maximum range of about 240 km. While work on the Redstone missile was just underway, the US Army Ordnance Department began developing requirements for a promising missile with a range of at least 1600 km. Already in 1953, encouraged by the successful implementation of the Redstone program, W. von Braun came to the conclusion that the development of an extended range missile was possible, and turned to the Head of the Artillery Directorate for permission to start developing a new strike weapon. However, the leadership of the Army did not initially show due interest in the proposal of von Braun, and the program to develop a new rocket was ranked among the low priority research programs.

Everything changed in 1955 after the appeal of the so-called. Killian Committee to President D. Eisenhower. The report of the committee said that, along with the development of ICBMs, the United States should immediately begin to develop an IRBM with a range of about 2400 km. The new class of missiles was to be deployed both on land (at US bases in Europe) and at sea (options were considered for basing new missiles on submarines, as well as on special ships). The need to develop a new class of missiles was proved by references to intelligence data indicating that the USSR had already begun to develop its own IRBMs. By the end of 1955, the US Army, Air Force and Navy declared their readiness in principle to start developing the IRBM. However, the start of concrete action was hampered by uncertainty about which agency should be responsible for the development of new missiles. In November 1955 Secretary of Defense C. Wilson announced that the Air Force would be responsible for the development of land-based IRBMs, while a joint Army/Navy team would be responsible for the development of sea-based IRBMs. In December 1955, President D. Eisenhower ranked the IRBM development program among the programs of the highest priority. Given the considerable experience of the Army in the development of missiles, the leadership of the Navy agreed that the development and production of prototypes was carried out at the Army's Redstone Arsenal. To manage the new program, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency was established in February 1956 at the Redstone Arsenal.

However, despite a promising start, the program to develop a new IRBM soon ran into difficulties. In September 1956, the US Navy withdrew from the IRBM development program in favor of the Polaris program. In November of the same year, Secretary of Defense Wilson decided that all missiles with a range of more than 320 km would be created and operated only by the Air Force. This sharply reduced the Army's interest in the program to develop its own IRBM. However, in the end, it was decided to continue the creation at the Redstone Arsenal of the "army" IRBM, which received the name "Jupiter" and the designation SM-78. Analysts explained this decision by the numerous difficulties that the Air Force encountered in the development of the IRBM - "Thor".

In September 1955, test launches of the prototype IRBM, dubbed "Jupiter A", began from the launch sites of the Atlantic Missile Test Range ("Atlantic Missile Range"). When testing the Jupiter A rocket, the emphasis was on checking the basic design solutions, testing the control system and engines. A little later, the Jupiter C rocket came out for testing, with the help of which the warhead and the separation system were tested. From September 1955 to June 1958, 28 Jupiter A and Jupiter C rockets were launched. Rocket "Jupiter" in a configuration close to the standard, entered the test in 1956. In May 1956 IRBM "Jupiter", starting from the Atlantic Missile Test Site, flew about 1850 km. By July 1958, 10 Jupiter IRBMs had been launched.

The success of the Jupiter program, coupled with the failures of the Thor program, gave the army leadership hope that "their" missile would be chosen for production and deployment. However, in the wake of the fear caused by the successful launch of the First Sputnik by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, President Eisenhower ordered the full production of both IRBMs. To the displeasure of the Army, in accordance with an earlier decision of the Minister of Defense, the Air Force began the gradual subordination of the entire Jupiter program to itself - already in February 1958, the Air Force opened its permanent representation at the Redstone Arsenal, and in March of that year the Air Force created a special communications department, whose main task was to coordinate all actions between the Army and the respective Air Force commands. In January 1958, the Air Force activated the 864th Strategic Missile Squadron in Huntsville to train crews for the Jupiter IRBM. In June of the same year, the 865th and 866th Strategic Missile Squadrons were activated in Huntsville.

While the Air Force was preparing personnel for the new IRBM, the US State Department was actively negotiating with a number of European countries to deploy Jupiter missiles on their territory. Initially, it was planned to deploy 45 missiles in France, but the negotiations were unsuccessful. In the end, Italy and Turkey gave their consent to the deployment of missiles on their territory. Italy was the first to agree - already in March 1958, the country's government agreed in principle to the deployment of two missile squadrons (15 IRBM each) on Italian territory, the final decision was made in September of the same year, and the main agreement was signed in March 1959. However, in return, the Italians wanted to exercise control over the missiles on their own, within the organizational structure of their national air force. The Americans did not object (especially since, according to the rules in force, the control of thermonuclear warheads was still to be carried out by American personnel, the IRBM also remained American property). In May 1959, the first Italian troops selected to serve on the Jupiter IRBM arrived at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, for training. In August of the same year, the solution of all remaining issues was reflected in a specially signed bilateral agreement. The training of Italian personnel in the United States was completed in October 1960, after which the Italians gradually replaced most of the American personnel on the launch sites of the missiles already partially deployed in Italy. At the end of October 1959, the Turkish government also agreed (on the same terms as Italy) to deploy one missile squadron (15 IRBM) on its territory. As in the case of Italy, the solution of all remaining issues was reflected in the bilateral agreement signed in May 1960.

The first production IRBM "Jupiter" rolled off the assembly line in August 1958. The following contractors were selected for the production of Jupiter missiles:

• the "Ballistic Missile Division" of the "Chrysler" corporation - the production of body components and the final assembly of the rocket as a whole;
• the Rocketdyne Division of the North American Aviation Corporation - the production of the propulsion system;
• company "Ford Instrument" - production of a control system;
• corporation "General Electric" - production of a warhead.

In 1962, when the designation system in the Air Force changed, the rocket received the new designation PGM-19A.

While the issues of production and basing of the new missile were being decided (in November 1959, an agreement was signed between the Air Force and the Army, according to which, from 1959, the Air Force became fully responsible for the implementation of the Jupiter program), the personnel of the Strategic Air Command were trained using the Redstone missile. . Later, within the framework of the ISWT ("Integrated Weapons System Training") program at the Redstone Arsenal, the training of personnel began to be carried out directly using Jupiter missiles and equipment for them. The last test launch of the Jupiter IRBM took place in February 1960. The first launch of the IRBM "Jupiter" with an imitation of a combat situation by trained personnel of the Air Force SAC from the Atlantic Missile Test Range was carried out in October 1960. By this time, for several months (since July 1960), the missiles had begun to take combat duty in Italy, at the Italian Air Force base of Gioia delle Colli. Full combat readiness of all 30 "Italian" IRBMs was achieved in June 1961. The base in Italy received the code designation NATO I. Full combat readiness of 15 "Turkish" missiles was achieved in April 1962 (the first missiles were on duty in November 1961). The missiles were located at the Turkish Air Force base Tigli, the base was codenamed NATO II. As in the case of Italy, at first the missiles were serviced only by American personnel, Turkish personnel replaced most of the American by May 1962. The first combat training launch of the IRBM by Italian personnel was carried out in April 1961.

The first combat training launch of the IRBM by Turkish personnel was carried out in April 1962.

In December 1960, the last production Jupiter IRBM rolled off the assembly lines.

Naturally, the 45 deployed Jupiter IRBMs (to which should be added another 60 Thor IRBMs deployed in the UK), coupled with the clear superiority of the United States in the number of deployed ICBMs and strategic bombers, could not but cause acute concern among the military-political leadership THE USSR. Taking into account the situation, it was decided in response to deploy the Soviet R-12 and R-14 MRBMs on about. Cuba in the framework of the "Operation Anadyr", which resulted in the well-known crisis of October 1962. Under the agreement signed by the leaderships of the USSR and the USA, Soviet missiles were withdrawn from Cuba in exchange for the deactivation of the Jupiter missiles in Italy and Turkey (the decision to deactivate the Thor missiles in the UK was made even before the crisis, in August 1962). The decision to deactivate the "Italian" and "Turkish" missiles was announced in January 1963, in the same month the last, sixth, combat training launch of the "Jupiter" IRBM was carried out by Italian personnel. In February 1963, the Air Force began preparations for the removal of the IRBM from combat duty as part of Operations Pot Pie I ("Italian" missiles) and Pot Pie II ("Turkish" missiles). By the end of April 1963, all missiles were taken out of Italy, by the end of July of the same year - from Turkey.

Composition

IRBM "Jupiter" (see diagram) consisted of two parts, the assembly of which was carried out in the field:

• aggregate compartment with LRE and fuel component tanks;
• instrument/engine compartment with docked warhead.

The power plant of the IRBM was developed at the Redstone Arsenal. The main engine is S3D. Fuel components: fuel - rocket kerosene RP-1, oxidizer - liquid oxygen. The nozzle of the main engine is controlled, deflected in the suspension unit to control the rocket along the pitch and yaw channels. Aerodynamic rudders and stabilizers were absent. The combustion chamber of the engine was separated from other control units by a special heat-resistant wall. The plating of the tail section of the rocket, where the remote control was located, had a corrugated plating to improve the strength characteristics. The compartment of the fuel component tanks was located on top of the control compartment and was separated from the latter by a special bulkhead. In turn, the oxidizer (bottom) and fuel (top) tanks were also separated by a special bulkhead. A special bulkhead separated the fuel tank from the instrument compartment. Rocket "Jupiter" had a supporting structure of the tanks. The body was welded from aluminum panels. The fuel supply pipeline passed through the oxidizer tank, and the cables of the control system passed there. The fuel components were fed into the combustion chamber using pumps driven by a turbine that operated on the combustion products of the main fuel components. The exhaust gas was used to control the rocket along the roll channel. The pressurization of the tanks before launch was carried out using nitrogen from a special tank (see layout diagram).

The warhead, which had the army designation Mk3, was equipped with ablative (burning) thermal protection made of organic materials and contained a W-49 thermonuclear warhead with a power of 1.44 Mt, which made it possible to confidently hit area targets. The head part was connected to the instrument / engine compartment, which housed the inertial control system and a block of solid propellant orientation and stabilization engines. The main (vernier) solid-propellant engine fired 2 seconds after the separation of the warhead/instrument compartment assembly from the aggregate compartment (they were connected by 6 pyrobolts) and adjusted the assembly speed with an accuracy of ±0.3 m/s. After the assembly passed the apogee of the trajectory, two low-power solid propellant engines were activated, spinning the assembly to stabilize it. After that, the instrument / engine compartment was separated from the warhead using a detonating cord and then burned out in dense layers of the atmosphere (see trajectory diagram).

Rocket "Jupiter" was created as a mobile IRBM, which was transported by road. The "Jupiter" IRBM squadron consisted of 15 missiles (5 units of 3 IRBMs) and approximately 500 officers and personnel. Each link was located several kilometers apart in order to reduce vulnerability to a nuclear strike. For the same purpose, missiles of the same link were placed at a distance of several hundred meters from each other. Directly, each link was served at the position by five officers and ten soldiers (see starting position diagram).

The equipment and missiles of each link were placed on about 20 vehicles:

• two electric power supply machines;
• one power distribution supply machine;
• two cars with theodolites;
• hydraulic and pneumatic machine;
• oxidant filling supply machine;
• fuel tanker;
• three oxidizer tank cars;
• complex control machine;
• liquid nitrogen tank machine;
• transportation vehicles for IRBM and MS;
• auxiliary machines.

The rocket was placed on a special launch pad, to which it was docked, after which the entire structure was brought to a vertical position, and the lower third of the rocket was covered with a special light metal shelter, which made it possible to service the rocket in bad weather. Refueling of the rocket with propellant components was carried out in 15 minutes. The launch of the link missiles was carried out on command from a special vehicle by a crew of an officer and two soldiers. Each squadron carried out the maintenance of the material part at a special base, which had at its disposal all the necessary materials, as well as a plant for the production of liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen.

In the mass consciousness, especially in Russia, the fact that the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite (AES) was carried out by the Soviet Union looks almost like a historical inevitability - especially considering the failed first launch of the American AES, and the American backlog in manned space exploration in the first half of sixties. Few people realize how close the Americans (or rather the team of Wernher von Braun) were to launching the world's first satellite.

So, in the first half of the fifties, in the United States, three families of ballistic missiles developed relatively independently at once. The Air Force was working on the Atlas program, the Army (i.e. the Army) was working on the Redstone program, and the Navy was working on the Vanguard -- the latter was a development of the Viking missile made in the forties by Glenn L. Martin Co.

Wernher von Braun's team worked on the Redstone ballistic missile. This operational-tactical missile had a length of 21.1 m, a diameter of 1.78 m and a mass of 27.8 tons.


The head of the Redstone was separated to increase the firing range. The rocket was powered by a Rocketdyne NAA75-100 liquid propellant rocket engine powered by ethanol and liquid oxygen, with a thrust of 347 kN.

In the mid-fifties, the US administration announced that during the International Geophysical Year 1957-1958, the Americans would launch the world's first satellite. The joint project of the army and the Navy (Project Slug / Project Orbiter), proposed by Brown on the basis of Redstone and Vanguard, was considered and rejected in favor of Vanguard, who thought purely civilian in purpose - on July 29, 1955, it was announced that it was this rocket that would launch the first satellite in 1957 . The Eisenhower administration did not want to launch the first satellite on a "combat" rocket, and also did not want to give this honor to the team, the backbone of which would be German engineers who had worked in the past in Nazi Germany.

A frustrated von Braun (second from right in the picture below, center Oberth) continued to work in the army on the next generation of combat ballistic missiles. Established on February 1, 1956, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency began developing ICBMs codenamed Jupiter.

The Jupiter-C (Composite Re-entry Test Vehicle) was a modified Redstone with an extended first stage and two additional stages. The second stage consisted of eleven Thiokol Baby Sergeant solid propellant engines (those were three times smaller copies of the MGM-29 Sergeant engine), the third stage consisted of three such engines.

In the second half of 1956, the first test launch of this rocket from Cape Canaveral was to take place. As a payload, the rocket was going to put a mock satellite with a fourth stage, which consisted of another Baby Sergeant TT engine - von Braun never gave up trying to create the world's first space launch vehicle. However, the White House administration rightly suspected Brown of quietly trying to overtake the Vanguard on the way to space. After catching up from the Pentagon, General Medaris, head of the ABMA, called von Braun and ordered him to make sure that the fourth stage on the rocket was inert. As a result, the engine fuel in the fourth stage was changed to sand ballast.

The missile, codenamed "UI" and powered by a Redstone #27 booster, was launched on September 20, 1956, reaching a then-record altitude of 1,097 kilometers and a range of 5,472 kilometers.

The overall weight model of the fourth stage did not reach the orbital speed of only a few hundred meters per second. Thus, the possibility of launching the first satellite using Jupiter-C was successfully demonstrated. Actually, if the fourth stage had been active and would have worked successfully (the chances of which were very high, since it was the simplest in the whole bunch), then the space age would have begun in September 1956.

However, the Eisenhower administration was still committed to the first satellite launch on Vanguard. In "gratitude" for the successful launch of Jupiter-C, two months later in 1956, US Secretary of Defense Wilson generally banned ABMA from launching missiles at a range exceeding 200 kilometers (!) - longer-range missiles were to become the prerogative of the Air Force. This order, as far as I understand, was de facto ignored, but it perfectly demonstrates the mood that prevailed at that time in the highest echelon of the US political leadership.

In the meantime, in August 1957, the Soviet R-7 (No. 8L) successfully completed the planned flight plan for the first time, normally passing the entire active flight segment and reaching the specified area eight thousand kilometers from the launch site. Korolev immediately sent a request to the Central Committee for permission to use two R-7 rockets for the experimental launch of the simplest PS-1 satellite, the development of which began in November 1956, and received consent from N. S. Khrushchev. On October 2, Korolev signed an order for flight tests of the PS-1 and sent a notification of readiness to Moscow. No response instructions came, and Korolev independently decided to place the rocket with the satellite at the starting position. Two days later "Beep! Beep!" from Earth orbit heralded the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind.

In the United States, the successful launch of a satellite by the Soviet Union brought society into a state of natural shock - the Eisenhower administration clearly greatly underestimated the propaganda effect of such an achievement. On November 8, five days after the successful launch of the second Soviet Earth satellite, von Braun was finally given permission to prepare Jupiter-C for the launch of the American satellite. True, priority was again given to the Vanguard project - its launch was scheduled for December 6, 1957, and the brainchild of von Braun was to serve as an understudy. However, as I mentioned in the first sentence of the post, an understudy was really needed. The Kaputnik, as it was quickly dubbed in the press, fell back onto the launch pad shortly after launch and exploded:

On January 31, 1958, the Juno I rocket with the designation "UE" (Redstone #29) was successfully launched.

The first American satellite, Explorer I, was launched into Earth orbit - on the right side of the diagram you can see the same Baby Sergant solid-fuel engine that was attached to the satellite.

The device of the first American satellite (fig. K. Rusakov, "Cosmonautics News" 2003 No. 3):


1 - nose cone;
2 - temperature probe;
3 - low power transmitter (10 mW, 108 MHz);
4, 14 - external temperature meter;
5, 10- slot antenna;
6 - compartments for the study of cosmic rays and micrometeorites (devices of Dr. J. Van Allen);
7 - micrometerite microphone;
8 - powerful transmitter (60 mW; 108 MHz);
9 - internal temperature meter;
11 - empty body of the fourth stage;
12 - micrometeorite erosion meters;
13 - flexible antenna 56 cm long

In addition to the presence of a "live" fourth stage, Jupiter-C in this launch was no different from the rocket launched in 1956. Moreover, the rocket that launched Explorer-1 was a stand-in for the rocket launched in September 1956. In connection with the successful launch of the first rocket, the second was not needed at that time and was sent for storage. Finally, in itself, this ILV was very reminiscent of the original Project Orbiter, proposed by Brown in the mid-fifties.

As a summary: only and exclusively political prohibition by the US government prevented the space age from starting 1 year and 2 weeks earlier than it did. Moreover, this era could have begun even later, if it were not for Korolev's perseverance - immediately after the successful test of the R-7, instead of resting on his laurels, he immediately began to lobby for the launch of satellites in the Central Committee. This is about the role of the individual in history - after all, if the first artificial satellite had been American, the space race that so strongly influenced the history of mankind in the second half of the 20th century might not have happened.

The book tells about the history of the creation and the present day of the strategic nuclear missile forces of the nuclear powers. The designs of intercontinental ballistic missiles, submarine ballistic missiles, medium-range missiles, and launch complexes are considered.

The publication was prepared by the department for the release of applications of the magazine of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation "Army Collection" in conjunction with the National Center for Nuclear Risk Reduction and the publishing house "Arsenal-Press".

Tables with pictures.

Sections of this page:

The accumulated experience in the creation of the first ballistic missiles for military purposes allowed designers to design missiles with an increased range. Soviet rocket men were the first to start this work. Immediately after the completion of work on the R-2 rocket, in 1952 the government received an order to design a rocket with a flight range of more than 1000 km. The task was assigned to TsKB-1. Already in 1953, the rocket, which received the designation R-5, was presented for flight tests, which were carried out at the Kapustin Yar training ground.

Tests were held with varying success. Despite all the difficulties, the refinement of the rocket continued. The R-5 was made single-stage, with a liquid-propellant rocket engine running on liquid oxygen (oxidizer) and 92% ethyl alcohol (fuel). As a main engine, an improved rocket engine from the R-2 rocket was used, which received the designation RD-103. It was made single-chamber, with HPA driven by the products of catalytic decomposition of concentrated hydrogen peroxide in the gas generator. The engine had an improved cooling system for the combustion chamber heads and nozzles. Bellows pipelines for the oxidizer and elastic pipelines for the fuel were introduced, a centrifugal pump for supplying hydrogen peroxide was installed, and the overall layout was improved. All systems and elements of the rocket engine have undergone changes. All this made it possible to bring the engine thrust on the ground to 41 tons, while the total engine height decreased by 0.5 m, and its weight decreased by 50 kg.

Improving the design of the rocket gave positive results. During flight tests, the flight range reached 1200 km.

The missile was equipped with a warhead loaded with conventional explosives, which did not suit the military much. At their request, the designers were looking for ways to increase combat capabilities. An unusual solution was found. In addition to the standard warhead, it was proposed to hang two, and a little later, four additional warheads on the R-5. This would allow firing at area targets. Flight tests confirmed the viability of the idea, but at the same time the flight range was reduced to 820 and 600 km, respectively.

The creation in 1953 by Soviet nuclear scientists of a small-sized nuclear charge suitable for placement on missiles opened the way to a sharp increase in the combat capabilities of missiles. This was especially important for the Soviet Union, which, unlike the United States, did not have powerful strategic aviation. On April 10, 1954, a government decree was issued on the creation of a missile equipped with a nuclear warhead based on the R-5 being tested.

Less than a year later, on January 20, 1955, the first test launch of the R-5M rocket took place at the Kapustin Yar test site. It was this index that they decided to assign to the new product. On February 2, 1956, the first launch of the R-5M was made, equipped with a warhead with a nuclear charge. Despite the general excitement and the unavoidable excitement in such cases, aggravated by the presence of high authorities, the combat crew worked with high professionalism. The missile successfully launched and reached the target area. The automatic detonation of the nuclear charge worked reliably. By the beginning of the summer of 1956, the R-5M flight test program was completed, and on July 21, by government decree, it was adopted by the RVGK engineering brigades, where it consisted until 1961.

The R-5M rocket had the same propulsion system with an automatic thrust control system. The control system is autonomous, with a lateral radio correction system. To improve its reliability, redundancy of the main units was provided: a stabilization machine, on-board power supplies, cable networks in separate sections.

The warhead with a nuclear charge of 300 kt power was separated from the rocket body in flight. The circular probabilistic deviation (CEP) of the point of impact of the warhead from the calculated aiming point was 3.7 km.

) 1956

The combat missile system with the R-5M missile was more advanced than its predecessors. The rocket launch was fully automated. In the process of pre-launch preparation, all launch operations were monitored. The launch was carried out from a ground launcher (launcher). When installing the rocket on the launch pad, it was not necessary to preload it onto the installer. But the missile system also had disadvantages. Pre-launch checks, operations for refueling and aiming the R-5M were carried out without automation, which significantly increased the preparation time for launch. The use of rapidly evaporating liquid oxygen as one of the rocket fuel components did not allow the rocket to be kept fueled for more than 30 days. To develop a supply of oxygen, it was necessary to have powerful oxygen plants in the areas where missile units were based. All this made the missile system inactive and vulnerable, which limited its use in the armed forces.

The R-5 and R-5M missiles were also used for peaceful purposes as geophysical missiles. In 1956–1957, a series of rockets was created, designated R-5A, R-5B, R-5V, to study the upper layers of the atmosphere, the Earth's magnetic field, radiation from the Sun and stars, and cosmic rays. Along with the study of phenomena associated with geophysical processes, these rockets were used to conduct biomedical research using animals. The missiles had a descent warhead. The launch was carried out at altitudes up to 515 km.

R-5A in flight

At the same time, geophysical rockets differed from combat ones not only in the head part, but also in size. So the R-5A and R-5B missiles had a length of 20.75 m and a launch weight of 28.6 tons. The R-5V missile had a length of 23 m. In 1958-1977, 20 missiles of this series were successfully launched.

During the period of work on the R-5M, a split occurred in the Korolev Design Bureau. The fact is that Korolev was a supporter of the use of low-boiling propellant components. But liquid oxygen, used as an oxidizing agent, did not allow achieving high combat readiness on combat missiles, since it is impossible to keep it in the missile tanks without loss for a long time, calculated in tens of months. However, its use on launch vehicles of space objects promised certain benefits. And Sergey Pavlovich always remembered his old dream to fly into space. But he had opponents, who were headed by the talented designer Mikhail Kuzmich Yangel. They believed that combat missiles on high-boiling fuel components were more promising. The conflict at the beginning of 1955 took on rather sharp forms, which did not contribute to productive work. Since Yangel was a prominent figure in the world of rocket designers and the conflict clearly interfered with business, a wise decision was made. By decision of the government, a new Special Design Bureau No. 586 was created, headed by M. Yangel, which was located in Dnepropetrovsk. He was entrusted with the development of combat missiles on high-boiling propellant components. So the Soviet rocket scientists had internal competition, which later played a positive role. On August 13, 1955, a government decree assigned the new design bureau the task of developing a medium-range missile equipped with a nuclear warhead.

Just at the same time, overseas began designing ballistic missiles capable of hitting targets 3,000 km away from the launch site. In the US, there was no need to create artificial competition. There it was all right. However, it was precisely this circumstance that forced American taxpayers to fork out once again. Financing of military orders in the US Department of Defense is carried out by type of armed forces (each type has its own ministry, which is the customer of weapons models). It so happened that the Ministry of the Army and the Ministry of the Air Force issued technical specifications with almost the same characteristics for the development of the MRBM independently from each other to different companies, which ultimately led to duplication of work.

The army command entrusted the development of its rocket to the Redstone arsenal. By this time, Wernher von Braun had basically finished work on the previous rocket and was able to focus his main efforts on the new one. The work promised to be interesting not only from a military point of view. He was well aware that a rocket of this class could launch an artificial satellite into space. Thus, the dream of the young years of von Braun could come true, because in the late 1920s he began to study rockets in order to conquer outer space.

Design work progressed successfully, and already in the early autumn of 1956, the rocket was handed over for testing. This was largely facilitated by the fact that in the design of the rocket, which received the designation SM-78, and even later - "Jupiter", many of the solutions and structural elements tested on the Redstone rocket were used.

IRBM "Jupiter" (USA) 1958

On September 20, 1956, a Jupiter rocket was launched at a distance of 1098 km from the Eastern Test Site (cape Canaveral). The first launch at maximum range took place on May 31, 1957. In total, until July 1958, 38 launches were carried out, of which 29 were recognized as successful and partially successful. There were especially many failures at the first starts.

Even before the decision to put the missile into service (adopted in the summer of 1958), on January 15, 1958, the formation of the 864th strategic missile squadron began, and a little later, another one - the 865th. Each squadron was armed with 30 missiles. After appropriate training, they were transferred to Italy and Turkey. Their missiles were aimed at objects located in the European part of the Soviet Union. Several missiles were handed over to the Royal Air Force of Great Britain. The Jupiter missiles were in service until 1963, when they were eliminated in accordance with the terms of the agreement between the USSR and the USA on the settlement of the Caribbean crisis.

The Jupiter single-stage ballistic missile had integral integral fuel tanks welded from large panels of a special alloy. Liquid oxygen and TR-1 kerosene were used as fuel components. The main engine was made single-chamber with a turbopump fuel supply. To obtain control forces, the combustion chamber was made deflectable.

In flight, the rocket was controlled by an inertial control system. To improve the accuracy of gyroscopes, special air suspensions have been developed for them. Interestingly, the issue of controlling the rocket in terms of the angle of roll was resolved. For this, a movable (fixed in a gimbals) exhaust pipe of a turbopump unit was used.

The missile was equipped with a 1 Mt nuclear warhead. To protect the warhead from overheating when entering the dense layers of the atmosphere in the passive section of the trajectory, it was covered with a special coating. To give the necessary speed to achieve the maximum flight range, the warhead was equipped with an additional powder engine. The missile system was considered mobile. The rocket was transported on a wheeled conveyor and launched after being installed on a launcher, which had an original ground support system in the form of folding petals.

The medium-range ballistic missile, developed by order of the US Air Force by Douglas Aircraft, received the designation SM-75. Bromberg was appointed chief designer for the missile system, and Colonel Edward Hall was appointed head of the entire program.

The first rocket was submitted for static testing in October 1956, ahead of the Jupiter rocket. The first launch of the product, which by this time was given the name "Thor", took place on January 25, 1957, a year after the start of design. The designers were in a hurry, which affected the flight characteristics of the rocket. Immediately after separation from the launcher, it exploded. During the first half of 1957, there were four more rocket explosions and many failures in preparation for launch. These failures cost Colonel Hall his place.

The designers had to make a lot of efforts to make the rocket fly. Only in September 1957, the test launch was successful. The rocket flew 2170 km. Subsequent test launches were also successfully completed. In the summer of 1958, a test launch took place from a mobile launcher designed for military units. In the same year, the Thor was adopted by the US Air Force.

The rocket was made single-stage. Two-thirds of the hull was the fuel compartment, welded from large sheets of special aluminum alloy. Liquid oxygen and kerosene were used as propellant components. The rocket was equipped with a deviated sustainer liquid-propellant rocket engine LR-79, developed by Rocketdine, which developed thrust on the ground of 68 tons. Its operation time was 160 seconds. LRE had a height of 3.9 m.

To supply the fuel components, a turbopump unit with parallel shafts was used, on one of which axial centrifugal pumps of the oxidizer and fuel were installed, and on the other, an axial two-stage active turbine was installed. At the outlet of the turbine, a heat exchanger was installed - an evaporator of liquid oxygen. The resulting gas was used to pressurize the oxidizer tank. The ignition of the fuel components in the combustion chamber occurred from the starting fuel (triethylaluminum) contained in the sleeve, which is destroyed by the pressure of the main fuel coming from a special starting tank. To create control forces for the angle of roll, low-thrust LR-101 LREs were used, which were fueled by TNA of the propulsion engine.

The rocket was equipped with an inertial control system from General Motors. The head of the rocket contained a nuclear charge with a capacity of 1.5 Mt. The maximum flight range was 3180 km.

Squadrons of the Thor IRBM, armed with 15 missiles each, were based in Italy, Turkey and England. The rocket was convenient for transportation by transport aircraft. Some of the missiles were transferred to Great Britain in 1961, where they were placed at missile bases in Yorkshire and Suffolk. Rockets "Thor" and "Jupiter" were built in a small series. Their total number in the Air Force and the US Army reached 105 units.

The Americans actively used the Tor rocket as the first stage of a whole family of launch vehicles (received the designation LB-2). It has been constantly improved. So, the last modification of the LB-2, used on the Tor-Delta launch vehicle, had a length of 22.9 m, a launch weight of 84.8 tons (including fuel - 79.7 tons). It was equipped with a rocket engine with a thrust of 88 tons on the ground and a duration of 228 seconds. On the basis of the Tor missile, the first stage of the Torad was developed, which differed from the base one by the presence of mounted launch rocket propellant rocket motors.

Approximately at the same time that work was being completed on the creation of the American Thor and Jupiter IRBMs, flight tests of the new R-12 medium-range missile, created at OKB-586 by a design team led by M. Yangel, were completed in the USSR.

The first test launch of the R-12 rocket took place on June 22, 1957, almost two years after the start of design work. Flight tests took place until December 27, 1958 at the Kapustin Yar test site. A combat missile system with a ground-based R-12 missile was put into service on March 4, 1959. R-12 became the first Soviet ballistic missile with a nuclear warhead, which was produced in a large series. It was these missiles that became the main missile weapons of the new branch of the USSR Armed Forces created in December 1959 - the Strategic Missile Forces.

Rocket R-12 (industry designation 8K63) single-stage, with carrier tanks and liquid-fueled rocket engine. Nitric acid oxidizer and hydrocarbon fuel were used as propellant components. To ignite the main fuel, a special starting fuel of the brand TG-02 was used.

MRBM "Thor" (USA) 1958

MRBM R-12 at the starting position

The propulsion system of the rocket consisted of a four-chamber rocket engine RD-214 with a thrust on the ground of 60 tons. Its weight was 645 kg, height 2.38 m, operating time 140 seconds. RD-214 had four chambers, TNA, a gas generator, control units and other elements. LRE chambers - with connected shells, with regenerative and curtain cooling of fuel, with corrugated spacers between the walls. The chambers are made of steel and fastened into a rigid block, to which a THA is attached on top of a special frame. It contains three single-stage centrifugal pumps and an axial two-stage active turbine, which are located on two coaxial shafts. An oxidizer pump and a turbine are installed on one shaft, and fuel pumps and 80% hydrogen peroxide pumps are installed on the other to power the gas generator. The ignition of the fuel in the chamber is chemical, with the help of a starting fuel poured into the line up to the main fuel valve. The thrust of the engine is controlled by changing the flow rate of the working fluid through the gas generator. The rocket engine is attached to the rocket using supports located in the upper part of the chambers.

The rocket was equipped with an autonomous control system, the executive bodies of which were gas-jet rudders. In order to improve the stabilization of the rocket in flight, for the first time in the domestic rocket industry, the oxidizer tank was divided into two parts. Additionally, the rocket was equipped with four aerodynamic fixed stabilizers. The control system included devices for normal and lateral stabilization of the center of mass, an apparent speed control system, and a range control machine with duplication of switching channels. SU provided the QUO of the points of impact of the warhead of 2.3 km when flying at a maximum range of 2000 km.

The R-12 missile was launched from a ground-based launcher, where it was installed unfilled in preparation for launch. After carrying out refueling operations and aiming, the rocket was ready for launch. The total preparation time for launch reached three hours and largely depended on the level of training of combat crews. In addition, the ground complex had low survivability. Therefore, the designers of the Yangel Design Bureau were tasked with creating a DBK based on R-12 missiles in specially designed mines.

On December 30, 1961, the first launch of the upgraded rocket took place, which received the designation R-12U. Tests were carried out until October 1963 at the Kapustin Yar test site, where special silo launchers were built, and on January 5, 1964, the DBK with the R-12U missile was put into service. The starting position of the R-12U missiles consisted of four silos and a command post.

The program of flight tests of the R-12 rocket has not yet been completed, but it has already become clear that this rocket will not be able to achieve a long flight range. In order to cover the entire medium-range range within the continental theaters of operations, a new missile was needed. On July 2, 1958, the Yangel design bureau received a government assignment to design a missile with a range of 3600 km and higher performance than the R-12.

The design team, which had accumulated sufficient experience by this time, was able to successfully solve the task in two years. On July 6, 1960, the first test launch of a new rocket, designated R-14, took place. Although it was considered a success, it was not really all smooth sailing. The first series of test launches showed that the new rocket took place, however, the phenomenon of cavitation was noted. The designers quickly dealt with this problem. Flight tests were carried out at the Kapustin Yar test site until February 15, 1961, and after their successful completion on April 24 of the same year, the DBK with the R-14 missile was adopted by the Strategic Missile Forces.

MRBM R-12 (USSR) 1958

MRBM R-14 at the starting position

Rocket R-14 - single-stage with carrier fuel tanks. For the first time, nitric acid (oxidizer) and asymmetric dimethylhydrazine (fuel) were used as rocket fuel components, which ignited upon mutual contact. For the first time, diaphragm valves were installed in the lines of each of the rocket fuel components, separating the rocket engine from the fuel tanks, which made it possible to keep the rocket fueled for a long time.

The RD-216 propulsion engine was installed on the rocket, which consisted of two identical propulsion units, united by a mounting frame with the hull and having a common launch system, each of which had two combustion chambers, a turbocharger, a gas generator and an automation system. For the first time, TNA worked on the main components of the fuel, which made it possible to abandon the use of hydrogen peroxide and simplify the operation of the rocket. The liquid-propellant rocket engine developed thrust on the ground of 138 tons, had a dry weight of 1325 kg and a height of 3.49 m. Its operation time was about 170 seconds.

Installing the R-14 MRBM at the starting position

LRE combustion chambers of brazed-welded design with internal and regenerative cooling. The body of the chamber is formed by two shells - a bronze fire wall and a steel jacket, which are connected through corrugated spacers. TNA contained two screw-centrifugal fuel pumps with double-sided inlets and an axial two-stage active turbine located on two shafts. The gas for the TNA drive was produced in the gas generator by burning a small part of the fuel with an excess of fuel. The exhaust gas was ejected by the turbopump unit through a special nozzle. Automation units were triggered by electric and pyrocommands, as well as the control pressure of nitrogen, which was supplied to the gearbox from onboard cylinders. The LRE was controlled by thrust by changing the fuel consumption through the gas generator, by the ratio of fuel components - by changing the oxidizer consumption. Thrust vector control was carried out using gas rudders.

The R-14 rocket had an autonomous inertial control system. For the first time, a gyro-stabilized platform with an air suspension of gyroscopes was used, as well as a program pulse generator. Gas-jet rudders were used as controls. SU provided the CVO for about 1.9 km.

The missile was equipped with a monoblock nuclear warhead with a capacity of 1 Mt, which was separated in flight. In order to exclude the impact of the rocket body on the warhead in the first seconds after separation, three powder brake rocket engines were used, which were turned on at the end of the main rocket engine. The missile had a system for emergency detonation of the warhead and turning off the remote control in the event of a significant deviation of the missile from a given flight path. The missile was launched from a ground launcher. Refueling and aiming of the rocket was carried out after its installation on the launch pad.

The designers managed to achieve a higher readiness of the rocket for launch compared to previously adopted rocket models. The new missile system was more reliable in operation, but work on its improvement continued. The desire to increase survivability led to the development of a silo-based version of the R-14 rocket. The first launch of the upgraded R-14U rocket took place on February 11, 1962. The tests were carried out at the Kapustin Yar test site, where a special silo launcher was built. In October of the following year, they were successfully completed and the new DBK was adopted by the Strategic Missile Forces and operated until the mid-80s. The last R-14U missile was eliminated in accordance with the provisions of the INF Treaty.

MRBM R-14 (USSR) 1961

The modified missile was more advanced than the R-14. It was equipped with a remote control system for refueling and compressed gases. Silos had significant advantages over ground launches in terms of protection from the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, and also ensured long-term maintenance of missiles in readiness for launch.

The R-14 rocket was used for space purposes. On its basis, the geophysical rocket "Vertical" was created, which is used to carry out the international program of cooperation between socialist countries in the field of exploration and use of outer space ("Interkosmos"). At the top of the rocket was a high-altitude probe with scientific equipment and service systems. The missiles were launched at altitudes of 500-1500 km. After the completion of the program, the probe with scientific equipment descended to Earth using a parachute system. The first launch of the Vertical rocket under the Interkosmos program took place on November 28, 1970.

In 1962, the world was on the brink of nuclear war. A crisis erupted as a result of the negative development of the military-political situation in the Caribbean after the Cuban revolution, which dealt a tangible blow to the economic interests of North American companies. There was a real threat of American intervention in Cuba. Under these conditions, the USSR decided to provide assistance, including military assistance, to the government of Cuba. Given that American Jupiter missiles from Turkish territory could reach the vital centers of the Soviet Union in just 10 minutes, and Soviet ICBMs needed at least 25 minutes to retaliate against American territory, Khrushchev instructed to deploy Soviet IRBMs in Cuba with Soviet military personnel.

In accordance with the Anadyr operation plan, it was planned to deploy on Cuban territory three regiments of R-12 missiles (24 launchers) and two regiments of R-14 missiles (16 launchers), which were ordered to be ready on a signal from Moscow to strike at the most important facilities in the United States.

Under the strictest secrecy, the R-12 missiles were delivered to Cuba, where launch pads were erected for them by Soviet military personnel. American intelligence was unable to detect them in a timely manner. Only a month after the arrival of three missile regiments on the island, the American U-2 aerial reconnaissance aircraft was able to photograph the launch pads and missiles, which caused great concern in the Pentagon, and then President John F. Kennedy.

By the end of October, about half of the 36 R-12 missiles delivered to the island were ready for refueling, oxidizer and docking with nuclear warheads. Due to the naval blockade of the coast of Cuba, R-14 missiles did not arrive on the island. It was at this time that the leaders of the USSR and the USA came to the conclusion that the conflict must be resolved peacefully. During the negotiations, the parties agreed to remove the Soviet IRBM from Cuba, and the American ones from Turkey and Europe. And yet, one P-12 remained on the island of freedom, but already as a monument. Missiles of this type were the only ones of all the missiles ever in service with the Strategic Missile Forces that were destined to travel outside the Soviet Union.

Geophysical rocket "Vertical" (USSR)

The Caribbean crisis had a significant impact on the development of strategic weapons, including the IRBM. For the Soviet Union and the United States, there was a significant break in the creation of new models of this class of missiles for other reasons. Thus, the USSR possessed two medium-range missile systems perfect for that time, which since 1964 were transferred to the silo-based method. And the United States, having lost the bases for medium-range missiles in Europe and Turkey, lost interest in the IRBM for more than 10 years, concentrating its main efforts on the development of submarine-launched ballistic missiles capable of replacing them.

In the first half of the 60s, China took up the development of its own missile forces. Mao Zedong put forward the concept of creating a great China, which was to become the leader of the entire Asian world. To reinforce such aspirations, a powerful rocket fist was needed. Back in the period when good-neighbourly, including military, relations existed between the Soviet Union and China, the latter received some technical information on the R-12 missile. But after the rupture of relations, all military assistance to China ceased. The Chinese designers had no choice but to try, taking the Soviet rocket as a basis, to create their own analogue. It took a long seven years before the Chinese were able to bring their rocket to mass production. It should be noted that China has surpassed even the Soviet Union in classifying information about rocket technology. This explains the paucity of information about Chinese rocket technology that is published in the open press.

The technical characteristics of the rocket, and of the entire complex as a whole, turned out to be low. By the time it entered combat units in 1970, it was already obsolete. The low production technology, as well as the insufficient level of mechanical engineering, led to a low probability of delivering warheads to the target - 0.5.

The Dun-1 missile (China has adopted a different classification for ballistic missiles, different from the European one) is single-stage, made according to the usual layout and outwardly very similar to the Soviet R-12. It consisted of a head section, an adapter, oxidizer and fuel tanks, an instrument compartment located in the inter-tank space and a tail compartment.

MRBM S-2 (France) 1971

The propulsion system included a four-chamber rocket engine with one common turbopump unit. Kerosene and inhibited nitric acid were used as fuel components.

An inertial control system was installed on the rocket, which ensured a hit accuracy of about 3 km with a maximum flight range of 2000 km. The executive bodies were gas-dynamic rudders.

The Chinese faced significant difficulties with the creation of a nuclear charge for the rocket. Until 1973, the Dun-1 was equipped with a 20 kt warhead, which was very modest for a ballistic strategic missile with such firing accuracy. And only then it was possible to bring the charge power to 700 kt.

The missile was stationary. The security of the complex was weak - only 0.3 kg/cm?. In order to exclude the defeat of several group launches by one warhead, from the mid-70s they began to create separate ground launches spaced a short distance. But even this could not improve the overall picture. Even the Chinese military leaders, not spoiled by the high combat characteristics of weapons, complained about the very significant shortcomings of this missile system.

In the same years, in another part of the world, France (the only country in Western Europe) began to develop its own ballistic missile for military purposes. After leaving the NATO military organization, the French leadership set a course for pursuing its own nuclear policy. Such independence also had negative aspects. I had to start development from scratch. To create the first medium-range missile attracted a number of firms. Later, the leading firms "Aerospacial", "Nord Aviasion", "Sud Aviasion" joined forces. A French laboratory for ballistic and aerodynamic research was established.

In the early 1960s, the theoretical development program was completed. At the test site, located in Algeria, flight tests of prototype missiles were carried out. In 1963, the designers began to create a rocket that was supposed to go into service. According to the terms of reference, it had to be performed with solid fuel engines. Basing and launch - from the mine.

In 1966, a two-stage ballistic missile S-112 was transferred for flight tests. It became the first French rocket to be launched from a silo. It was followed by an experimental S-01 and, finally, in May 1969, tests began on the first prototype of a medium-range ballistic missile, designated S-02. They lasted two years and ended in complete success. In the summer of 1971, mass production of the S-2 IRBM was launched and the formation of two missile groups for the operation of the missile system among the troops. The groups were deployed on the Albion plateau in the province of Provence.

The two-stage rocket S-2 was made according to the "tandem" scheme with a sequential arrangement of stages. On the first of them, a solid propellant rocket engine was installed, which had four rotary nozzles. He developed traction on the ground 55 tons and could work for 76 seconds. The body of the step was made of steel.

The second stage was smaller and lighter than the first. A solid propellant rocket engine with four rotary nozzles was used as a marching one, developing a thrust of 45 tons. Its operation time is 50 seconds. Mixed fuel, the same for both engines.

The inertial control system, located in a special instrument compartment, provided control of the missile's flight in the active part of the trajectory and the launch of the warhead to the target with an accuracy of 1 km when firing at a maximum range of 3000 km. To give the rocket additional stability, aerodynamic stabilizers were attached to the rear skirt of the first stage. The missile was equipped with a single-block nuclear warhead with a capacity of 150 kt detachable in flight.

IRBM S-3 in silos

The missile system with the S-2 IRBM had a high degree of readiness for launch. The missile was launched from a mine launcher due to the operating remote control of the first stage. Pre-launch operations took place automatically after receiving a command from the command post of the missile group.

By the time all 18 missiles were fully deployed, the French military leadership came to the conclusion that the missile should be modernized, since it no longer met the requirements for an IRBM. Therefore, already in 1973, work began on its modernization and refinement of the entire DBK.

In December 1976, a new French medium-range missile, designated S-3, made its first flight. It was created in such a way as to replace its predecessor with minimal alterations to the silo. To fulfill this requirement, I had to leave the first stage from the S-2 on the new rocket. But the second step was thoroughly redone. The solid propellant rocket engine now had only one rotary nozzle. An increase in the energy characteristics of the mixed fuel made it possible to reduce the length of the hull and the mass of the stage while increasing the maximum flight range to 3,700 km. The missile was equipped with an upgraded inertial control system that provides a hit accuracy (KVO) of 700 m.

MRBM "Dun-2" (China) 1975

The combat equipment has also changed. Now the power of the warhead was 1.2 Mt. In addition, the missile carried a set of means to overcome the enemy's missile defense system (before that, only one state in Europe, the Soviet Union, had such a system). Technical readiness for the launch was 30 seconds.

Part of the equipment of the command posts of the missile groups was also replaced. A new automated combat control system was installed, the reliability of bringing the launch order from the command post to the silo was increased. The latter have increased protection, especially from the neutron flux that occurs during the explosion of a nuclear charge. The new DBK with the S-3 missile was put into service in 1980 and is still in operation.

But back to the end of the 60s, to China. There, at that time, rocket designers began to create a new, more advanced medium-range missile. Flight tests of the Dun-2 missile for a limited range began in 1971. The entire test program was completed only in 1975, after which this missile began to enter military units.

Rocket "Dun-2" - single-stage, with liquid fuel engines (fuel - asymmetric dimethylhydrazine, oxidizer - inhibited nitric acid). The propulsion system consists of two identical two-chamber engines, each of which has its own turbopump unit.

The inertial control system provided control of the missile's flight on the active part of the trajectory and an accuracy of hitting 2.5 km when firing at a maximum range of 4000 km. The executive elements of the system were gas-dynamic rudders. Stabilizers were attached to the tail skirt to give the rocket additional stability when passing through dense layers of the atmosphere.

"Dun-2" carried the same warhead as its predecessor. The developers of the complex managed to slightly improve performance. The prelaunch preparation time decreased and amounted to 2–2.5 hours. If the rocket was previously filled with fuel components, then this time was reduced to 15-30 minutes. "Dun-2" could be launched from a ground or from a mine launcher, where it was installed before launch. Usually, the missiles were stored in an underground secure storage.

Two years later, the new Dun-2-1 IRBM was put on combat duty (according to Chinese classification - an intermediate-range missile). She was two-tiered. The first stage was taken from Dun-2 without any changes. The second stage, docked with the help of a connecting compartment of a truss structure with the first one, had a single-chamber rocket engine with a rotary nozzle as a propulsion system.

The Chinese failed to improve the inertial control system. When firing at a maximum range of 6000 km, the probable miss increased to 3.5 km. True, the power of the nuclear warhead increased to 2 Mt, which somewhat compensated for the rather large deviation from the calculated aiming point. But as before, the missile was not capable of hitting highly protected point targets, which limited the choice of targets. The operational performance of Dun-2-1 remained at the level of its predecessor. The technical reliability of the missiles also remained low.

Of course, it is difficult to call all Chinese IRBMs of this period perfect, but it was nevertheless necessary to reckon with them. In the Soviet Union, relations with China by the end of the 60s acquired a conflict form, and after armed Chinese provocations on the Far Eastern border of the USSR, they completely deteriorated. Under these conditions, the appearance of a nuclear-armed IRBM in an aggressive neighbor required reciprocal steps.

SPU DBK "Pioneer"

MRBM "Dun-2-1" (China) 1977

IRBM "Pioneer"

MRBM "Pioneer" (USSR) 1976

1 - warhead fairing; 2 - engine fairing of the combat stage; 3 - cable box; 4 - support belt; 5 - fairing of the brake engine; 6 - cable box; 7 - places of fastening of the aerodynamic steering wheel; 8 - aerodynamic rudders; 9 - brake motor of the second stage; 10 - top cover of solid propellant rocket motor; 12 - fuel charge; 13 - thermal protection; 14 - bottom cover of solid propellant rocket motor; 15 - device for blowing gas into the nozzle; 16 - brake motor of the first stage; 17 - rocket body; 18 - top cover of the solid propellant rocket engine of the first stage; 19 - rear cover of the solid propellant rocket engine of the first stage; 20 - gas-dynamic steering wheel; 21 - steering machines; 22 - mechanical connection of the aerodynamic and gas-dynamic rudders; 23 - protective cover of the nozzle.

The question arose - what to do? Build new positions for R-12 and R-14 missiles, or come up with something new. This is where the developments of the Moscow Design Bureau under the leadership of Academician A.D. Nadiradze came in handy. It was developing a medium-range rocket on a mixed solid fuel. The great advantage of the new missile system with such a missile was to be the use of a mobile basing method, which promised increased survivability due to the uncertainty about the location of the launcher. If necessary, the prospect of relocating mobile launchers from one theater to another opened up, which is impossible with stationary missiles.

In the early 70s, work was given additional acceleration. After practical testing of various technical solutions for the new missile and ground-based units of the missile system, the designers were able to proceed to the final stage. On September 21, 1974, flight tests of the Pioneer rocket (factory designation 15Zh45) began at the Kapustin Yar test site. It took almost a year and a half to complete the refinement of the rocket and complete the planned test program. On March 11, 1976, the State Commission signed an act on the acceptance of the DBK with the 15Zh45 missile (another designation for the RSD-10) into service with the Strategic Missile Forces. The complex was also given the name "Pioneer". But this DBK was not the first mobile complex. Back in the mid-60s, a mobile missile system was tested in the USSR, in which a rocket with a liquid-propellant rocket engine was installed on a tracked chassis. But due to the large mass of the structure and other shortcomings, they did not begin to bring it to mass production.

New complexes were deployed not only in the east, but also in the west of the Soviet Union. Some of the obsolete medium-range missiles, primarily the R-14, were removed from service, and Pioneers took their place. The appearance of the latter caused a great stir in the NATO countries, and very quickly the new Soviet missile became known as the SS-20 - the “Thunderstorm of Europe”.

The Pioneer rocket had two marching stages and an aggregate-instrument block, which were connected to each other using connecting compartments. The propulsion system of the first stage was a structure consisting of a fiberglass body with a solid propellant charge fastened to it, made of high-energy mixed fuel, steel front bottom and nozzle cover, nozzle block. In the tail section of the stage, brake engines and steering gear drives were located. The control forces were created by four gas-dynamic and four aerodynamic rudders (the latter are made in the form of lattices).

The propulsion system of the second stage had a similar design, but other methods were used to obtain control actions. Thus, the control in pitch and yaw angles was carried out by blowing gas from the gas generator into the supercritical part of the nozzle, and in roll - by bypassing gas through a special device. Both engines had a thrust cut-off system (at the first stage - emergency) and an operating time of about 63 seconds.

An inertial control system built on the basis of an onboard digital computer complex was installed on the rocket. To increase the reliability of work, all channels had redundancy. Almost all elements of the control system were placed in a sealed instrument compartment. The designers managed to ensure a fairly high hit accuracy (KVO) - 550 m when firing at a maximum range of 5000 km.

Elimination of Pioneer IRBM and their containers

The aggregate-instrument unit ensured the breeding of three warheads with a capacity of 150 kt each for their targets. Flight tests of the rocket were also carried out with a monoblock warhead with a capacity of 1 Mt. Due to the absence in the areas of choice of probable targets of the missile defense system, the missile did not have a complex to overcome it.

The MAZ-547 six-axle wheeled vehicle was chosen as the chassis for the mobile launcher. The rocket, placed in a sealed transport and launch container, in which the required temperature and humidity conditions were constantly maintained, was in a horizontal position before launch. In preparation for the launch, the TPK rose to a vertical position. In order not to destroy the launcher, the designers used the "mortar" launch method. Operations for pre-launch preparation and launch took place automatically after receiving a special command from the control center.

On August 10, 1979, the 15Zh53 rocket, which had higher combat characteristics, was presented for flight tests. Tests were carried out at the Kapustin Yar test site until August 14, 1980, and on December 17 of the same year, the new DBK, which received the designation "Pioneer UTTKh" (improved performance characteristics), was adopted by the Strategic Missile Forces.

The Pioneer UTTKh rocket had the same first and second stages as the Pioneer rocket. The changes affected the control system and the aggregate-instrument unit. Due to the refinement of the command instruments and the operation algorithms of the BTsVK, it was possible to increase the firing accuracy to 450 m. The installation of new engines with increased energy on the aggregate-instrument unit made it possible to increase the breeding area for warheads, which was of great importance when planning targets for destruction.

Both complexes were operated until 1991 and were liquidated in accordance with the terms of the INF Treaty. Some of the missiles were destroyed by the launch method, which made it possible to check their reliability and confirm the inherent characteristics. Of particular interest were the Pioneer missiles, which had been in operation for over 10 years. The launches were completed successfully. In total, more than 700 deployed and stored RSD-10 missiles fell under the reduction.

MRBM "Pioneer" at the time of launch

In the early 1970s, the United States returned to the creation of the IRBM, which was the result of a change in the military-political balance with the USSR. The real opportunity to receive a powerful retaliatory strike on their territory forced American strategists and politicians to look for an acceptable way out. When they search well, they almost always find it. American strategists developed the concept of "limited nuclear war". Its main highlight was the idea of ​​transferring the nuclear conflict to the expanses of Europe, naturally, with the seizure of the territory of the Soviet Union. To implement new ideas, new means were also needed. In 1972, theoretical studies began on this problem, which made it possible to develop a set of tactical and technical requirements for the future missile system. Since the mid-70s, a number of rocket-building firms have been conducting development work to create a prototype of the IRBM, capable of satisfying the customer.

The victory was won by Martin-Marietta (the parent company), a contract with which for the full-scale development of a combat missile system was signed in 1979. At the same time, politicians began to actively work on their European allies in the North Atlantic bloc in order to obtain permission to deploy new American missiles. As always, a proven trump card was put into play - the "Soviet missile danger", and above all, from the SS-20 missiles. Consent to the basing of the IRBM was obtained from the government of Germany.

In the meantime, the design work was completed, and in April 1982, the rocket, which by that time had received the name Pershing-2, entered flight tests. It was planned to carry out 14 control launches and 14 so-called military, i.e. regular crews.

The first two launches, which took place on June 22 and November 19, ended unsuccessfully. The designers quickly figured out the reasons and the next 7 test launches in January-April of the following year at a distance of 100 to 1650 km were considered successful. In total, 18 test launches were carried out, after which it was decided to accept the complex with the Pershing-2 missile into service with the 56th brigade of the US Army in Europe, the rearmament of which began at the end of 1983.

In fairness, it should be noted that the 120 Pershing-2 IRBMs stationed in West Germany were never planned by American strategists to be used against Soviet SS-20 missiles. It is easy to draw such a conclusion by comparing at least the number of both missiles: 120 for the Americans and over 400 for the Soviet Union in the territory up to the Urals. The purpose of the Pershings was completely different. Possessing high hitting accuracy and a short approach time to targets, which neither ICBMs nor SLBMs could provide, they were a "first strike" weapon. Their main purpose is to defeat strategically important objects, and above all the command posts of the Armed Forces and the Strategic Missile Forces of the USSR, in order to weaken the retaliatory nuclear strike as much as possible, if not completely disrupt it.

According to its layout scheme, the Pershing-2 IRBM was a two-stage missile with a sequential arrangement of stages, docked with the warhead through transitional compartments. A characteristic feature of the rocket is the placement of its control system in the head part, as well as the presence of a thrust cut-off system on both solid-propellant stages, which was not previously encountered on American missiles.

The design of solid propellant solid propellant rocket engines was the same and consisted of the following main elements: a body made of a composite material based on Kevlar-49 fiber with a heat-insulating coating, a nozzle block rigidly fastened to the body of a solid propellant charge, an igniter, a thrust vector control drive and a thrust cutoff system. The designers used nozzles with a high degree of expansion, which were deflected by an electrically controlled hydraulic actuator. The engine operation time until complete fuel burnout is 55 and 40 seconds for the first and second stages, respectively. The use of a thrust cut-off system made it possible to obtain a wide range of flight ranges.

The head part consisted of three compartments: the front one (it housed the detonation sensors and elements of the guidance system), the middle one (the warhead) and the rear one (the inertial control system and its actuating elements).

The flight control of the rocket on the active part of the trajectory in terms of pitch and yaw angles was carried out by deflecting the solid propellant nozzles. Roll control in the area of ​​operation of the first stage engine was carried out by two aerodynamic rudders installed in the tail section of this stage. The other two rudders, located in the same place, were fixed rigidly and served as stabilizers. During the operation of the solid propellant rocket engine of the second stage, the roll control was carried out by four aerodynamic rudders of the head part.

The control system was supplemented by a warhead guidance system in the final section of the trajectory according to the radar map of the area (RADAG system). Such a system has not previously been used on ballistic missiles. The Kearfott command instrumentation complex was located on a stabilized platform placed in a cylindrical housing and had its own electronic control unit. The work of the control system was provided by the on-board digital computer complex of the Bendix company, located in 12 removable modules, and protected by an aluminum case.

The RADAG system consisted of an airborne radar and a correlator. The radar was shielded and had two antenna units. One of them was intended to obtain a radar brightness image of the area. The other is to determine the flight altitude. An annular-type image under the head was obtained by scanning around the vertical axis at an angular velocity of 2 rpm. Four reference images of the target area for different heights were stored in the computer memory in the form of a matrix, each cell of which represented the radar brightness of the corresponding area of ​​the terrain, written as a two-digit binary number. The real image of the terrain received from the radar was reduced to a similar matrix, when compared with the reference one, it was possible to determine the error of the inertial system.

The flight of the warhead was corrected by the executive bodies - jet nozzles operating from a compressed gas cylinder outside the atmosphere, and hydraulically driven aerodynamic rudders upon entry into the atmosphere.

As combat equipment, the rocket carried a nuclear monoblock with a variable TNT equivalent. Before the start, the calculation of the launch control point could choose one of four possible capacities: 0.3, 2, 10, 80 kt. To destroy highly protected objects, a nuclear charge penetrating 50–70 m deep into the earth was developed.

The Pershing-2 rocket was placed on a launcher mounted on a wheeled semi-trailer, and rose to a vertical position before launch. Unlike the Soviet RSD-10, it did not have a transport and launch container. To protect the rocket from precipitation, dust and dirt during the march, they used special covers.

All 108 Pershing-2 missiles put on combat duty were based in West Germany until 1990, until they were eliminated in accordance with the provisions of the INF Treaty. Despite the fact that this missile was designed in the second half of the 70s, it still remains the most advanced IRBM in the world to this day.

In the 1980s, France and China were developing medium-range ballistic missiles. And if the first country does not show great activity, then the Asian giant spends a lot of money on this. Chinese rocket specialists, using positive changes in the country's economy, created the Dun-4 rocket with a range of up to 6,000 km in the second half of the 1980s. Its launch weight reaches 90 tons. Significant progress has been made in the field of guidance systems. The new inertial control system ensures the delivery of a warhead with a capacity of 2 Mt to the target with an accuracy (CEP) of 700 m. The silo placement of missiles filled with liquid fuel components ensures pre-launch preparation and launch within 3-5 minutes. Missiles "Dun-4" since 1988 began to arrive to replace obsolete systems.

The Chinese are also developing rockets with solid fuel engines. It will have two march stages, a monoblock warhead with a capacity of 350 kt, a maximum flight range of about 3,000 km, and a firing accuracy (KVO) of 500 m. In order to increase survivability, a mobile basing method has been chosen for the missile. It is expected that it will enter service with the PLA nuclear forces in the late 90s. If successful, this missile could become the most advanced of all Chinese ballistic missiles and bring China's strategic nuclear forces to a new level.

In France, work is underway on the S-4 rocket, the completion of which is scheduled for the beginning of the next millennium. It is expected that it will be suitable for basing both in silos and on self-propelled launchers, have a flight range of about 3500 km and a CEP of 300 m.

India is creating its own IRBM. Since May 1989, flight design tests of the Agni missile have been carried out at the Chandipur missile range. According to press reports, the work is progressing well. The rocket is two-stage. The first stage (solid propellant solid propellant rocket engine) is taken from an Indian launch vehicle used to launch satellites into space. The second stage is a nationally developed Prithvi operational-tactical missile. It has a two-chamber rocket engine with deflectable combustion chambers.

The missile control system is inertial, built on the basis of an onboard computer. For Agni, a number of warhead options are being developed: with a conventional explosive weighing 1000 kg, a volumetric explosion, as well as a warhead with a correction system at the end of the flight using a radar or infrared map of the terrain in the target area. In the event of successful completion of the work, the firing accuracy (CEP) can reach 30 m. It is quite possible to create a nuclear warhead with a yield of about 20 kt.

MRBM "Pershing-2" (USA) 1985

I - the first stage; II - the second step; III - head part; IV - transition compartment; 1 - airborne radar of the RADAG system; 2 - sensor of special automatic nuclear charge; 3 - combat unit; 4 - jet nozzle of the MS flight control system; 7 - starting device solid propellant rocket motor; 8 - thrust cutoff device for solid propellant rocket motors; 9 - thermal protection of the engine; 10 - charge of solid fuel; 11 - nozzle deflection mechanism; 12 - solid propellant nozzle; 13 - cable box; 14 - steering machine; 15 - aerodynamic rudder of the first stage

The Indian IRBM has a launch weight of 14 tons, a length of 19 m, a diameter of about 1 m and a flight range of 2,500 km. Its adoption is expected in the late 90s.

Thus, at the beginning of the new century, China, France and India will have IRBMs in service, although it is possible that other countries may also have missiles of this type.

Length, m	18,3
Diameter, m	2,69
Starting weight, t	49,9
Engine thrust, t	67,5
Engine operating time, s	150
Maximum firing range, km	2700–3100
Maximum flight altitude, km	720
Maximum flight speed, m/s	about 4440
KVO, m	3600
Rocket cost, thousand dollars	480

The first launch of the Jupiter rocket took place on September 20, 1956 from Cape Canaveral. He turned out to be unsuccessful. The rocket flew about 1000 m. The second launch also ended in failure. Only at the third launch on May 31, 1957 did the rocket reach a range of 2780 km. In total, up to July 1958, 38 test launches were carried out with various targets, of which 29 were recognized as successful or partially successful. There were especially many failures during the first series of tests. At first, representatives of the customer even had serious concerns about the fate of the project. But a year after the first launch, the designers mostly managed to cope with technical difficulties.

Even before the decision to put the Jupiter rocket into service (it was adopted in the summer of 1958), on January 15, 1958, the formation of the 864th squadron of strategic missiles began, and a little later, another one - the 865th squadron. After thorough preparation, which included a combat training launch from standard equipment on the territory of the training ground, the squadrons were transferred to Italy (Joya base, 30 missiles) and Turkey (Tigli base, 15 missiles). Rockets "Jupiter" were aimed at the most important objects in the territory of the European part of the USSR.

The story of the Caribbean crisis is beyond the scope of our work. Nevertheless, one cannot help but be indignant at statements made after 1990, of course, by our politicians about Khrushchev's adventurist behavior. Meanwhile, the delivery to Turkey of not just medium-range missiles, but even just troops by a major European power would automatically become a “casus belli” for any Russian emperor from Catherine the Great to Nicholas II.

As a result of the agreement between Khrushchev and Kennedy, in exchange for the withdrawal of Soviet ballistic missiles and Il-28 bombers from Cuba, the Americans officially promised not to attack Cuba. And at the request of Kennedy, who passionately wanted to "save face" before the next presidential election, the withdrawal of the Jupiter and Thor missiles from Europe and Turkey took place in the first half of 1963 without much publicity.

Rockets "Jupiter" were stored in warehouses in the United States until 1975 inclusive.

On the basis of the Jupiter rocket, the Chrysler company created the four-stage launch vehicle Juno-2. The Jupiter rocket was the first stage. Three more upper stages were equipped with powder engines and installed on the instrument compartment of the Jupiter rocket under a special fairing.

"Juno-2" was used to launch the artificial Earth satellite "Explorer" into orbit and to send "Pioneer" vehicles to the Moon and other celestial bodies. The first launch of the Juno-2 launch vehicle with a payload was made on December 6, 1958. In total, in 1958–1961. 10 Juno-2 launch vehicles were launched from Cape Canaveral, of which 4 launches were considered completely successful.

Rocket Thor. The SM-75 Thor medium-range ballistic missile (theater of operations) had approximately the same performance characteristics as the Jupiter missile. The fundamental difference was that it was made for the Air Force, and not for the army, like Jupiter. In the USA, each branch of the military has its own ministry, its own budget, and for their own selfish purposes, bureaucrats often go for duplication when creating similar systems.

On December 27, 1955, the US Air Force Research Command's Ballistic Missile Division signed a contract with Douglas Aircraft to develop the Thor missile. Under the direction of the ballistic missile department, Douglas Aircraft, together with other firms, developed not only the Thor missile itself, but the entire missile system. Tight deadlines were set for the design and manufacture of ground support equipment in order to have it available by the time the Tor missile was brought to a state of combat readiness. In order to speed up the delivery of combat missiles, the Air Force decided to manufacture the Tor missile in mass production, thereby eliminating the usual stage of manufacturing a prototype missile. The first Thor rocket was manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft factory in Santa Monica in October 1956.

Dr. Bromberg was appointed chief designer for the Thor missile system, and Colonel Edward Hall was appointed head of the entire program.

Having started work, the Douglas Aircraft company made a preliminary design of the rocket within a month. It took 7 months to produce working drawings.

The first Thor rocket was launched on January 25, 1957, that is, only 13 months after the rocket was approved in the drawings and consent was given for its manufacture. The first test was unsuccessful: the rocket exploded on the launch pad.

Three more tests took place in April, May and August 1957, and all of them were unsuccessful. (The second Thor missile was actually destroyed by mistake, due to a malfunction of the security system at the test site.)

As a result of the tests, new information was obtained about the operation of the engines and the control system and about the flight range. Based on this information, the defects were eliminated, and changes were made to the missile design.

On September 20, 1957, the Tor missile without a guidance system successfully rose from the launch pad and flew a predetermined distance of 1,400 km. The next month, with a new successful launch, a range of 4250 km was reached. The first launch of the missile "Tor" with a guidance system was made on December 19, 1957. The missile, flying along a predetermined course, fell very close to the target.

In February 1958, tests began on the separation of the warhead, and in June of the same year, the warhead with test equipment was saved after flying over 2400 km.

From the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, the Thor rocket was launched for the first time on December 16, 1958. The test was carried out by combat crew and was successful. The rocket launched 20 minutes after the launch command.

Of the 31 Thor rocket launches that took place there until January 28, 1959, 15 were completely successful, 12 partially successful, 4 ended in complete failure. These four unsuccessful launches belong to the first samples of the rocket. By the end of November 1959, 77 Thor missiles had been launched.

The Tor missile was equipped with an inertial control system from General Motors.

For ease of manufacture, the Thor rocket was divided into several parts. The power plant compartment contained a Rocketdine LR-79 liquid-propellant rocket engine, a turbopump unit and controls. Two LR-101 auxiliary engines were attached to the rear bulkhead, which controlled the missile in roll and were used to control the speed of the missile. Rocket control in pitch and yaw was provided by turning the main engine. The engine compartment was attached to a liquid oxygen tank, which in turn was attached to the central part of the rocket. Then followed the fuel tank and, finally, the compartment of the guidance and control system. The head of the rocket was attached to the guidance and control systems compartment. (Sch. 12)

In 1954, the director and then chief engineer of NII-88 M.K. Yangel, who was appointed chief designer of the then largest Dnepropetrovsk plant No. 586, sharply increased the capacity of the design bureau and began large-scale development of medium-range ballistic missiles (MIRBM) on high-boiling fuel components .

R-5M rocket launch

In this he was encouraged by the highest Ukrainian state and party leaders, many of whom soon moved to the Kremlin, in particular, Leonid Brezhnev. In their opinion, the work of OKB-586 could contribute to the growth of Ukraine's prestige in the face of the supreme power, which gave the republic new opportunities. In addition, in the future, Yangel could compete with Korolev himself by creating ICBMs on long-term fuel. However, at first, the operational design of the first own IRBM became an urgent task. The transition to new components required the solution of a number of problems related to increasing the resistance of structural materials in an aggressive environment, maintaining the stability of the fuel components during their long stay in the rocket tanks. Taking as a basis the initial project, prepared under the guidance of V.S. In order to make the advantages of the Dnepropetrovsk offspring look more distinct, the project was revised and an IRBM was proposed with a range of about 2000 km (66% more than that of the R-5M), capable of carrying a more powerful warhead. The missile received the designation R-12.

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Scheme of missiles R-5M, R-12 prototype and R-12 series

On August 13, 1955, the Decree of the Council of Ministers “On the creation and manufacture of the R-12 (8K63) rocket” was adopted with access to the LKI in April 1957, and in October 1955, a corrected preliminary design was released. The range and throwable weight increased, which led to an increase in the relative fuel reserve. As a result, the starting mass of the “product” became significantly larger. The thrust of the RD-211 engine was insufficient. However, M.K. Yangel did not see this as a particular problem - he felt the powerful support of V.P. Glushko behind him, who promised him to rapidly develop and commission all the necessary rocket engines based on new components. It must be said that work on the RD-211 engine began in 1953. Knowing from previous experience that the combustion chamber, determining such important characteristics of the LRE as thrust and specific thrust impulse (specific thrust impulse is a parameter characterizing the engine's efficiency; measured in kgf /kg s. Physical meaning - thrust developed by the engine at a fuel consumption of 1 kg per second. Further in the text, for brevity, simply "specific impulse" - ed.), is the most capricious element of the engine in fine-tuning, Valentin Petrovich suggested make LRE multi-chamber. He believed that it would be easier to work out one relatively small chamber of a multi-chamber engine than to bring a rocket engine with a single high-thrust chamber. The original nitric acid RD-211 was originally made four-chamber - the thrust of each of its chambers was almost two times less than that of the first RD-100 - an analogue of the German A-4 engine. Experimental-finishing tests of a nitric acid combustion chamber with displacement fuel supply, started at the stand in the same 1953, gave very good results.

A-4 rocket engine

By this time, the Design Bureau of V.P. Glushko, in addition to creating an engine for OKB-586, participated in work on a liquid-propellant rocket engine for two intercontinental missiles at once - for both stages of the Royal R-7 ICBM (on oxygen and kerosene) and for launch boosters of the Soviet supersonic intercontinental missile cruise missile (MKR) "Buran", designed in OKB-23 V.M. Myasishchev. RD-212 on nitric acid and kerosene for Buran was made on the basis of RD-211. A.M. Isaev, who a little earlier created a liquid-propellant rocket engine for launch boosters of the first Soviet MCR "Storm" developed by OKB S.A. Lavochkin, encountered an unpleasant phenomenon - explosions of the fuel mixture in closed cavities of nozzle heads. Kerosene turned out to be far from the best fuel for a pair with nitric acid - it did not provide self-ignition and gave too “hard” combustion in the chambers. “Having drunk enough” with him, Isaev, in all his next engines on long-term fuel, abandoned the use of kerosene in favor of self-igniting fuel - first amines, and then combustibles based on hydrazine. V.P. Glushko got out of this situation by using hydrocarbon fuel TM-185 of the turpentine type, which had smooth characteristics during ignition and provided more stable combustion with nitric acid than conventional kerosene or rocket fuel RG-1. In any case, there were no mentions of difficulties with fine-tuning the LRE due to the fault of the fuel in the reports of OKB-456. Bench testing of the RD-212 was not completed due to changes in the tactical and technical requirements for the Buran MCR - it was necessary to increase the thrust of the launch boosters by 22%, in connection with which the development of the RD-213 began, completed in 1956 by official bench tests and delivery batch of engines to the customer. However, in the same year, the customer realized that he did not need two MKRs (Storm and Buran), so work on the latter was stopped. Using the groundwork obtained, V.P. Glushko quickly managed to create a powerful and very reliable engine for the R-12 rocket, called the RD-214.

Engine RD-214

RD-214 (beginning of development - 1955) became the most advanced liquid-propellant rocket engine from the entire family of OKB-254 engines running on nitric acid and kerosene, and the only one of them that received practical application. In 1957, fire finishing tests began, which were carried out in two stages. LRE was tested immediately in a complete four-chamber configuration. At the first stage, the launch was practiced and the engine performance was checked for a specified operating time. Numerous features of start-up and shutdown transients have been identified. In particular, it turned out that a slow exit to the nominal thrust mode leads to the appearance of high-frequency pulsations in the combustion chambers. As a result, the first series of finishing tests and finishing finishing tests were successfully completed. The control and technological firing tests of a batch of commercial engines were also successfully passed. In March 1957, bench tests of the RD-214 as part of the R-12 rocket began at the NII-229 stand in Zagorsk. By the beginning of the LCI, four rocket engines had passed such tests. Engines for the LKI of the R-12 rocket were selected from the same batch. The second stage of fire tests would be aimed at reducing the spread of the aftereffect impulse, as well as at collecting the necessary statistics on engine reliability. It became clear that the best way to reduce the aftereffect impulse is to switch to the mode of the final thrust stage before it is turned off. However, tests have shown that when the pressure in the chambers drops below a certain value, low-frequency oscillations occur in them, which can lead to the destruction of the rocket engine. As a result, we determined the mode of reaching the final stage and the amount of thrust before shutdown.

Undercarriage of the R-12 rocket (end view)
You can see the plugs in the critical sections of the nozzles and the control levers of the gas rudders

By 1959, already during the LCI of the R-12 rocket, the RD-214 successfully passed the entire volume of finishing finishing and flight tests, was put into serial production and adopted by the Soviet Army. Inspired by the success of the R-211 / R-214 family, V.P. Glushko decided to reconfigure the engines for the "seven" from a single-chamber to a four-chamber, when it was necessary to increase thrust due to an increase in the launch mass of the rocket. After that, the multi-chamber LRE layout with a single turbopump unit began to be widely used by the Khimki Design Bureau.

Layout of R-5M and R-12 missiles on transport trolleys

The use of RD-214 affected the appearance of the R-12 rocket: the tail compartment had to be significantly changed by introducing a conical fairing skirt. However, when blowing rocket models in wind tunnels, it turned out that such a skirt has a positive effect on rocket stability. Speaking about the appearance of the R-12, we can say that it differed significantly from the appearance of the R-5M: the former elegance of smooth contours was replaced by chopped straightness of simple contours formed by pairing the cylindrical compartment of the tanks with the cones of the head and tail skirt. S.P. Korolev, seeing for the first time the drawing of this rocket, did not fail to remark: “This“ pencil ”will not fly ...” Another debatable issue in which M.K. Yangel sought to defend an independent position was the missile guidance system. Old gyroscopic devices - the heirs of the "gyrohorizons" and "gyroverticants" of the German A-4 - gave too much dispersion of warheads at long ranges. To increase accuracy, some experts at that time proposed introducing a radio correction system on the active part of the trajectory. S.P. Korolev was positive about such proposals - all of his missiles, starting with the R-2, had (some as the main, others as an auxiliary) a radio channel for lateral trajectory correction. M.K. Yangel believed that it was necessary to develop purely autonomous, inertial guidance systems based on the improvement of gyro devices. This gave the ballistic missile greater invulnerability - such a system cannot be “hammered” with radio interference. In accordance with these requirements, an inertial and fully autonomous control system was developed for the R-12. Time has shown that for combat missiles this approach was absolutely justified. It is interesting to note that the tests of the control system for the R-12 were carried out using the R-5M rocket.

Scheme of missiles R-12, R-14 and R-16

Flight tests of the R-12 began on June 22, 1957 with GTsP No. 4 Kapustin Yar and continued until December 1958. They were carried out in three stages; a total of 25 rockets were launched. All work on this missile, including the production of the experimental R-12 series, its LCI at the test site and preparation for serial production, was completed in 1959. On March 4 of the same year, the ground-based R-12 complex was put into service, and plant No. 586 and OKB-586 were awarded the Orders of Lenin. M.K. Yangel, L.V. Smirnov (factory director) and V.S. Budnik were awarded the title of Heroes of Socialist Labor. In July 1959, N.S. Khrushchev visited the plant to present government awards. Practically in parallel with the LCI of this rocket, the OKB-586 team carried out new developments. By September 1957, a draft design of the R-15 missile for arming Navy submarines was drawn up, issued in accordance with the Decree of the Council of Ministers of August 17, 1956, and by November 1957, the designers, in accordance with the Decree of the Council of Ministers of December 17, 1956 g. "On the creation of an intercontinental ballistic missile R-16 (8K64)", prepared a draft design of their own ICBM. It was supposed to reach its LCI by June 1961. To speed up the verification of some design solutions, the Dnepropetrovsk residents simultaneously developed a missile project to replace the R-12 - a more advanced IRBM with a doubled range compared to the previous one. On July 2, 1958, the Decree of the Council of Ministers was issued on the development of the R-14 (8K65) ballistic missile with a flight range of 4000 km in order to enter the LKI in April 1960. By December 1958, the preliminary design was ready. In the meantime, mass production of the R-12 was being actively established, not only in Dnepropetrovsk, but also in Omsk. Since the RVGK engineering brigades were equipped with R-5M and R-12 missiles, their combat capabilities and firepower have increased significantly. In addition to the brigades, which by that time were subordinate to the Headquarters of the reactive units, on the basis of aviation units in 1956–1959. long-range aviation missile units were formed. On December 17, 1959, the Decree of the Council of Ministers was issued on the merger of these units into a single Strategic Missile Forces (RVSN) under the command of Marshal of Artillery Mitrofan Ivanovich Nedelin. R-12 became the base for creating a group of medium-range missiles. The first regiments of the Strategic Missile Forces with ground-based R-12 missiles were deployed on May 15-16, 1960 in the settlements of Slonim, Novogrudok and Pinsk in Belarus, Gezgaly in the Caucasus and Plunge in the Baltic states. The pace of development and subsequent deployment of missiles cannot but impress. However, the time was such, and the main slogan remained “Overtake America! » It was not an abstract race - NATO's arsenals were by no means fictional. Already on December 1, 1955, President Eisenhower declared the program for the creation of a BRDD a priority, and from that moment on, the Americans literally went head to head with us, practically keeping up with the deadlines, and sometimes breaking ahead in terms of certain characteristics of the missiles. As a result of the developments carried out, the United States created two systems at once, which in many respects are analogues of the R-12 and R-14. On March 14, 1956, tests of the Jupiter missile, designed for the US Army Ballistic Missile Directorate by the "German team" of the Redstone arsenal under the leadership of V. von Braun, began. (In fact, Wernher von Braun was the chief engineer of the project and director of the Jupiter program. William Mrazek was engaged in the direct design of mechanical systems, Walter Hössermann developed the guidance and control system, Hans Heuter, ground equipment, Kurt Debus, launch equipment. Coordination of work and overall layout of the system were led by Haynes Coelle and Harry Ruppe.) On its third launch, on May 31, 1957, the rocket reached an estimated range of 2,780 km. Until July 1958, 38 launches were carried out, of which 29 were recognized as successful. Since the summer of the same year, the SM-78 Jupiter system was put into service with the 864th and 865th strategic missile squadrons of the US Army stationed in Italy and Turkey. Each squadron has 30 missiles. Several Jupiters were handed over to the Royal Air Force of Great Britain.

Preparations for the launch of the IRBM "Jupiter"

Less than ten months after the start of the Jupiter LCT, on January 25, 1957, the Thor rocket, developed by Douglas Aircraft for the order of the United States Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, launched for the first time. The first launch took place just 13 months after the signing of the contract for the creation of this rocket. Already on September 20, 1957, with a simplified control system, it reached a range of 2400 km. In the eighth and fourth successful flight, on December 19, 1957, the warhead of the Thor, equipped with a standard control system, “hit” the target range with high accuracy. Until January 28, 1959, 31 launches of this rocket were carried out, of which 15 were completely successful, 12 were partially successful, and four ended in failure. The first "Thor" was transferred to the British Air Force Bomber Command on September 19, 1958 and entered service with the 77th Strategic Missile Squadron stationed near Foltwell (Norfolk County). In addition to Great Britain, the SM-75 "Thor" system was in service with two squadrons of 15 missiles each, based in Italy and Turkey.

Installation of the upper stages on the Tor-Able launch vehicle, created on the basis of the Tor IRBM

"Jupiter" and "Thor" were designed by different companies and differed quite significantly in appearance (initially, von Braun wanted to offer "Jupiter" to the Navy for use from submarines, and this missile turned out to be short and "thick"). At the same time, they had a lot in common. In particular, liquid oxygen and kerosene were used as fuel components, single-chamber liquid-propellant rocket engines were used to control the flight, swinging in a gimbal suspension and differing from each other only in layout, since they were created by one company - Rocketdine. Both of these missiles were considered mobile, since they were transported on a wheeled conveyor, and the Jupiter was generally launched from a mobile launcher. The targets of the missiles were objects in the European part of the USSR. "Thor" and "Jupiter" were built in a small series. Their total number in the Air Force and the US Army reached 105 units.

RS-27A - a modern modification of the rocket engine, which was installed on the IRBM "Jupiter" and "Thor"

However, let us return to the R-12 and its role in the formation of the Strategic Missile Forces. By 1960, a very difficult situation was taking shape in the world. Despite the fact that the USSR had already adopted the R-7 ICBM and the R-12 IRBM, the priority in the number of nuclear warheads and their delivery vehicles remained on the side of the United States. The first Soviet ICBMs based on the "seven", due to their small number and restrictions on their use, could not really compete with American missiles and bombers. Another thing is the Dnepropetrovsk IRBM - due to their relative simplicity, low cost and high combat readiness, they could be quickly and widely deployed in units. In accordance with the new opportunities, a new military doctrine of the USSR was created, the main provisions of which were formulated on January 14, 1960 by N.S. Khrushchev in a speech in the Supreme Soviet of the USSR entitled "Disarmament for lasting peace and friendship." Ballistic missiles occupied a central place in military strategy, which became a decisive factor in influencing the enemy in both European and global wars. In accordance with this doctrine, possible scenarios for future wars were also built, which now had to begin with a massive nuclear strike. The Strategic Missile Forces became the most important part of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Here is what is written about the R-12 missile in the collection “Soviet Nuclear Weapons”: “With the deployment in 1958 of the SS-4 Sandal (the name of the R-12 missile in NATO terminology - ed.), the USSR gained the ability to deliver nuclear strikes of an operational nature, regardless of long-range strategic forces. SS-4 was soon supplemented by an intermediate-range ballistic missile SS-5 (P-14 - approx. ed.), which entered service in 1961. The number of deployed SS-3 (P-5M - approx. ed.), SS-4 and SS-5 peaked in the mid-1960s when they numbered over 700, with all but 100 sent to sites in Western Europe." Despite the fact that the ground complex with R-12 missiles was considered highly automated at that time, many procedures related to the preparation of the rocket for launch and its refueling were carried out manually. The complexity of operating the complex in parts and formations was revealed, in particular, during complex exercises on refueling training missiles with rocket fuel components, which were carried out from the second half of 1963. The missiles were repeatedly refueled and then sent to the arsenal. Particularly intense was the work of the personnel of the regiments and formations of the RSD during their trips to the GTsP No. 4 Kapustin Yar for training and combat firing.

Scheme of installing the R-12 rocket on the launch pad

Here is how one of the veteran rocket launchers, retired colonel-general Yu.P. During the refueling of the rocket, the air does not move at the position; up to about a height of 1-1.5 meters above the ground, there is a yellow cloud of oxidizer vapors coming out of the tankers' drainage system. The staff of the battery works in gas masks and protective clothing, dressed on a naked body, otherwise they cannot stand even a minute; every 4-5 minutes, soldiers, sergeants and officers run up to the water cart, throw back the hood of the protective suit and pour 1-2 buckets of cold water out of the hose. Wet body dries in 5 minutes under protective clothing. So they saved themselves from overheating ... ”Yes, in such conditions it was possible not only to check what our warrior is capable of even in peacetime, but also to understand that serious measures must be taken to reduce manual operations at the starting position. In addition, despite the fact that the R-12 missiles were stored in arched concrete structures, the launch complex itself, which was built on almost the same principles as its prototypes for missiles from A-4 / R-1 to R-5M inclusive , due to the abundance of service equipment (which included transporters, tractors, tankers, command posts, communication centers, etc.) and an unprotected ground launch, it was a vulnerable target for air attack. It was necessary to provide for a new way of basing, which was the installation of a rocket in special mines.

An artist's drawing describing the operation of the Atlas ICBM silo launcher

In his memoirs, Sergei Nikitovich Khrushchev claims that the silo-based missiles were proposed by his father, which we leave without comment. "Technically" the Americans were the first to come up with the mine, but they only intended to store a rocket in it (first - "Atlas", then "Titan-1"), protecting it from damage during an air attack. Before launch, the rocket, together with the launch pad, had to be lifted from the shaft to the surface by an elevator and launched from there. Later it was decided to start directly from the mine. The first full-fledged silo launchers (silos) were the silos for the Titan-2 missiles.

Scheduled maintenance of ICBM "Titan-2" in the mine

From the very beginning, our specialists considered it expedient to launch from the mine. Of all the possible designs, the one that provided for the free exit of the rocket installed on the launch pad, located at the bottom of the shaft, was chosen. The gases escaping from the rocket engine were supposed to exit through the annular gas duct between the inner wall of the shaft and the protective metal cup enclosing the rocket. To test the new basing method, it was planned to conduct a full-scale experiment with the R-12 rocket. Here is what Nikolai Fedorovich Shlykov, a participant in those long-standing events, said about the creation of the first mine installations for R-12 missiles: “When creating the first two silos at the training ground, builders encountered a quicksand at a depth of about 20 m. Since at that time the methods of passing quicksands had not yet been worked out, it was decided to build up the shaft upwards, pouring soil ... in the form of a mound about seven meters high. In this case, the rocket was completely immersed in the mine shaft. On the flat terrain, these mounds were visible from about 10–15 km away. Often they served as landmarks when moving around the range and therefore were nicknamed "beacons". Ground service equipment was located approximately 150 m from the mine. The rocket was installed in the mine using a 25-ton crane, refueling was carried out by means located at the zero mark. All solutions formed the basis of the technical developments of the experimental silo. The detailed design was carried out by the V.P. Barmin Design Bureau and the Design Institute of the Ministry of Defense (TsPI-31 MO). It was from one such “beacon” that the first rocket launch took place in September 1959. Eyewitness memories of the first R-12 launch from the mine are ambiguous: some argue that, having flown about 100 km, the rocket deviated from the course and fell: an emergency shutdown of the rocket engine occurred - during the operation of the engine in the mine, off-design vibrations occurred, which led to damage to one of the four steering gears. Others say that the accident occurred for a more prosaic reason - the gases escaping from the engine in the mine, when interacting with the injected air, squeezed out a metal strip of its shell inside the “glass”, which cut off the third rocket stabilizer. The flight was controlled until the 57th second, then, during the passage of the zone of maximum aerodynamic loads, due to the asymmetry of the configuration with three stabilizers, the rocket lost stability and fell. Upon inspection of the silo, a deformation of the protective glass was revealed, and the cut stabilizer was lying near the mine. On the one hand, it was a failure, on the other hand, a great victory - for the first time in the USSR, a rocket was launched from a mine. On May 30, 1960, the Decree of the Council of Ministers was issued, and on June 14, 1960, an order was signed by the State Committee for Defense Equipment (GKOT) on the development of combat silos with the code names Dvina (for the R-12 missile), Chusovaya (for the R -14), "Sheksna" (for R-16) and "Desna" (for ICBM R-9A developed by OKB-1).

Rocket R-12U in the mine

After a number of improvements (in particular, the modernization of the control system and the removal of aerodynamic stabilizers), on December 30, 1961, the first launch of a modernized rocket, called R-12U, was carried out. Its tests at GTsP No. 4 continued until October 1963. The first combat mines for the R-12U were built by January 01, 1963 in Plunga (Baltic), and a year later, on January 05, 1964, a combat missile system with the R-12U missile was adopted by the Strategic Missile Forces.

Routine check of the R-12 missile launch support equipment

In the initial period of adoption and deployment of these complexes, the P-12 quite often revealed malfunctions and shortcomings that prevented their safe use. In particular, flange connections of pipelines flowed. In addition, high-frequency pressure pulsations in the chambers were observed during fire tests of the liquid-propellant rocket engines of serial rockets. The analysis showed that serial pumps had a higher efficiency than experimental ones, and the gas generator was equipped with a smaller supply of catalyst. Subsequent technological measures completely ruled out engine accidents. From the beginning of 1957, LRE control tests were carried out, the analysis of the results of which showed high reliability of engines, and the use of more advanced methods of control flow of a number of RD-214 units made it possible from 1963 to completely abandon the control and technological tests of engines. In June 1961, the first launches of the R-12 were carried out with combat warheads equipped with nuclear warheads (“Operation Rose”). From a field position east of Vorkuta, it was planned to carry out three R-12 launches at the training ground on the island of Novaya Zemlya (the first launch - with a "blank" warhead, the next two - with warheads of different capacities). During practical exercises at the launch site to prepare the first missile for launch, due to an error by the combat crew, the electrical circuit of one missile was “burned”. Only the prompt actions of the launch management, the chief designer of OKB-586 M.K. Yangel and the director of the serial plant Ya.V. Kolupaev made it possible to quickly deliver a new rocket from Omsk and successfully complete the "Operation" Rose ".

Mine head R-12Sh

In July 1962, during the "Operation K-1 and K-2", R-12 rocket launches and high-altitude nuclear explosions were carried out in order to study their effect on radio communications, radars, aviation and rocket technology. During flight tests and the beginning of the deployment of the R-12, numerous experiments were carried out with the help of these missiles in the interests of various military and scientific programs. In particular, two launches were carried out to test a model of a rocket plane developed in OKB-52 under the leadership of V.N. Chelomey - in 1961 and 1963. In the second half of the 1960s - early 1970s models of the reusable aerospace aircraft "BOR-1" and "BOR-2" (BOR - unmanned orbital rocket plane), created according to the "Spiral" project in OKB A.I. Mikoyan. Numerous R-12 launches can be noted for testing missile defense systems (ABM) of the OKB G.V. Kisunko.

BOR-2 apparatus launched by R-12 rocket

In 1962, these missiles almost blew up the whole world. Because of the crisis that occurred as a result of the negative political and military situation in the Caribbean after the Cuban revolution, there was a real threat of American intervention in Cuba. The USSR hurried to help the new ally. Open military assistance would be too obvious a counter to the efforts of the United States to return the former regime to Cuba. N.S. Khrushchev took a step that, in his opinion, could cut the Gordian knot of problems with one blow: he instructed to deploy Soviet IRBMs with Soviet personnel in Cuba. The arguments for this decision were that the American "Jupiters" and "Torahs" from the territory of Turkey and Italy could reach the important centers of the Soviet Union in just 10 minutes, and it would take us more than 25 minutes to retaliate against American territory with the help of ICBMs. Cuba was supposed to become a launching pad and threaten the very “underbelly of America” with Soviet missiles. The Americans, according to N.S. Khrushchev, would not dare to attack the starting positions served by Soviet crews. The plan of the operation, called Anadyr, provided for the deployment of three R-12 regiments (24 launchers) and two ground-based R-14 regiments (16 launchers) on Cuban territory. To carry out this operation in the Baltic, in Odessa and Sevastopol, transports were allocated (mainly dry cargo ships with a displacement of 17 thousand tons each), which, in strict secrecy, were loaded with equipment and units, and the personnel were transported in specially converted holds of dry cargo ships. Part of the command staff was delivered to Cuba by the passenger ships Admiral Nakhimov, Latvia, and others. American intelligence was able to detect three Soviet missile regiments in Cuba only a month later, filming the launch equipment from the U-2 aircraft. It is easy to imagine what began after that in Washington! On October 17, 1962, Life magazine published a map of the location of Soviet missile systems in Cuba and arcs - the range of missiles and possible areas of destruction on American territory. Panic arose in these zones and people began to evacuate to safe areas. Apparently, for the first time in the history of America as a state, its inhabitants felt a real threat. From that day on, US attack aircraft began a continuous round-the-clock overflight of Cuban territory. The planes passed at low altitude over the missile positions, threatening, but fortunately not using weapons. By the end of October, half of the 36 R-12s delivered to Cuba were ready for launch operations. Due to the naval blockade, R-14s did not arrive on the island. Any next incautious move on either side could turn into a disaster. The world is on the brink of nuclear war. Only realizing this, N.S. Khrushchev and J.F. Kennedy came to the conclusion that the conflict must be resolved peacefully. During the negotiations, we agreed that we would remove the missiles from Cuba, and the Americans from Turkey and Italy. These events forced the missilemen to take a completely different look at operations of this type: instead of including the Cuban Brigade in the Strategic Missile Forces, they had to rapidly curtail weapons and equipment and send personnel to the USSR. The Caribbean crisis had an impact not only on the entire subsequent course of history, but also on the development of strategic weapons in particular. The Soviet military realized what kind of power (military and political) such types of weapons as the IRBM represent. It is interesting to note here that the R-12, which became a stage in the life of the Dnepropetrovsk Design Bureau, a stepping stone "to new achievements", turned out to be the most massive medium-range missile in service (according to American data, about 2300 units of R- 12). By the end of the 1960s. more than 600 R-12 missiles and about 100 R-14 missiles were deployed in the USSR. The life cycle of the R-12 lasted until 1990, until the elimination of the entire class of IRMs in accordance with the Treaty between the USSR and the USA.

Rocket R-12 before the parade on Red Square

© V.BOBKOV, 1997

Prior to the start in 1977 of the large-scale adoption of the SS-20 Pioneer mobile missile systems developed by A.D. Nadiradze Design Bureau, the number of deployed complexes with R-12 and R-14 missiles remained relatively constant. On October 27, 1983, Yu.V. Andropov, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, announced that all SS-5 (P-14) missiles were decommissioned. So, after the removal of the newer R-14 rocket from service, a certain number of older R-12s still remained in the "service" in the Strategic Missile Forces. By the beginning of the Soviet-American negotiations on the elimination of medium and short-range missiles (INF) R-12 were deployed at the Aluksne, Viru, Gusev, Karmevala, Kolomyia, Malorita, Ostrov, Pinsk, Skala-Podolskaya, Sovetsk, Stryi bases. After signing on December 8, 1987, the Treaty between the USSR and the USA on the complete elimination of medium-range (from 1000 to 5500 km) and shorter (from 500 to 1000 km) range missiles, within three years, starting from June 1, 1988, all such US and Soviet intermediate and shorter range missiles were destroyed as a class. Together with the well-known SS-20 Pioneer IRBM, under this agreement, complexes with R-12 missiles were also liquidated, of which by October 1985 there were only 112 units. By the end of 1987, there were only 65 of them, by June 1988 - 60. In June 1989, all P-12s were withdrawn from service. According to the annual bulletin "Soviet military power" (Soviet Military Power) for 1989, "... in April 1988, 52 SS-4 launchers with 170 combat missiles (65 deployed and 105 non-deployed), 142 blank training missiles were in service . The number of missiles decreased sharply from 608 in 1964-1966, although from the end of 1985 to 1987, 112 missiles were deployed on 81 launchers (79 deployed and 2 non-deployed).” At the birth of the R-12 rocket, its creators looked at it with pride, although they predicted that it would quickly disappear from the scene. Even cadets of military schools were told (and there were reasons for that) that by the end of their training, the R-12 would be removed from combat duty and they would serve on the latest missile systems. However, new missiles appeared, but the R-12 systems continued to "guard the Motherland." And only when yesterday's cadets themselves were already finishing their service, the missiles began to be withdrawn from service, and then only because of the INF Treaty. According to the stories of army specialists who participated in the work on the disposal of R-12 missiles, the Soviet and American sides conducted mutual launches in the presence of inspectors. “When the first Soviet rocket, the second, went into the sky, the Americans applauded in admiration. And when the fifth, tenth ones soared into the sky ... and everything was in a timely manner, clearly, moreover, right on target, they stopped applause. The fact is that during the launches of their missiles, failures began almost at the first launches ... ".

June 1989 Meeting of unit veterans on the last day before the destruction of R-12 missiles in accordance with the Soviet-American treaty on the elimination of the INF

© O.K. ROSLOV, 1997

December 1989 Officers of the missile unit at the last training camp in the formation of the missile forces near one of the last combat training R-12 IRBMs