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Indicators of the intensity of international trade. There are export and import foreign trade quotas

Instruction

Find out the volume of a country's exports, that is, the value of all goods sold to other countries. Usually this figure is calculated on a yearly basis. You can choose the currency in which payments will be made. For example, if you are comparing the economic performance of different countries, then the expression of figures in dollars or in euros will suit you.

Specify the gross domestic product (GDP) of the state for which you are making calculations. This indicator reflects the total value of goods and services produced in the country. At the same time, material values ​​​​made on the territory of the country at the expense of the capacities of transnational companies are also taken into account. In this coefficient, it is not the national source of capital that matters, but the place where the goods were produced. GDP is calculated monthly and annually, after which it is published in various economic publications and on the official websites of government agencies. For example, such information is regularly posted on the website of the Ministry of Economic Development - http://www.economy.gov.ru/minec/main. For calculations, you should use the total GDP for the year.

Calculate the export quota based on the results obtained. Divide exports by annual GDP and then multiply by 100 to get the export quota as a percentage.

Use the resulting figure for economic calculations. Keep in mind that the export quota shows not so much the level of competitiveness of products produced by the state, but the degree of its connection with the world market. At the same time, if the country's domestic market is very developed, and the bulk of the produced is consumed independently, the export quota will be low. For example, such situation develops in the USA - the most developed world. Therefore, in a comprehensive economic analysis, use not one, but several economic indicators.

Most operations in the open a heart refer to high-tech medical care that is not funded under the CHI program. In order for the population to receive complex treatment, the state finances it directly, allocating quota.

Instruction

Contact the clinic at the place of residence or at the place of work (depending on where you are observed). The cardiologist will prescribe you a detailed one, the results of which should prove the need for treatment using complex medical technologies.

After passing the examination, the doctor will prepare an extract, which will contain objective data about your condition. Get it certified by a healthcare provider. After that, the medical documentation must be sent to the chief cardiologist of the Ministry of Health.

In most regions, consideration of documents takes place without the participation of the patient. But in some cases, you may be invited to a consultation with the chief specialist of the Department of Health.

The commission of the Department of Health must review your documents and, if a positive decision is made, prepare a referral for your treatment to a specialized medical institution.

The referral for treatment, along with medical documents, is transferred to the office in which it is planned to operate on you. The case usually takes about 10 days to process, after which the healthcare provider must set a date for your hospitalization. If the clinic has a large queue for high-tech treatment, you will be put on the so-called waiting list.

Every citizen has the right to receive free medical care. Treatment of most diseases is funded by the CHI program. High-tech medical care (HTMC) is paid directly by the state. In order to make complex or receive expensive treatment, it is necessary to issue quota.

You will need

  • - a detailed extract from the medical history;
  • - a copy of the passport or birth certificate (if the child needs a VMP);
  • - a copy of the passport of one of the parents (to obtain a quota for the treatment of the child);
  • - a copy of the CHI policy;
  • - a copy of the compulsory pension insurance policy;
  • - your written application for obtaining a VMP.

Instruction

Contact the clinic where you live. The specialist who treats yours will issue referrals for additional studies. They will be presented to a special commission, which will make the final decision on the need for high-tech treatment. As a rule, most of the examinations and analyzes cannot be performed in polyclinics, therefore, most likely, hospitalization in a hospital will be required.

After passing the examination, contact the attending physician again so that he makes an extract from the history, which will indicate what you have to receive the VMP. In addition, an appropriate referral must be prepared, which will have to be certified by the head physician of the medical institution.

With all the necessary documents and medical statements, contact the Ministry of Health and Social Development, located at the address: Rakhmanovsky lane, building 3. A special commission, which will include the chief doctor of the city for your illness, will review your documents and, if a positive decision is made, write you for the provision of VMP.

Together with the voucher for the VMP, you will be issued a referral to a specialized medical institution that treats your disease. It will indicate the date of hospitalization and the necessary documents. If there are no places in the clinic at the moment, you will be put on a waiting list.

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note

The duration of most tests and examinations that you will have to undergo is from two weeks to one month. Try to meet these deadlines by collecting the rest of the documents, otherwise the medical examination will have to be repeated.

Sources:

  • how to get a quota for treatment in a

Regardless of what type of activity this or that company is engaged in, its management always faces a choice: whom to hire. Sometimes entrepreneurs prefer foreign employees, and there are several reasons for this. First, foreign citizens in some cases have a higher level of professional training. Secondly, often they are just cheap labor, which cannot but attract the employer. In any case, if you decide to hire a foreigner, you need a quota for attracting foreign workers.

Instruction

In any case, if you decide to hire, you need a quota to attract.
So, according to paragraph 4 of clause 13 of article of the Law of the Russian Federation “On the legal status of foreign citizens”, in order to attract a foreign employee, you need to obtain a special permit. Remember that the only exception to this rule are those workers who can stay on the territory of the Russian Federation without a visa. If the employee you hire does not belong to this category, then before obtaining permission, be sure to get on.

To apply for a quota for foreign workers, write an application to one of the executive bodies in your country. In the application, indicate your need, as an employer, to attract to your organization. For the powers conferred on this body, see the Decree of the Russian Federation No. 783 dated 12/22/2010. The same body will have to tell you the size of the quota.

If you want to know in advance how many foreign employees you can attract, check out the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation, which establishes the total number of quotas for issuing a permit to attract a foreign worker.

In addition, in the order of the Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation, check how many quotas correspond to the specialty or qualifications of the intended employee. Determine the item of this document that suits you and find out what is the maximum number of foreign citizens

An open economy is considered to be the economy of a country where foreign entities have free access to most markets, spheres and sectors of the economy. In recent decades, as a result of changes in the world economy, most countries have become part of the open economy.

The most important indicators of the openness of the economy are participation in (the specific value of exports and imports in production, the size of the foreign trade quota), as well as the relative weight of foreign investments relative to domestic ones. Absolute indicators include, for example, the value of exports of goods (services) in monetary terms per capita. For the United States, this figure is more than $3,200, for Russia it is about $700.

With the open nature of the world economy, the state regulates development with the help of the so-called. tariff and non-tariff barriers. Tariffs include an increase in the size of imported goods. In 1948, an agreement was concluded between the member countries of the World Trade Organization, from the moment it began to operate and to this day, the level of customs duties has decreased on average from 40% to 5-7%. Now the levers of influence are mainly non-tariff methods.

What it is? First of all - quoting. A foreign trade quota is a restriction imposed on the export or import of goods in terms of their quantity or total value. Quotas are set for a specific period and are both general (for state needs) and special:

Natural, bearing restrictions due to throughput, for example, oil pipelines or port terminals;

Exceptional (introduced in emergency cases to protect the domestic market and ensure national security);

Tariff (limiting the number of goods imported at reduced rates or duty-free. Goods that are imported in excess of the established limit are subject to duty at the full rate);

Export and import.

An export quota is a limited amount of export deliveries of a particular product. It is usually introduced in countries specializing in the export of specific raw materials as a price stabilization measure. Thus, the export quota is a quantitative indicator that characterizes the importance for the national economy of the export of a certain type of product or raw material. It is calculated for a certain period as a percentage of the volume of exported products (in quantitative or value terms) to the value of domestic production.

With a voluntary restriction of export deliveries, an export quota is usually established by bilateral agreement or international agreement.

Such an agreement may determine the share of each of the countries in the export of a particular product (for example, oil). Also, an export quota can be introduced by the government of the country in order to:

Sufficient filling of the domestic market with this type of product;

Restrictions on exports and stabilization of the price of goods in the domestic market;

Ensuring balance and protecting national production interests;

Regulation of supply and demand processes in the domestic market;

Preservation of natural resources;

In response to discrimination in the trade policy of other states.

Import quotas make it possible to avoid dependence on import supplies in the event of a reduction in the stock of necessary products (due to climatic or other conditions) and serve as a tool in negotiations on export deliveries of national products.

Quotas are a more flexible and progressive instrument of foreign trade policy than tariff changes, since the latter is established by the country's legislation and international agreements, and besides, the quota makes it impossible to increase sales by reducing prices. In addition, through quotas, the state can provide support to certain producers and industries.

Licensing of foreign trade can act as part of quotas or as an independent instrument of influence. A license (permission from state bodies) may be issued for import-export operations or their volume. It is applied for a certain period in relation to goods of general state purpose and in a number of other cases. In the Russian Federation, the right to export goods under a quota is subject to licensing, as well as the import and export of certain special-purpose goods (military, precious stones and metals, etc.)

In studying its subject, international economics relies on a number of basic concepts and assumptions, which we will consider in more detail.

The basis for the development of international economic relations is the international division of labor - a prerequisite for the formation of the world market and the world economy.

International division of labor - this is a stable concentration of production of certain products in individual countries, which determines their specialization in international exchange, the highest degree of development of the social division of labor.

Factors of the international division of labor divided into three groups:

- natural geographical - climatic conditions, natural resources, size of the territory, population, economic and geographical location;

- socio-economic - the number of labor resources, production and scientific and technological potential, industrial and social infrastructure, historical traditions of production, economic mechanism, incl. mechanism of foreign economic relations;

- scientific and technical progress.

The first and second groups of factors are decisive for international distribution of factors of production - the concentration of certain factors of production in different countries, which is a prerequisite for the economically efficient production of certain goods by them in comparison with other countries (natural advantage).

Economic resources are unevenly distributed among countries. Some countries have significant natural reserves of oil, gas, iron ore, and other minerals, some own significant land, forests, water resources, and labor resources. In different ways, countries are provided with accumulated stocks of fixed capital necessary for production. The level of development of scientific and technological potential is different. There are also abolitions of historical traditions and production experience, etc. In addition, the efficient production of goods requires various combinations of resources. For example, Australia, which does not have a sufficient amount of labor and capital resources, but has significant land, has favorable conditions for specializing in the production of "earthy" products - grain, wool, meat. Brazil has a combination of a tropical climate, fertile soils, numerous unskilled workers strength, therefore, has the necessary conditions for specialization in the production of coffee.In modern conditions, the influence of the natural factor is smoothed out by scientific and technological progress to the extent that the use of new equipment, more advanced technologies allows countries to fill the shortage of natural resources - to replace natural raw materials with artificial materials, labor - capital, etc. Scientific and technological progress is a determining factor in the modern international division of labor.

The international division of labor has two forms: international specialization and international cooperation. The main one is international specialization - sustainable orientation of national economies to the production of certain products with a view to its implementation on the world market. It can be intersectoral, sectoral, subject, detailed, technological. International cooperation is a combination of efforts of manufacturers of several countries in the production of certain types of goods for the world market, which can take the form of joint programs, contractual specialization, and the creation of joint ventures.

As the international division of labor deepens, internationalization of economic development - the emergence of stable economic ties between countries, as a result of which all forms of interaction between economic entities acquire an international character. It begins with the internationalization of international exchange develops into the internationalization of production, and later - into the internationalization of all economic life. The most important forms of manifestation of the internationalization of economic development are the expansion of international production, the spread of transnational corporations, the creation of international economic organizations, the emergence and spread of regional integration associations, the transformation of national economic systems into open economies.

In the process of internationalization of economic development, there is an increase in the interdependence of the economies of all countries. National economies become links of a single economic space in which any actions of one or more subjects of the international economy affect the interests of all (or many) others, that is, acquire global character. The development of globalization processes has become a characteristic feature of the modern development of civilization. Globalization brought mankind to the line beyond which the international economy ceases to be a mere collection of national economies, but more and more becomes a single market, a single production and financial space.

The vast majority of modern national economies are open to the outside world.

open called the national economy connected with the economies of other countries by flows of exports, imports and financial transactions. The open economy is the opposite autarky - an economy focused in its development only on internal opportunities, isolated from the world market and international competition. Such an economy in its development relies not only on national production capabilities, but also uses the advantages of international economic cooperation, develops all forms of international economic relations.

openness indicators national economy is export, import and foreign trade quotas.

Export quota is the ratio of the volume of exports expressed as a percentage

(E ) of a country to its GDP (Y), which characterizes the role of the country as a seller in the world market of goods and services:

By indicator export quota Most countries in the world are open economies. In the mid 1990s. Singapore (more than 100% due to re-export), Iraq (more than 80% due to oil export), Ireland (70%), Belgium (60%) demonstrated the highest degree of openness. The export quota was high (more than 40%) in countries with economies in transition. The United States (7.5%) and Japan (9.2) had a low export quota in the group of developed countries; in the group of developing countries - Brazil (7.2%) and India (7.9%); in the group of countries with economies in transition - Armenia (9.5%). Average rates (20-30%) had countries of different groups - Germany, Denmark, Canada, Chile, Hungary, etc. At the beginning of the XXI century. this figure averaged: in developed countries 27%, in developing countries - 12%, in countries with economies in transition (except Russia and Ukraine) - 5.5%. Small industrialized countries, closely connected with the system of international division of labor, had export quotas of more than 50%. Export quota of Ukraine in the mid-1990s. fluctuated within 40-45%, in 2004 it reached 63.6% and decreased to 50.9% in 2012. In general, in terms of the export quota, the Ukrainian economy has a consistently high level of openness.

Import quota is the ratio of the volume of imports expressed as a percentage (2 ) to GDP (U), characterizes the country's dependence on world markets for goods and services:

By indicator import quota most dependent on foreign supplies of goods and services in the 1990s. were Singapore (155%), Hong Kong (128%), Malaysia (86%), Belgium (55%), Slovakia (54%), Ireland (54%), Czech Republic (46%), Iraq (43%), Bulgaria (42%), Zimbabwe (42%). Brazil (4.8%), Japan (6.4%), India (8.5%), USA (9.9%) belonged to the countries with the lowest level of dependence. In most industrialized countries, the degree of dependence on imports fluctuated between 15-20%. Ukraine's import quota shows a high degree of dependence on the world market. In the mid 1990s. it fluctuated at the level of 44-48%, in 2005 it was 50.6% and increased to 59.3% in 2012.

Foreign trade quota - is the ratio of foreign trade turnover (the total volume of exports and imports) to the country's GDP, expressed as a percentage, which characterizes the intensity of its international trade relations:

In the middle of the XX century. in the open attributed economy dE2 > ten%. Now

An open economy is one that has deg > 45%. The greater the value of the foreign trade quota, the more open the national economy is. Among the developed countries, in terms of the foreign trade quota, relatively high levels of openness are shown by Canada - 71%, Germany - 63%, Great Britain - 55%, France - 50%, Italy - 48%, the United States (24%) and Japan (22%) have lower levels of openness. %). Significantly higher than the level of openness of most countries with economies in transition: Slovakia - 142%, Belarus -124%, Czech Republic - 123%, Hungary - 117%. Foreign trade quota of Ukraine in 2005-2008 amounted to 102%, in 2009 it decreased to 94% and again increased to 110% in 2012.

In international statistics, the most commonly used indicator of dependence on international trade, which is defined as the ratio of the sum of exports and imports of a country to its GDP, expressed as a percentage, which characterizes the average dependence of the country on the world market:

According to this indicator, three groups of countries are distinguished:

high-lying (SHOP > 45%), which mainly include small countries with different levels of development (Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Singapore, United Arab Emirates, Brunei, Panama, Macedonia, etc.);

medium-deposit (14% < money < 44%), к которым относятся крупные развитые страны (Германия, Великобритания, Франция);

low-deposit (0 < money < 13%), к которым относятся разные страны - и

highly developed, focused primarily on their own powerful economic potential (USA, Japan) and countries with a low level of involvement of foreign economic relations and international competitiveness (Belarus, Zaire, Liberia, Somalia, etc.).

In Ukraine, the indicator of average dependence on international trade, calculated according to (1.4), in 2012 amounted to 55%, which puts it in the group of highly dependent countries. However, the high degree of openness of the domestic economy in all respects, unfortunately, does not indicate the growing international competitiveness of Ukrainian goods, but primarily the existing structural imbalances: the economy's dependence on energy imports, which is largely caused by the export of low-tech products, needs them.

All considered indicators of economic openness (1.1 - 1.4) have a drawback, since they reflect openness to only one of the forms of international economic relations - international trade and do not take into account other forms. For a thorough characterization of the openness of their economies, they are supplemented with indicators quotas for direct and portfolio foreign investment - expressed as a percentage of the ratio of the volume of relevant foreign investment to the country's GDP. Both quotas reflect the country's place in the international financial market and testify to the attractiveness of its investment climate. The portfolio investment quota characterizes the level of attractiveness of short-term financial instruments for foreign investors, while the direct investment quota characterizes long-term instruments. Investment quota indicators C1 > 5% are considered quite high, in Ukraine they are consistently low.

However, these indicators do not fully reflect the degree of openness of the economy, since openness is influenced by the fiscal (taxes), monetary (exchange rate), foreign economic (trade restrictions) policy of the state, the capacity of the domestic consumer market, the level of development of infrastructure, communications and communications, and many other factors.

For analytical purposes in the international economy, all countries are divided into large and small open economies.

Big open economy has a powerful economic and resource potential, a significant share in international trade and global financial flows, which means that it can have a real impact on the state of world commodity and financial markets, the level of world prices and interest rates, production levels, employment and incomes of other countries. The countries with large open economies in the real international space traditionally include the United States, Japan, Germany and other leading countries of the world.

Small open economy has an insignificant share in world trade and world financial flows, therefore it does not affect the state of world commodity and financial markets, but is itself under their influence. Changes in world prices and interest rates, as well as cyclical fluctuations in the economies of large countries, inevitably affect the state of small open economies. Most countries in the world are small economies.

Important for understanding the features of the processes taking place in the international economy is the concept of exported and non-exported goods. Theoretically, the analysis of an open economy is usually based on the assumption that all goods produced by national producers can be sold either domestically or abroad. Goods that can move between different countries are called exported goods. The prices of exported goods are formed under the influence of the ratio of demand for them and their supply both in the country and abroad. In an open economy, domestic demand for exported goods and their supply do not have to be balanced; their deficits or surpluses are eliminated through export-import operations. In the long term, there is a tendency for them to equalize between countries.

However, along with the exported, there are a number of goods and services that cannot be physically moved, they are consumed only where they are produced, that is non-exported. These include housing, buildings, facilities, transport, hairdressers, lawyers, doctors, teachers, housewives, rental housing, etc. Even if in some countries their prices are lower than in others, they are too high to benefit from trade. , there may be transport and other associated costs of moving. The prices of non-exportable goods are determined solely by the ratio of domestic demand for them and their supply. Domestic demand for non-transferable goods and their supply must be balanced, since the imbalance between them is not eliminated by exports or imports. Therefore, the prices of non-exported goods may differ significantly from the prices of the world market and the prices of similar goods in different countries.

The degree of exportability of goods is determined by two main factors - transportation costs and protectionist trade policy. The smaller the share of transport costs in total production costs, the more opportunities to export goods. Technological progress in the field of communications has significantly expanded the list of exported services by reducing costs. For example, a world market for banking services and insurance has been created, and exports of design developments, software, and tourism are growing. On the other hand, protectionist policies can shift the goods of partner countries from exported to non-exported when, due to the establishment of import tariffs or quotas, the prices of similar domestic goods will be lower. A product will also not be exported if its price on the world market is lower than the domestic one.

Of paramount importance is the ratio of prices of exported and non-exported goods. Relative price of exported goods (RT ) , expressed in the price of non-exported (Cm ), is an real exchange rate: e = RT / Rm . Change

exchange rate changes the state of the current account of the balance of payments and stimulates the movement of resources between the sectors of exported and non-exported goods, therefore, affects the structure of domestic production and consumption of an open economy. According to exported/non-exported goods rule an increase in aggregate demand in an open economy leads to an increase in the production of non-exportable goods, a decrease in the production of exported goods and an increase in imports, and vice versa.

In its research, international economics, like other sciences, relies on a system of general principles and methods of cognition and specific methods.

Most general method knowledge is dialectics, which includes the unity of concrete and abstract approach, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, logical and historical, quantitative and qualitative analysis.

Start the study using such general scientific methods as observations and selection of facts which can support the proposed hypothesis. However, the facts paint a rather chaotic picture. In order to streamline them and identify the dominant trend, it is necessary to conduct statistical analysis - group data, track their dynamics. In the international economy, as in macroeconomics, it is widely used indicator aggregation method, that is, their generalization by special methods.

According to the statistics economic analysis which allows you to abstract from atypical, secondary characteristics and identify the essential aspects of the process that confirm or refute the hypotheses put forward. Further, functional links between the elements of the system (synthesis) are revealed. As in micro- and macroeconomics, international economics also applies limit Analysis, although its scope is much narrower.

The international economy, as it was found out, has gone through several stages in its development. Certain historical conditions determined the peculiarities of its functioning in each of them. Therefore, in the analysis it is important to observe unity of historical and logical approaches.

Distinguish analysis of the past period (ex post), and future analysis (ex ante). The analysis of historical data (ex post) is very important to explain the ways and means by which the system has reached today's parameters of development. It allows you to correct previous concepts and serves as the basis for determining the factors for further development. Ex ante analysis is the prediction of future trends based on already proven scientific concepts. It allows you to identify ways to influence the achieved state of the system in order to promote positive trends and eliminate the influence of negative ones.

For analytical purposes in the international economy, both in micro- and macroeconomics, it is applied economic modeling - a simplified description of the system under study, which allows you to characterize its properties, establish relationships between the main economic variables. The object of analysis in economic models, as a rule, is endogenous (internal) variables, their response to action exogenous (external) variables. Elucidation of the functional relationships between endogenous and exogenous variables makes it possible to explain many of the processes that are observed in the international economy.

Economic analysis and economic modeling in the international economy are based on a number of assumptions, the most common of which is the assumption "2x2". In the theoretical analysis of international trade, it is assumed that the world economy is represented by two countries that produce two types of goods (2 end 2 goods), its extended version is the model "2x2x2" (2 end2 goods-rih2 factors of production). The analysis of the influence of trade policy, the consequences of the movement of capital and labor is also carried out on the example of two countries, one of which is an exporter, and the second is an importer of goods (capital, labor).

Most of the models are based on assumptions of perfect competition commodity markets, freedom of trade and absolute mobility of production factors. While such models greatly simplify the actual situation, they do produce results that are valid for the real world of international economics, with many countries, multiple factors of production, imperfectly competitive markets, and the influence of government and international economic policies.

The vast majority of models of the international economy are based on micro- and macroeconomic models - models of transformation of production capabilities, models of market equilibrium, models for optimizing the structure of production in a competitive market system, models of intertemporal choice, models of general macroeconomic equilibrium for an open economy, etc.

Consideration of the subject and method of international economics allows us to determine its functions - theoretical, practical, methodological, ideological.

International economics as a science performs theoretical (cognitive) function, studying and scientifically explaining the mechanism of functioning and the dominant trends in the development of the international economy as an object of study.

practical function international economics is to develop recommendations for real economic policy on possible ways to solve the problems of world economic development. These recommendations, which define the foundations of international economic policy and business behavior of the subjects of the international economy, depend significantly on the theoretical views that dominate economic science.

Methodological function international economics is due to the fact that this fundamental science serves as a theoretical basis for applied sciences, such as international finance, foreign economic activity of enterprises and many others.

Worldview function It follows from the fact that the study of real problems and prospects for the development of the international economy forms the type of economic thinking and worldview of a person, helps to determine his civic position and behavior in the global economic space.

findings

International economics is an integral part of modern economic theory - the fundamental science of the economy, which studies the behavior of economic entities in conditions of limited resources. Just like micro- and macroeconomics, it examines the problems generated by the functioning of the market, but at a different, mega-level of research.

The subject of international economics is the patterns of interaction between national economies in the field of international trade, the movement of factors of production, financing and the formation of international economic policy.

International microeconomics studies the patterns of movement between countries of goods and factors of their production.

International macroeconomics focuses on the patterns of functioning of open national economies and the world economy as a whole.

The object of international economics as a science is the international economy as a set of national economies of the countries of the world and economic relations between them.

The subjects of the international economy are legal entities and individuals (national economic entities, states and their associations, international economic organizations) participate in international economic activity.

The main forms of international economic relations and relations between the subjects of the international economy are: international trade; international movement of factors of production (capital, labor, technology), international production activities, international monetary and financial relations.

The basis for the development of international economic relations is the international division of labor - a stable concentration of production of certain products in individual countries, which determines their specialization in international exchange. In the process of deepening the international division of labor, the internationalization of economic development takes place - the emergence of stable economic ties between countries, as a result of which all forms of interaction between economic entities acquire an international character.

In its research, the international economy relies on a system of general principles and methods of cognition and specific methods (the method of aggregating indicators, economic modeling, forecasting). It performs theoretical-cognitive, practical, methodological and ideological functions.

In order to reasonably judge the degree of involvement of a country's resources in the process of the international division of labor, it is necessary, along with the concentration of production, to use information about the development of foreign trade between this country and other participants in the IRT. It is data on the state of foreign trade that show that the gross domestic product in individual countries is spent not only to meet domestic needs, but is also sold on the world market. The question of which side of foreign trade should be taken for analysis - exports, imports or trade in general - depends on the specific objectives of the study. It seems that when considering the degree of involvement of all the country's resources in the process of the international division of labor, or, in other words, measuring the foreign trade intensity of countries, all these parameters can be used, although their meaning is different.

In world practice, two types of indicators are used to measure the foreign trade intensity of countries: the volume of foreign trade (or exports or imports separately) per capita of the country and the ratio of exports (or imports, or foreign trade turnover separately) to the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country.

1) the volume of exports, imports or foreign trade turnover per capita:

where E d - export per capita;

I d - import per capita;

ZTO d - foreign trade turnover per capita;

E - the value of national exports for the year;

I - the cost of national imports for the year;

ZTO - foreign trade turnover of the country for the year (E + I);

H - the population of the country for the corresponding year.

These indicators are widely used in international comparisons.

Export quota

In international comparisons, the export quota is used not only to characterize the level of intensity of the country's foreign trade, but also to assess the level of openness of the national economy, participation in the international division of labor.

It is calculated by the formula:

where E is the country's annual export volume;

The export quota is of great analytical importance. First, it testifies to the degree of dependence of the production of the national economy on the sale of its goods in the markets of other countries. Secondly, the share of exports in gross domestic product shows the ability of a given country to produce a certain amount of products for sale on the world market.

3) import quota as the share of imports in the country's gross domestic product also characterizes the level of the country's dependence on imports of goods and services. It is calculated by the formula:

de K i - import quota;

I is the country's annual import volume;

GDP is the country's gross domestic product for the same period.

The import quota can be compared with the export quota and thus establish the ratio between exports and imports. They can be equal, but most often these values ​​​​do not match.

4) foreign trade quota:

This quota is calculated by the formula:

de K zt - foreign trade quota;

E, I - annual volume, respectively, of exports and imports of the country;

GDP is the country's gross domestic product for the same period.

The foreign trade quota shows the total volume of foreign trade turnover of a given country with a partner country or with the entire world community, but does not give its qualitative characteristics.

In practice, none of these indicators of intensity has independent significance for assessing the level of intensity of countries' trade. At the same time, there is a close relationship between the level of foreign trade intensity of countries and the level of their economic development. According to the level of foreign trade intensity of the country, it is possible to determine the nature and functions of foreign trade:

Short- the minimum level of imports necessary for the functioning of the economy; exports can only cover critical imports depending on the state of the world market and prices on it.

Average- import satisfactorily covers not only the basic needs, but also allows you to purchase products with a fairly high technical level, but without establishing broad international industrial cooperation; the exchange of simple goods for more complex goods mainly on a non-equivalent basis.

Tall- developed industrial cooperation, a high proportion of components, assemblies, etc. in exchange; foreign trade affects the economy, shaping its structure and increasing efficiency.

5) the level of intra-industry exchange in international trade. Intra-industry trade reflects the parallel export and import of products of the same industry of a given country (or group of countries) for a certain period of time (usually a year). Intra-industry trade indicators are calculated using the Grubel-Lloyd method.

The level of intra-industry trade is defined as the difference between the total turnover of a given industry and the volume of inter-industry trade in this industry:

de H i- the level of intra-industry trade;

E i, I i- respectively, exports and imports of the industry " i»;

(E i + I i) - the value of the foreign trade turnover of the industry " i»;

| E i– I i |- the absolute value of the difference between exports and imports of products of this industry is equal to the volume of inter-industry trade of the industry " і ».

5. Indicators of economic efficiency of exports and imports. The calculation of economic efficiency is carried out by comparing the achieved economic result (effect) with the cost of resources to obtain this effect. Economic results and resource costs have a quantitative dimension, and therefore economic efficiency can be measured quantitatively.

Each level of assessment corresponds to its own type of economic interests and its own criterion of effectiveness. Thus, at the macroeconomic (national economic) level, the economic efficiency of foreign trade is understood as the degree of economy of national labor achieved by the country as a result of its participation in the international division of labor and foreign trade exchange. In this case, the criterion of economic efficiency is the saving of national labor, as an additional source of growth in gross domestic product and other economic and social macro indicators. And at the level of enterprises and other economic entities, the economic efficiency of foreign trade operations is understood as the degree of increase in income from these operations. The criterion of economic efficiency here is profit as the main measure of efficiency.

· macroeconomic indicator of the efficiency of foreign trade turnover:

where E then is the efficiency of foreign trade turnover;

B I - cost savings as a result of imports;

B E - national spending on exports.

For the national economy as a whole, it is important that the national cost of exports (B E) be less than the cost savings resulting from imports (B i). Only in this case the country saves its national work by participating in the international exchange of goods.

2) macroeconomic indicator of export efficiency:

where E E is the efficiency of national exports;

V E - foreign exchange earnings from the export of goods and services;

B E - national export costs.

6. macroeconomic indicator of import efficiency:

where E i is the efficiency of national imports;

B i - cost savings as a result of imports;

V i - foreign exchange import costs.

The sphere of use of these macroeconomic indicators is only analytical macroeconomic calculations in order to develop and justify possible options for trade and political measures aimed at realizing state interests in the development of the country's foreign trade activities.

6. Indicators of dynamics reflect trends and rates of change in international trade over time. These are relative values ​​that are calculated using statistical methods:

1) indicators of growth rates:

export growth rate

T r.e. = E o.g. / E b.g. * 100%,

where T r.e. – export growth rate;

E o.g. - the volume of exports in the reporting year;

E b.g. is the volume of exports in the base year.

import growth rates

Three. = I o.g. / I b.g. * 100%,

de T r.i. – import growth rates;

I o.g. - the volume of imports in the reporting year;

I b.g. is the volume of imports in the base year.

growth rates of foreign trade turnover

T r.vt.ob. = WTO o.g. / WTO b.g. * 100%,

where T r.vt.ob. – growth rate of foreign trade turnover

WTO o.g. - the volume of foreign trade turnover for the reporting year;

WTO b.g. is the volume of foreign trade turnover for the base year.

The rate of growth (decrease) is used to assess trends in international trade indicators over a period of time. Growth rates are presented as a percentage for the period being studied, and show trends in the overall growth or decline of indicators, allow you to determine the amount by which these changes have occurred over time.

· growth rate indicators:

– export growth rates

T e.g. \u003d (E o.g - E bg.) / E bg. * 100%, or T ave. = T r.e. - 100%,

de T pr. – export growth rates;

T r.e - export growth rates for the reporting year;

E og - the volume of exports in the reporting year;

E bg. is the volume of exports in the base year.

– import growth rates

6) the growth rate of foreign trade turnover

similar to the growth rate of exports

Indicators of growth (decrease) rates are used to assess the rate of change in indicators of the level of international trade per unit of time of the study period. Growth rates are presented as a percentage and show the amount of increase or decrease in international trade.

3.4. Pricing in international trade.

The national value of commodities in each country is determined on the basis of the level of socially necessary expenditure of labor for the production of these commodities. In the implementation of international trade, national labor acts as a share of total labor in the world economy. Therefore, international trade is based on international value of goods, which is determined public time for its manufacture under average global socially normal conditions of production.

Price is the amount of money that the seller expects to receive by offering a product or service, and that the buyer is willing to pay for this product or service.

Prices for goods and services in the world market are set under the influence of certain factors :

1. General economic factors- act regardless of the type of product and the specific conditions of its production and sale:

The economic cycle

the state of aggregate supply and demand;

inflation.

2. Specific economic factors- due to the characteristics of this product, the conditions of its production and sale:

· expenses;

· profit;

· taxes and fees;

supply and demand for this product or service, taking into account interchangeability;

consumer properties (quality, reliability, appearance, prestige).

3. Specific factors- apply only to certain types of goods and services:

seasonality;

operating costs;

completeness;

Warranties and terms of service.

4. External economic factors- associated with the action of foreign economic instruments:

state regulation;

exchange rate.

5.Special factors- associated with the action of special mechanisms:

political;

military.

In the world market, there is a comparison of different national prices for a product, and world price is formed under the influence of those national prices, which are based on the average global socially necessary costs of production on a global scale, that is, as the international price of production. World prices vary depending on the time of year, place, conditions for the sale of goods, features of the contract.

In practice, world prices are taken to be the prices of significant, systematic and stable export or import contracts, which are concluded in certain centers of world trade by well-known firms - exporters or importers of the relevant types of goods. For many commodities (cereals, rubber, cotton, cocoa beans, etc.), world prices are set in the course of operations on the world's largest commodity exchanges.

In the world market, the pricing process has its own peculiarities related to the fact that participants in international trade face more competitors in the market than in the domestic one. Therefore, they must constantly work in the mode of comparing their production costs not only with domestic market prices, but also with world ones.

The world market is characterized by a multiplicity of prices, which is explained by the action of various commercial and trade-political factors.