Political, socio-economic development of Kievan Rus. Formation of the Old Russian state and its social and political system Social and political structure of the Old Russian state

1. Social system of the Old Russian state

2. Political organization of Kievan Rus

3. Government bodies in Kievan Rus

4. Cities of Ancient Rus'

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

The moment of the emergence of the Old Russian state cannot be dated with sufficient accuracy. Obviously, there was a gradual development of those political formations mentioned above into the feudal state of the Eastern Slavs - the Old Russian Kievan State. Most historians agree that the emergence of the Old Russian state should be attributed to the 9th century.

In the 9th century. The East Slavic states, primarily Kiev and Novgorod (these names are already replacing the old Kuyavia and Slavia), are increasingly drawn into international trade that passed along the waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” This route, which ran through the lands of several East Slavic peoples, contributed to their rapprochement.

How did ancient Russian statehood emerge? The Tale of Bygone Years reports that at first the southern Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars, and the northern ones to the Varangians, that the latter drove out the Varangians, but then changed their minds and called on the Varangian princes. This decision was caused by the fact that the Slavs fought among themselves and decided to turn to foreign princes to establish peace and order, seeing them as arbiters to settle disputes that arose. It was then that the chronicler “uttered the famous phrase: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order) in it. Let him reign and rule over us." The Varangian princes allegedly did not agree at first, but then accepted the invitation. Three Varangian princes came to Rus' and in 862 sat on the thrones: Rurik - in Novgorod, Truvor - in Izborsk (not far from Pskov), Sineus - in Beloozero.This event is considered to be the starting point in the history of Russian statehood.

The evidence from the annals itself does not raise objections, but in the 18th century. German historians working at the Russian Academy of Sciences interpreted them in such a way as to prove the legitimacy of the dominance of the German nobility at the then Russian imperial court, moreover, to substantiate the inability of the Russian people to constructive state life both in the past and in the present, its “chronic” political and cultural backwardness.

In addition to the Slavs, the Old Russian Kievan state included some neighboring Finnish and Baltic tribes. This state, therefore, from the very beginning was ethnically heterogeneous - on the contrary, multinational, multiethnic, but its basis was the Old Russian nationality, which is the cradle of three Slavic peoples - Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians and Belarusians. It cannot be identified with any of these peoples separately.

The purpose of the work is to consider the political system of the Old Russian state.

To achieve this goal, we will define the tasks of the work:

1) Cover the emergence of the Old Russian state;

2) Describe the social system of the Old Russian state;

3) Explain the state and political system of the Old Russian state.

The social structure of the Old Russian state was complex, but the main features of feudal relations already emerged quite clearly. Feudal ownership of land was formed - the economic basis of feudalism. Accordingly, the main classes of feudal society took shape - feudal lords and feudal-dependent peasants.

The largest feudal lords were princes. Sources indicate the presence of princely villages, where dependent peasants lived, working for the feudal lord under the supervision of his clerks, elders, including those who specifically supervised field work. The boyars were also major feudal lords - the feudal aristocracy, which grew rich through the exploitation of peasants and predatory wars.

With the introduction of Christianity, the church and monasteries became the collective feudal lord. Not immediately, but gradually the church acquires land, the princes grant it tithes - a tenth of the income from the population and other, including judicial, income.

The lowest stratum of the feudal class consisted of warriors and servants, princes and boyars. They were formed from free people, but sometimes even from slaves. By currying favor with the master, such servants sometimes received land from the peasants and became exploiters themselves. Article 91 of Russian Pravda equates the warriors in the order of succession to the boyars and contrasts both with the smerds.

The main right and privilege of the feudal lords was the right to land and exploitation of the peasants. The state also protected other property of the exploiters. The life and health of the feudal lord were also subject to enhanced protection. For encroachment on them, a high penalty was established, differentiated depending on the position of the victim. The honor of the feudal lord was also highly guarded: insult by action, and in some cases by word, also entailed serious punishment.

The bulk of the working population were smerds. Some researchers believed that all rural residents were called smerds (B.D. Grekov). Others (S.V. Yushkov) believe that the smerds are part of the peasantry, already enslaved by the feudal lords. The latter point of view seems preferable.

The Smerds lived in rope communities, which grew out of the clan system, but in the Old Russian state they no longer had a consanguineous, but a territorial, neighborly character. The rope was tied by mutual responsibility, a system of mutual assistance.

In the Old Russian state, the figure of a typical feudal-dependent peasant appears - the zakup. Zakup has his own farm, but need forces him to go into bondage to his master. He takes a kupa from the feudal lord - a sum of money or assistance in kind and, because of this, is obliged to work for the owner. The labor of purchasing does not go towards paying off the debt; it acts as if only paying interest on the debt. Therefore, the purchase cannot work off the coupon and practically remains with the master for life. In addition, the purchaser is responsible for damage caused by negligence to the master. In case of escape from the master, the purchaser automatically turns into a slave. Theft committed by procurement also leads to servitude. The master has the right of patrimonial justice in relation to the purchase. Russkaya Pravda notes that the feudal lord has the right to beat a careless purchaser (Article 62 of the Trinity List). The purchaser, unlike the slave, has some rights. He cannot be beaten “for no reason”, he can complain about his master to the judges, he cannot be sold as a slave (with such an offense he is automatically released from his obligations towards the master), his property cannot be taken away with impunity.

In the multi-structured ancient Russian society, there also existed “involuntary servants”. Russian Truth calls an unfree man a serf or servant, and an unfree woman a slave, uniting both of them with the common concept of “servant.”

The servants were almost completely powerless. Russkaya Pravda equates it to cattle: “the fruit comes from the servants or from the cattle,” says one of its articles. In this respect, the servants of the Old Russian state resembled ancient slaves, who in Rome were called “talking instruments.” However, in Rus', slaves did not form the basis of production; slavery was predominantly patriarchal, domestic. It is no coincidence that Russian Truth identifies categories of slaves whose lives were protected by higher punishment. These are all kinds of service personnel of the princely and boyar court - servants, children's educators, artisans, etc. Over time, the process of transforming serfs into feudal-dependent peasants also develops. They became the first serfs.

In the Old Russian state there was still no enslavement of peasants. Feudal dependence historically can exist in different forms. This stage of development of feudalism is characterized by the absence of attachment of the peasant to the land and the personality of the feudal lord. Even a purchaser, if he somehow manages to collect money to pay the debt, can immediately leave his master.

In the Old Russian state there were large and numerous cities. Already in the 9th - 10th centuries. there were at least 25 of them. In the next century, over 60 more cities were added, and by the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion there were about 300 cities in Rus'. Merchants, who were a privileged category of people, stood out among the urban population. This especially applies to guests engaged in foreign trade. Skilled artisans also lived in Kyiv, Novgorod and other cities, who built magnificent temples and palaces for the nobility, made weapons, jewelry, etc.

Cities were centers of culture. The Old Russian village was illiterate for a long time. But in the cities, literacy was widespread, not only among merchants, but also among artisans. This is evidenced by both numerous birch bark letters and author’s inscriptions on household items.

As we see, in the Old Russian state, classes are already taking shape, i.e. large groups of people united by a common legal status. Therefore, one can hardly agree with some domestic and foreign authors who believe that the class system was characteristic only of Western feudalism.

The Old Russian state was multi-ethnic, as already noted, and from the very beginning. "The Tale of Bygone Years", listing the tribes that allegedly invited the Varangian princes, also names clearly non-Slavic tribes - Chud and all. As the Slavs moved to the northeast, they inevitably entered the area of ​​settlement of the Finnish tribes. However, this process was largely peaceful and was not accompanied by the subjugation of the indigenous population. In the vast forests of the Volga basin and beyond there was enough space for everyone, and the Slavs peacefully mixed with the local tribes. With the introduction of Christianity, this synthesis was facilitated by the identical baptism of all pagans - both Slavs and Finns. The Russian Metropolitan Hilarion in his “Sermon on Law and Grace” (11th century) speaks of the equality of all Christian peoples, without at all emphasizing the priority of the Russians. In legislation we will also not find any advantages for the Slavs, for Rus'. Moreover, Russian Truth provides for certain advantages in the field of civil and procedural law for foreigners, based on the principles of traditional Russian hospitality.

The ideas of internationalism and the absence of any chauvinism permeate ancient Russian literature.

The history of Kievan Rus, the chronological framework of which most historians define as the 9th-early 12th centuries, can be conditionally divided into three periods:

9th - mid 10th century - initial, the time of the first Kyiv princes;

Second half of the 10th - first half of the 11th century. the time of Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise, the heyday of Kievan Rus;

second half of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century, transition to territorial and political fragmentation.

The East Slavic state was formed at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, when the Kyiv princes gradually subjugated the East Slavic unions of tribal principalities. The leading role in this process was played by the military service nobility - the squad of Kyiv princes.

Some of the unions of tribal principalities were subordinated to the Kyiv princes in two stages: the unions of tribal principalities paid tribute while maintaining internal autonomy. In the 2nd half of the 10th century. tribute was collected in fixed amounts, in kind and in cash;

at the second stage, the alliances of tribal principalities were directly subordinated. The local reign was liquidated, and a representative of the Kyiv dynasty was appointed as governor.

The elimination of the “autonomy” of all East Slavic unions of tribal principalities meant the completion of the formation by the end of the 10th century. territorial structure of the state of Rus'.

The territories within the framework of a single early feudal state, ruled by the vassal princes of the Kyiv ruler, received the name volost. In general, in the 10th century. the state was called “Rus”, “Russian land”. The final structure of the state is formalized under Prince Vladimir.

He put his sons in charge in the 9 largest centers of Rus'.

the unification of all East Slavic tribes under the rule of the Grand Duke of Kyiv;

the acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and the protection of trade routes that led to these markets;

protection of the borders of the Russian land from attacks by steppe nomads.

The Old Russian state in its form of government is an early feudal monarchy. In addition to the monarchical element, which undoubtedly is the basis, the political organization of the Russian principalities of the Kyiv period also had a combination of aristocratic and democratic rule.

The monarchical element was the prince. His brothers, sons and warriors carried out:

1) governing the country

3) collection of tribute and duties.

The aristocratic element was represented by the Council (Boyar Duma), which included senior warriors - local nobility, representatives of cities, and sometimes the clergy.

In 882, a change of dynasties occurred on the Kiev table. Power was seized by the Varangian king Oleg (882-912), who united Southern and Northern Rus' in one political system.

At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. the power of the Kyiv prince already extended to the Polyans, Novgorod Slovenes, Krivichi, Severians, Radimichi, Drevlyans, Croats, Ulichs, and to the non-Slavic tribes Chud and Meryu. The territorial growth of Kievan Rus is associated with Oleg’s military campaigns, but this process was based on internal factors - the economic, political and cultural consolidation of the Eastern Slavs.

Kievan Rus achieved significant success at the beginning of the 10th century. and in foreign policy. In 907, Prince Oleg’s campaign against Byzantium took place, in which, according to the chronicle, an army of 80,000 took part. The result was an agreement concluded with Byzantium in the same year. The treaty gave the Russians certain benefits.

Another important direction of the international interests of Rus' at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. there were countries of the Arab Caliphate on the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea. After the death of Oleg, which occurred according to the Tale of Bygone Years in 912, Igor became a prince in Rus' (912-945).

The beginning of Igor's reign coincided with a significant deterioration in the internal and international situation of Rus'. The first to emerge from submission to Kyiv were the Drevlyans, against whom Igor went to war, conquered and imposed a tribute greater than what they paid to Oleg. For three years, Igor fought against the Uglich until he managed to take their city of Peresechen. But even after this the Uglichi did not submit. Some of them left the Dnieper region, moved to the west, where they settled between the Southern Bug and the Dniester.

During the reign of Igor, the Pechenegs first appeared near the southern borders of Rus'. In 915 they made peace with Kiev and migrated to the Danube. However, in 920 this agreement was violated. From the brief message in the chronicle - “and Igor was the warrior of Pechengi” - it is not clear which side was the first to violate the peace terms.

In 941, a rupture occurred in relations between Kievan Rus and Byzantium. Igor, taking advantage of the fact that Byzantium was at war with the Arabs, set out on ships to Constantinople. Near Constantinople, the Russian fleet was met by the Byzantine and burned by “Greek fire.”

In 944, Igor carried out a second campaign against Constantinople, “though to take revenge on himself” for the defeat in 941. Warned by the Korsunites, the Byzantine emperor sent ambassadors to meet the Russian troops and asked for peace. An agreement was concluded, which, although it confirmed the main trade interests of Rus' in Byzantium, did not bring it the benefits that the previous ones had provided. He abolished a number of advantages for the Russians and imposed more responsibilities on them: Russian merchants had to pay a duty to Byzantium, Igor pledged not to allow the Bulgarians to enter the Byzantine possessions in the Crimea, and not to attack the Byzantine lands himself.

After Igor's death, due to the minority of his son Svyatoslav, Svyatoslav's mother, Princess Olga, became regent. Semi-legendary information has been preserved, on the basis of which Olga can be considered the daughter of the Pskov ruler, a vassal of the Kyiv prince.

During Olga's time, Kievan Rus maintained diplomatic relations with another major power of the medieval world - the German Empire. It is known that Olga’s embassy was sent to Emperor Otto in 959, and German ambassadors led by Bishop Adelbert arrived in Kyiv in 961. The bishop’s mission was to spread Catholicism in Rus', but it did not achieve its goal.

Thus, Kievan Rus during Olga’s reign further strengthened ties with the most powerful states of the medieval world. The German Empire also saw Kievan Rus as an equal partner.

In 965, Svyatoslav Igorevich became the prince of Kyiv. The time of his reign passed under the sign of the strong establishment of Rus' in the international arena, associated with overcoming hostile relations on the part of some neighboring countries. Volga Bulgaria competed with Russia in trade with the East. Khazaria, although it maintained close relations with Russia, often robbed merchant caravans coming from Kyiv. In addition, some East Slavic tribes, in particular the Vyatichi, continued to remain tributaries of Khazaria. Relations with Byzantium, which opposed the growth of Russian power, worsened.

The first step of the young 22-year-old prince was to return the Vyatichi, who were then dependent on the Khazar Kaganate, to the rule of Kievan Rus.

Meanwhile, events taking place in the Balkans drew Kievan Rus into the war between the Bulgarian kingdom and Byzantium.

Scientists have different assessments of Svyatoslav’s activities, since the motives and results of his actions were not clear. Concerned about the high international authority of Kievan Rus, as well as strengthening its economic position in the Black Sea markets, Svyatoslav did not show the same interest in the internal affairs of the country. Being a talented commander who won a number of brilliant victories, he, however, could not properly assess the danger to Rus' from the Pechenegs.

3. MANAGEMENT BODIES IN KIEVAN RUS

The formation of the ancient Russian state is one of the most important and complex scientific problems in Russian history.

The Eastern Slavs became an independent ethnic community in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. By the 6th century Among the Eastern Slavs, the first pre-state associations took shape - tribal unions. The unions were headed by military leaders - princes and family nobility. The highest governing body was the people's assembly - the veche, at which all the most important issues were resolved. The inheritance of the reign went along the family line.

The form of social relations that existed among the Slavs in the 7th-8th centuries. can be defined as "military democracy".

By the 8th century. state-political formations of the Slavs are taking shape, which in the scientific literature are also called proto-state formations. The first of them was the northern one with the center in Novgorod, led by the Slovenes (Slavia), the second was the southern one, led by the Polyans and the center in Kyiv (Kuyavia). A number of researchers believe that there was a third association, but some call it Ryazan, others call Chernigov (Artania). According to Academician B.A. Rybakov, on the basis of the Polyansky union of tribes and part of the northerners, a large association of Rus was formed.

Currently, disputes continue around the topic of the ethnic origin of the Russian princely dynasty and the Rus, which is popular in Russian historiography. The researchers were divided into two camps - Normanists and anti-Normanists.

Currently, historians agree that Scandinavians acted under the name of the Varangians in the lands of the Eastern Slavs. They called themselves Vikings (“people of the bays”), in Rus' they were called Varangians, and in Western Europe they were called Normans (“northern people”).

Modern researchers recognize that the Varangian element played an important role in the formation of Russian statehood, but this statehood itself arose long before the Norman invasion. There were all the necessary prerequisites for this. The formation of statehood among the Eastern Slavs coincided with the decomposition of tribal and consanguineous relations and was conditioned by it. Tribal relations were replaced by territorial, political and military ties.

The formation of the Old Russian state is traditionally dated back to 882, when Oleg (879-912) captured Kyiv and turned it into the center of a united state.

Despite the Varangian origin of Rurik and Oleg, the created state was Slavic, not Varangian. The success of the Varangians was explained by the fact that their activities objectively contributed to the unification of the Slavic tribes into one state, which began long before the Varangians and independently of them.

The state in Rus' was created simultaneously with the European medieval states.

Old Russian statehood went through three stages in its development:

initial (mid-IX - end of 10th century) - rulers Rurik (862-879), Oleg (879-911),

Igor (912-945), Olga (945-969), Svyatoslav (965-972);

heyday (end of the 10th - first half of the 11th century) - Vladimir I (980-1015), Yaroslav (1015-1054);

decline, collapse (second half of the 11th - first third of the 13th century) - Vladimir II Monomakh (1113-1125), etc.

According to the form of government, Kievan Rus was an early feudal monarchy. The head of the state was the Grand Duke of Kiev, who had the highest economic, administrative, judicial and military power. However, he was not the sole ruler of the state, and his power had not yet acquired a clearly hereditary character.

According to tradition, the princely throne was to be occupied by the eldest member of the princely family. The prince could not single-handedly and at his own will appoint an heir to the throne. Since supreme power belonged not to an individual or family, but to the princely family as a whole, the sign of physical seniority played a decisive role in claims to the throne. Upon the liberation of the Kyiv throne, it was occupied by the eldest of the princes. This order of succession to the throne is called regular or dynastic. Gradually, the patrimonial, hereditary principle is becoming a new way of resolving disputes. The land and power that previously belonged to the father passed to the son.

The prince ruled with the help of a squad, divided into senior (“boyars”, “men”) and junior (“gridi”, “youths”, “children”). The senior squad was actually the princely council. Together with her, the prince made decisions on campaigns, collecting tribute, building fortresses, etc. The squad was supported by the prince at his expense: from spoils from conquest campaigns, deductions from tribute and court fees. In the depths of the druzhina organization, even before the formation of the Old Russian state, the so-called a decimal or numerical system of government, which later spread to cities and communities: the population was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands, led by tens, hundreds, thousands, respectively.

The princely administration was formed from the warriors, the most important role in which belonged to the prince's local representatives: posadniks (governors) - in cities and volostels - in rural areas. They did not receive a salary for their service and were supported by taxes from the population - the so-called. stern. This system was called feeding, and the officials were called feeders.

Certain functions or management of branches of the princely palace economy were carried out by elders and tiuns, appointed from among the prince's courtyard servants. The accounting of the collected tribute was carried out by the tribute workers, the trade duty - to wash - was collected by the mytniki, the fine for murder - viru - by the virniki, the duty for the sale of horses - by the stain - by the stainers.

Despite some growth in the princely administration, the state apparatus of the Old Russian state remained primitive. State and palace functions had not yet been separated from each other and were performed by the same persons.

In fact, the Old Russian state was a federation of lands under the suzerainty of the Kyiv prince. In the 70s XI century A new form of government appears: congresses of princes (“snema”). At these feudal forums, which met on the initiative of the Kyiv princes, issues of division of lands, vassalage were resolved, and inter-princely contradictions and conflicts were resolved.

The development of feudal relations contributed to the strengthening of the positions of local feudal lords - princes and boyars. They were obliged to serve the Grand Duke, but were complete masters of their estates and had the right of immunity, i.e. carried out some state functions in their possessions.

In conditions of increasing feudal fragmentation, two centers of power gradually emerged: the princely palace and the boyar estate. The decimal control system was replaced by the palace-patrimony system. in which power was divided between large landowners - the prince and the boyars, and the implementation of the most important state functions was entrusted to their representatives, who were both officials and managers of the patrimonial farm.

In the early feudal monarchy, an important state function was performed by the people's assembly veche (from “broadcast” - to speak). The people's council corresponds to the French. the word “parliament”, i.e. the place where people talk about government affairs. The competence of the veche initially included all issues of government, legislation, and the courts. Gradually this circle narrowed, and the veche only had the functions of control over management, elections and removal of administration representatives, issues of war and peace, etc. Sometimes the veche elected princes and entered into an agreement (“row”) with them.

Local government was carried out by the prince's trusted people, his sons, and relied on military garrisons led by thousands, centurions and tens. Current administration was carried out by city and local communities, hundreds and villages, as well as the princely administration.

Justice was administered by the prince or his representatives on the basis of customary law and the norms of Russian Truth.

THAT. Princely administration from Kyiv was built on a numerical and then on a palace-patrimonial system, covering all regions of tribal territories that Kyiv imposed tribute to.

The apparatus of power was formed from princely warriors and tribal aristocracy. By the time of the collapse of the Old Russian state, there were three forms of government: Princely, Boyar and Veche.

Social differentiation was consolidated by laws adopted by the authorities; the main source of state legislation was Russian Pravda.

The specific period in the history of Rus' is usually divided into two stages: pre-Mongol and Mongol.

In the second half of the 12th century. In Rus', the process of forming a system of separate principalities was completed. A period of feudal fragmentation began, which spanned the 18th century.

Economic prerequisites for fragmentation: the existing system of subsistence farming; lack of commodity exchange.

Socio-political prerequisites: the boyars, having transformed from the military elite (combatants, princely husbands) into landowners, strived for political independence; There was a process of “settlement of the squad on the land”, in the financial field it was accompanied by the transformation of tribute into feudal rent. Conventionally, these forms can be divided as follows: tribute was collected by the prince on the basis that he was the supreme ruler and defender of the entire territory over which his power extended; rent was collected by the owner of the land from those who lived on this land and used it.

Foreign policy factors: invasion of the Tatar-Mongols; the disappearance of the ancient trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”

In the first half of the 13th century. After the defeat by the Mongols, the Russian principalities fell into the position of tributaries of the Golden Horde. The principalities retained their statehood, the Church and the administration, but were forced to pay taxes, the collection of which was entrusted to one of the princes. This assignment was secured by the issuance of the khan’s “label”. Receiving this symbol gave the right to the title of Grand Duke and political and military support from Sarai (the capital of the Horde). The Russian princes were obliged to supply Mongolia and the Horde with tribute and recruits for the Khan's army. The Khan of the Golden Horde was a vassal of the Great Khan, whose capital was moved from Mongolia to China in the mid-13th century. Collection of taxes and mobilization of Russians in the Mongol The army was carried out on the orders of the Great Khan, sealed with the signature of the Khan of the Golden Horde.

Tributes and extortions, population counting, punitive and police functions on the territory of the Russian principalities were carried out by the Baskaks.

At the end of the 13th century. The taxation system implemented by the Mongols changed. The Russian Church was exempt from paying taxes and conscripting people under its control into the Mongol army. Veliky Novgorod was guaranteed autonomy and the right to free trade. Russian princes were given the right to independently collect taxes.

The actions of the Russian princes vassal to the khan were monitored by the khan's representatives. The principle of “divide and conquer” was manifested in the creation of 4 great principalities at once on the territory of conquered Rus' - in Vladimir, Tver, Ryazan and Nizhny Novgorod. Each of the great princes himself collected tribute for the khan on the territory of his principality. Unlike China and Persia, in most of Rus' the Mongols left local Russian princes in power as their vassals. Only in the southern regions (Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Podolia) did the Mongols introduce their direct rule. The Khan had supreme power throughout the Russian lands, deciding all legal and financial issues. All Russian princes were subject to the jurisdiction of the highest court of the Golden Horde, disputes between Russians and Mongols were resolved in Mongolian courts. Disputes between Russians were settled by Russian princes.

Three times (from 1245 to 1274) the Mongols conducted a population census. The number of mobilized Russians depended on the size of the populated territory, and a decimal system was established. Rus' was divided into “tens”, “hundreds”, “thousands” and “darkness”. The Mongol army took one recruit out of 10 men living in the area. The actual number of the administrative-territorial “hundred” was 2,000, and the “darkness” was 200,000 men. When taxes were collected, each district became a unit of measurement. All of eastern and western Rus' was divided into 43 “darknesses”, and only rural areas were included in this calculation; cities were taxed in a special manner. In rural areas, tribute was calculated in the form of a land tax for each agricultural unit (“plough”, “plow”). Merchants in cities paid tax on capital or turnover.

Basically, the princes of the period of Mongol rule concentrated all their managerial energy on internal administrative and judicial activities. The princely court became the center of the state. The most influential courtier became the head of the governing body of his estates. The prince's servants - the minor nobles - were, as a social group, the main support of power. Court ranks acquired the significance of state ranks. It was during the period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' that the palace-patrimonial system of government developed.

The weakening of the power of the Mongol khans in Rus' made the Russian princes autonomous rulers. At the same time, the princes were ready to use for their own purposes the administrative and military machine that the Mongols created. No longer encountering resistance either from the veche democracy or from the boyar aristocracy, the princes tried to strengthen their personal and hereditary power, turning all classes into “service classes” and power into autocratic power.

THAT. The dominance of the Mongols contributed to a change in the principles of government - centralization, the cruelty of criminal law increased, and the taxation system changed. At the same time, the landowning elite became increasingly attached to their estates. A local system of land tenure was also formed. State interest is strengthened in legislation. However, the region where the prerequisites for the subsequent unification of Russian lands are formed is the northeast (Vladimir-Suzdal, later the Moscow principality).

4. CITIES OF ANCIENT Rus'

Cities of Ancient Rus'... From them you can trace the history of our country, all stages of its gradual development, change and formation. In these cities, literally every stone breathes history, the glory of victories and the bitterness of defeats. Having lived a long life, they served as the arena for significant historical events.

The ancient cities that still exist today have shown amazing resilience and managed to survive through the trials of centuries. Each of them is famous for its historical and architectural significance. Many still have preserved fortress walls, earthen ramparts, ancient cathedrals and monasteries - evidence of former power and beauty that does not fade with time.

The mother of Russian cities is how Kyiv is usually called in historical literature. Kyiv is truly one of the oldest cities in Rus'. It existed already in the second half of the 5th - early 6th centuries as the cultural and political center of the Polyan union of tribes. Chronicles name three brothers as the founders of the city - Kiya, Shchek and Horeb. The city was named after his elder brother. Already under the first Kyiv princes of Scandinavian origin - Askold and Dir - the city gained great political weight.

Kyiv stood on the most important trade routes “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” to Constantinople, to Asia, to the Don, to Novgorod, and thereby attracted the attention of the princes who settled in the north.

Already in the initial period of its existence - Kievan Rus - Kyiv occupied a significant territory. Like most Slavic cities, it was fortified with an earthen rampart with wooden walls and surrounded by a deep moat. Defensive structures were necessary as the capital fought against external enemies.

The year 1240 was fatal for Kyiv: in December, the hordes of Batu Khan approached its walls, and after a heroic defense, which, according to the chronicler, lasted ten weeks and four days, the city was captured and destroyed, most of its inhabitants died. With the departure of the Mongol-Tatars, life in the city began to gradually revive, and after five or six years Kyiv had a considerable population. The economy and international trade were improving. Kyiv was visited by merchants from Poland, Germany and other countries.

In the 19th century, Kyiv became one of the largest commercial and industrial centers in Russia. This was greatly facilitated by the development of shipping along the Dnieper, which increased the volume of transportation and goods supplied to the city. The Epiphany Fair was transferred to Kyiv, to Podol, and was named Kontraktovaya. During its operation, the fair was visited by about 10 thousand people. Industry began to develop rapidly. By the middle of the century, 59 factories and 14 factories were operating in Kyiv.

The city's population quickly increased due to peasants looking for work in the city. With the growth of industrial enterprises, the influx of people into the city increased. Statistics show that by 1861 the number of residents of Kyiv was 65 thousand people, at the end of the 19th century - 250 thousand people, and by 1913 - about 630 thousand. Despite the fact that Kyiv was intensively built up with new residential buildings, more than 1,000 mud huts and dugouts still stood within the city limits.

With the construction of railways and the further development of shipping on the Dnieper, Kyiv becomes a significant transport hub. From the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century, the city administration began to pay more attention to the development of the urban economy. Centralized water supply was added to local water supply systems. The streets of the city were illuminated by thousands of electric lamps. In 1892, the first electric tram appeared in Kyiv, the first in Russia and the second in Europe. Since 1888, telephone communications have been operating in the city. Kyiv, “the mother of Russian cities,” by 1914 had become the third most important city in the Russian Empire.

Before the First World War, Kyiv occupied fourth place in Russia in terms of population, third place in built-up area and was considered one of the best Russian cities in terms of public amenities.

CONCLUSION

The Old Russian state was a major milestone in the history of the peoples of our country and its neighbors in Europe and Asia. Ancient Rus' became the largest European state of its time. Its area was more than 1 million square meters. km, and the population is 4.5 million people. Naturally, it had a strong influence on the destinies of world history.

The Old Russian state, created by the Old Russian people, was the cradle of the three largest Slavic peoples - the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Ancient Rus' was a multi-ethnic state from the very beginning. The peoples that became part of it then continued their development as part of other Slavic states that became its successors. Some of them assimilated and voluntarily lost their ethnic independence, while others have survived to this day.

In the Old Russian state, a form of early feudal monarchy developed, which was then preserved by its successors for several centuries.

Ancient Russian law was of enormous importance, the monuments of which, especially the Russian Truth, survived to the Moscow state. They also had significance for the law of neighboring peoples.

Objective historical processes of the development of feudalism entailed the withering away of the Old Russian state. The development of feudal relations, which gave birth to Ancient Rus', ultimately led to its collapse, the inevitable process of establishing feudal fragmentation in the 12th century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Andreeva, I.A. Fundamentals of State and Law [Text]: Textbook / I.A. Andreeva. – M.: Nauka, 2006.

2. Bystrenko, V.I. History of public administration and self-government in Russia [Text]: Monograph / V.I. Bystrenko. – M.: Delo, 2002.

3. General history of state and law [Text] / Ed. K.I. Batyr. – M.: Knowledge, 2007.

4. Isaev, I.A. History of state and law of Russia [Text]: Monograph / I.A. Isaev. – M.: Yurist, 2005.

5. History of state and law of Russia [Text]: Textbook / Ed. Doctor of Law, Prof. Titova Yu.P. – M.: Phoenix, 2001.

6. History of state and law of Russia [Text]: Textbook for universities / Ed. S.A. Chibiryaeva. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2004.

7. History of public administration in Russia [Text]: Textbook / Ed. Markova A.N. – M.: Nauka, 2001.

8. History of the domestic state and law [Text]. Part 1: Textbook / Ed. O.I. Chistyakova. Third edition, revised. and additional – M.: Yurist, 2004.

• Subject and method of history of the Russian state and law
  • Subject of the history of the Russian state and law
  • Method of history of the domestic state and law
  • Periodization of the history of the Russian state and law
• Old Russian state and law (IX - beginning of the 12th century)
  • Formation of the Old Russian State
    • Historical factors in the formation of the Old Russian state
  • Social system of the Old Russian state
    • Feudal-dependent population: sources of education and classification
  • Political system of the Old Russian state
  • System of law in the Old Russian state
    • Property rights in the Old Russian state
    • Law of obligations in the Old Russian state
    • Marriage, family and inheritance law in the Old Russian state
    • Criminal law and judicial process in the Old Russian state
• State and law of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation (beginning of the XII-XIV centuries)
  • Feudal fragmentation in Rus'
  • Features of the socio-political system of the Galicia-Volyn principality
  • Socio-political system of the Vladimir-Suzdal land
  • Socio-political system and law of Novgorod and Pskov
  • State and law of the Golden Horde
• Formation of the Russian centralized state
  • Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state
  • Social system in the Russian centralized state
  • Political system in the Russian centralized state
  • Development of law in the Russian centralized state
• Estate-representative monarchy in Russia (mid-16th - mid-17th centuries)
  • Social system during the period of the estate-representative monarchy
  • The political system during the period of the estate-representative monarchy
    • Police and prisons in mid. XVI - mid. XVII century
  • Development of law during the period of estate-representative monarchy
    • Civil law in mid. XVI - mid. XVII century
    • Criminal law in the Code of 1649
    • Legal proceedings in the Code of 1649
• Education and development of the absolute monarchy in Russia (second half of the 17th-18th centuries)
  • Historical background for the emergence of absolute monarchy in Russia
  • Social system of the period of absolute monarchy in Russia
  • The political system of the period of absolute monarchy in Russia
    • Police in absolutist Russia
    • Prisons, exile and hard labor in the 17th-18th centuries.
    • Reforms of the era of palace coups
    • Reforms during the reign of Catherine II
  • Development of law under Peter I
    • Criminal law under Peter I
    • Civil law under Peter I
    • Family and inheritance law in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
    • The emergence of environmental legislation
• State and law of Russia during the period of decomposition of the serfdom and the growth of capitalist relations (first half of the 19th century)
  • Social system during the period of decomposition of the serfdom system
  • The political system of Russia in the nineteenth century
    • State reform of authorities
    • His Imperial Majesty's Own Office
    • The police system in the first half of the 19th century.
    • The Russian prison system in the nineteenth century
  • Development of a form of state unity
    • Status of Finland within the Russian Empire
    • Incorporation of Poland into the Russian Empire
  • Systematization of the legislation of the Russian Empire
• State and law of Russia during the period of establishment of capitalism (second half of the 19th century)
  • Abolition of serfdom
  • Zemstvo and city reforms
  • Local government in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Judicial reform in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Military reform in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Reform of the police and prison system in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Financial reform in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Educational and censorship reforms
  • The Church in the system of government of Tsarist Russia
  • Counter-reforms of the 1880-1890s.
  • Development of Russian law in the second half of the 19th century.
    • Civil law of Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
    • Family and inheritance law in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
• State and law of Russia during the period of the first Russian revolution and before the outbreak of the First World War (1900-1914)
  • Prerequisites and course of the first Russian revolution
  • Changes in the social system of Russia
    • Agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin
    • Formation of political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
  • Changes in the Russian government system
    • Reform of government bodies
    • Establishment of the State Duma
    • Punitive measures P.A. Stolypin
    • The fight against crime at the beginning of the 20th century.
  • Changes in law in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
• State and law of Russia during the First World War
  • Changes in the government apparatus
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• State and law of Russia during the period of the February bourgeois-democratic republic (February - October 1917)
  • February Revolution of 1917
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• Creation of the Soviet state and law (October 1917 - 1918)
  • All-Russian Congress of Soviets and its decrees
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    • Powers and activities of the Councils
    • Military revolutionary committees
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• Soviet state and law during the Civil War and intervention (1918-1920)
  • Civil war and intervention
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    • Reorganization of the police in 1918-1920.
    • Activities of the Cheka during the Civil War
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  • Military Union of Soviet Republics
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• The Soviet state and law during the period of the New Economic Policy (1921-1929)
  • Nation-state building. Education USSR
    • Declaration and Treaty on the Formation of the USSR
  • Development of the state apparatus of the RSFSR
    • Restoration of the national economy after the civil war
    • Judicial authorities during the NEP period
    • Creation of the Soviet prosecutor's office
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    • Codification of law during the NEP period
• The Soviet state and law during the period of radical change in social relations (1930-1941)
  • State economic management
    • Collective farm construction
    • National economic planning and reorganization of government bodies
  • State management of socio-cultural processes
  • Law enforcement reforms in the 1930s.
  • Reorganization of the armed forces in the 1930s.
  • Constitution of the USSR 1936
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  • Development of law in 1930-1941.
• The Soviet state and law during the Great Patriotic War
  • The Great Patriotic War and the restructuring of the work of the Soviet state apparatus
  • Changes in the organization of state unity
  • Development of Soviet law during the Great Patriotic War
• The Soviet state and law in the post-war years of restoration of the national economy (1945-1953)
  • The internal political situation and foreign policy of the USSR in the first post-war years
  • Development of the state apparatus in the post-war years
    • The system of correctional labor institutions in the post-war years
  • Development of Soviet law in the post-war years
• The Soviet state and law during the period of liberalization of social relations (mid-1950s - mid-1960s)
  • Development of external functions of the Soviet state
  • Development of a form of state unity in the mid-1950s.
  • Restructuring of the USSR state apparatus in the mid-1950s.
  • Development of Soviet law in the mid-1950s - mid-1960s.
• The Soviet state and law during the period of slowdown in social development (mid-1960s - mid-1980s)
  • Development of external functions of the state
  • Constitution of the USSR 1977
  • Form of state unity according to the 1977 USSR Constitution.
    • Development of the state apparatus
    • Law enforcement in the mid-1960s - mid-1980s.
    • USSR judicial authorities in the 1980s.
  • Development of law in the middle. 1960s - mid. 1900s
  • Correctional labor institutions in the middle. 1960s - mid. 1900s
• Formation of the state and law of the Russian Federation. Collapse of the USSR (mid 1980s - 1990s)
  • The policy of “perestroika” and its main content
  • Main directions of development of the political regime and state system
  • Collapse of the USSR
  • External consequences of the collapse of the USSR for Russia. Commonwealth of Independent States
  • Formation of the state apparatus of the new Russia
  • Development of the form of state unity of the Russian Federation
  • Development of law during the collapse of the USSR and the formation of the Russian Federation

Political system of the Old Russian state

Old Russian state as a feudal monarchy. Feudal in its essence, the Old Russian state in its form was an early feudal monarchy, which was typical for most countries during the feudal system. This meant the presence of strong monarchical power, extending over a huge territory at that time (1 million km 2) with a large population (4 million people). Old Russian state from the 9th century. and especially towards the end of the 10th - first half of the 11th century. (the period of its greatest prosperity) united all the previously disparate tribes of the Eastern Slavs, as well as individual non-Slavic peoples. The power of the Kyiv prince extended over a vast territory: from Novgorod and Lakes Onega and Ladoga in the North to the Black Sea in the south, from the Carpathians in the west to the Oka and even the Volga in the east.

The culmination of the development of the ancient Russian early feudal monarchy was the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015), when the Kiev state became one of the largest states in Europe.

Prince Vladimir managed to organize an effective defense of Rus' from the strong Pecheneg hordes. Dozens of border fortresses were built - “heroic outposts”, and their garrisons were reinforced by warriors from the northernmost, most remote Slavic lands, who did not care about the Pecheneg raids on the southern Russian lands. This demonstrated the maturity of the early feudal monarchy, which was able to force all parts of the young state to serve a common goal. The organization of the fight against the Pechenegs on a national scale concentrated large military resources in the hands of the Kyiv prince, which gave effectiveness and reality to his power as the Grand Duke of all Rus'.

The powerful Old Russian state was at that time a great international force. At the same time, built on a strong grand-ducal power, it arose at a time when, in fact, there were still no necessary economic prerequisites for the creation of a centralized state. The emergence of the early feudal monarchy is characteristic of a time when crafts, trade, and cities are still poorly developed, when there is still no network of developed, strong relations between individual parts of the country, when the country does not represent an economically monolithic whole, and it includes lands located on at various stages of development.

What, then, explains the emergence and existence in different countries, including ours, of an early feudal monarchy with a large territory and strong princely power? The reason is that the period of the emergence and existence of the early feudal monarchy coincides with the period of formation of the first stage in the development of feudal land ownership, the first stage in the development of feudal production relations. The still emerging class of feudal lords (princes, boyars, monasteries, ordinary feudal lords) was interested in creating a strong state apparatus that would help it consolidate the seizure of communal lands and ensure the protection of feudal land ownership.

to enslave free communal farmers, turn them into feudal-dependent people, and most importantly, to provide protection from external invasions.

Thus, the early feudal monarchy is a natural result of a long process of formation of feudal land ownership, feudal relations, and the main classes of feudal society.

The support of the Grand Duke from the entire class of feudal lords as a whole ensured the rapid spread of the power of the Kyiv princes throughout the entire territory of Rus'.

But the Old Russian state was not a centralized state. It was a conglomerate of feudal lordships, and relations between the central and local authorities were built on the principle of suzerainty-vassalage. Special, so-called feudal agreements were drawn up between feudal lords, in which the rights of, on the one hand, feudal overlords, and on the other, feudal vassals, were established and regulated.

Suzerainty in Russia, unlike Western European states, had its own special name - “eldership”. It was the “elder” who in the Old Russian state owned the city of Kyiv, which was a symbol of his special power and authority.

The vassal princes had a number of responsibilities in relation to their “elder” - the overlord, the main one of which was military. The vassals had to, as they said then, “be in obedience.” However, the elder also had certain responsibilities, namely, giving fief to his vassals, i.e. lands and protected them from any attacks from other princes.

The Old Russian state, like early feudal monarchies in general, existed for a short time (until the beginning of the 12th century). As feudal property strengthened locally, the power of feudal lords over the enslaved and peasants increased, in conditions of weak development of economic ties between individual parts of the country, in conditions of intensified class struggle, the preconditions for the collapse of the early feudal monarchy arose. The gradual fragmentation of the Old Russian state, resulting from the development of feudal relations, began to lead to the emergence of new feudal centers, important for that time, in addition to Kyiv. Major princes began to gain great weight and strive for independence from the Kyiv Grand Duke.

Princely power. The highest power belonged to the Grand Duke of Kyiv. In an earlier era (IX-XI centuries), the prince coordinated all his activities with his warriors, who at that time were representatives of the top feudal lords. The princes also consulted with those groups of feudal lords who were not part of the squad. Thus, Prince Vladimir invited city elders to meetings, and when the role of the church increased, metropolitans, bishops, and abbots became constant advisers to the prince. The prince, who did not coordinate his activities with the leading feudal elite, risked his princely place.

In the XI-XII centuries. The nature of princely power is undergoing changes. The development of feudal property led to the fact that instead of the prince’s squad settling on the land, feudal militias were created, i.e. such detachments that, at the request of the Grand Duke, were brought by individual vassals during military campaigns and were under the command of the Grand Duke.

The prince's circle of activities in internal and local administration is significantly expanding. The activities of the prince in his own possessions (domain), where he had to appoint posadniks, volostels, tiuns and other numerous representatives of the administration, became especially difficult. As tribute turns into feudal rent, a complex financial and administrative system is created.

The functions of the prince in relation to the organization of the court and the administration of justice are further developed. At first, under the first princes, only princely warriors, servants, dependent peasants, and the highest princely administration were subject to princely jurisdiction. Later, the prince begins to directly judge the entire population of the main city, and the princely judges - the rest of the population.

The establishment of new norms of feudal exploitation was carried out through the implementation of relevant legislation. In this regard, the legislative activity of the princes begins to develop. Princes, by issuing laws, establish the principles of law and process. For example, the first legal collection Russian Truth appears. Thus, the Old Russian prince was a typically feudal monarch with very diverse and complex functions both in the field of administration and in the field of legislation and court.

Council under the Prince. Some historians, for example V.O. Klyuchevsky and M.F. Vladimirsky-Budanov believe that in the Kiev state there was such a body as the Boyar Duma (or Princely Duma). They believed that it was a permanent single-estate (consisting only of boyars) state body. However, an analysis of chronicle data and legal monuments indicates that there was no special institution in the Old Russian state that would have acted independently of the prince and opposed him.

There was a Council under the prince, but its activities were merged with the activities of the prince himself. The prince's advisers were first the warriors and city elders, and then the top of the feudal lords - the largest boyars. In addition, the Council included the highest clergy, as well as the most influential princely palace servants, who in the 12th century. began to compete with the boyars in their influence on the prince.

All the most important issues were resolved by the prince with his council: declaration of war, conclusion of peace, alliances, publication of laws, resolution of major financial issues. It must be borne in mind that there were no regulations for the activities of the Council - it was assembled by the prince as needed.

Veche. The veche was convened from residents of the city of Kyiv, as well as in other cities that were the centers of individual principalities. The veche traces its origins to ancient Slavic folk assemblies, tribal gatherings, which have long been called veche. However, as feudalism developed, the veche, which emerged from the clan institution, continued to be convened, and the princes were forced to consult with it on all the most important state issues. But the character of the evening changes dramatically. The democratic masses of the city - small traders, artisans, hirelings at veche meetings - could no longer lay claim to any independent political significance, and the veche was, as a rule, directed by princes and boyars.

A characteristic feature of veche meetings was that decisions at them were made not by a majority of votes, but unanimously. Therefore, in order to achieve unanimity, it was necessary to overcome individual opinions. Therefore, in many cases it took a long time to reach a unanimous decision.

According to available data, it can be judged that veche was convened relatively rarely in the Old Russian state (especially in Kyiv). It was usually convened either when the leading feudal elite split into a number of factions, or when the princes sought to enlist the support of the broad masses of the urban population and use them in their own interests.

Feudal Congresses. In some cases, when issues of particularly great political importance arose, most often issues affecting the interests of a significant part of the feudal lords, feudal congresses were convened.

Such congresses were convened by the grand dukes. Only they could organize them. It is impossible to establish a strictly defined competence of congresses. The significance of the decisions of the congresses depended solely on the degree of their support by individual participants of the congress. The prince and boyars often abandoned the decisions they had previously made (the chronicle testifies to this). There were, of course, no specific rules regarding the order of the meetings of the congress and the implementation of its decisions.

The first feudal congress was assembled in Lyubech in 1097. The result of the Lyubech congress was the adoption of three provisions:

1. all princes must forget their feuds and jointly defend the Russian land;
2. each should rule only his “fatherland”, his hereditary possession;
3. “If from now on any of the princes goes to war against another, he will be punished by all the princes as an oathbreaker.”

However, feudal congresses during the collapse of the early feudal monarchy turned out to be untenable. Later they turned into simple military councils before a military campaign; no one placed political hopes on them.

Controls. At the early stage of the history of the Old Russian state in the 9th century. There was a so-called decimal control system.

The decimal system was a kind of military administrative system. The Tysyatskys were the commanders of the garrisons stationed in the main centers of Rus'; the sotskys were subordinate to them, and those, in turn, the tenths. But as feudalization proceeded, the decimal system had to turn into a system of feudal administration, and, consequently, all officials had to change their functions. The decimal system is being replaced by the palace-patrimonial system, which is also called the palace or princely system. It is characterized by the concentration of all threads of government in the princely court, i.e. in the hands of princely servants.

Initially, the main issues of management were decided by the squad, but as the squad settled on the ground, the role of the princely palace servants, who in most cases came from slaves who had received their freedom, increased. This process is especially characteristic of the 11th century, when princely tiuns, swordsmen, and children became the heads of the state administration. At the same time, the specialization of princely servants begins to develop. Tiuns appeared who were in charge of the princely court, the fire pit (fiery tiuns), tiuns who were in charge of the stables (stable tiuns), etc. At the same time, the top of the tiunstvo stands out, it acquires houses, farms and entire villages. Thus, the top of the palace servants gradually begins to close in on the boyars.

One of the palace officials was the governor. His position arose from the position of the thousand. The governor stood not only at the head of a thousand, i.e. a certain circle of warriors, but in general all the armed forces of the principality. Another important palace rank appeared - the equerry, who was of great importance in the feudal administrative system. His responsibility was to provide the princely army with horses.

Thus, the palace-patrimonial system, typical of early feudalism and usually attributed in historical literature to the Moscow state, developed in the Old Russian state.

Local governing bodies were mayors in cities and volosts in volosts. The mayor was a representative of the princely power and carried out the functions of the prince himself in the city. The mayors and volostels had their assistants in the person of tiuns. They were initially appointed from among the slaves owned by the posadniks. All of them were supported by feed from the population, so this management system was called the feeding system.

In the Old Russian state, police functions were carried out with the help of princely squads. As feudal society developed, police functions began to be performed by some officials of the princely administration. Thus, Russian Truth mentions swordsmen and virniks who carried out the execution of court sentences by collecting fines from the convicted - vir, sales, as well as court fees.

Feudal immunity. As feudal relations developed, feudal lords began not only to receive the right to a portion of the income produced by the peasants, but also to acquire the rights to manage the population of their domains, the right to judge the population in their domains, and the right to receive the tribute that had previously been paid to the state. Grand and local princes indicated in special immunity diplomas that princely agents were prohibited from traveling to the possessions of individual feudal lords. At the same time, individual feudal lords became bearers of non-state power in their domains and received immunity in relation to the central government.

Immunity is a legal formalization of the power of individual feudal lords in their domains. It ensures feudal exploitation by large landowners of the population under their control. Immunity is primarily a consequence of the development of feudal rent. With the development of immunity, an increasingly large part of the population left the jurisdiction of the princely administration and fell under the full control of the feudal lords. Local government bodies began to manage only the population that lived on lands that were not given to private owners under immunity certificates.

Military organization. Simultaneously with the transformation of the warriors into the prince's vassals, the military organization also underwent significant changes. At first, the main military force in the Old Russian state was the squad of the Grand Duke, which lived in the princely court and was fully supported by it. But as feudalism developed, the top of the princely squad received large land holdings from the prince and, breaking away from the princely court, turned into boyars. Some of these former princely warriors acquired their own squads and, at the call of the prince, appeared for service at the head of their squads. The squad at the court of the Grand Duke continued to exist, but its role changed. It ceased to be the prince's main military force. With the strengthening of local princes and boyars, the feudal militia (military detachments placed at the disposal of the Grand Duke by his vassals) became the main military force.

The other part of the feudal army was made up of the so-called people's militias. As long as free community members remained, these militias formed an important part of the military force of the Old Russian state.

Finally, foreign troops were also recruited into the Russian army.

Court. In the Old Russian state, the court was carried out not by special judicial bodies, but by authorities and management at the center. and locally. The Grand Duke was considered the highest judicial authority in the state. The princely court was a very frequent place of court. The prince was approached with complaints about the decisions of lower judges.

The prince, in addition, tried his warriors and boyars, against whom lower courts could not initiate prosecution. In the most important and complex cases, the Grand Duke judged together with the veche. He could entrust the analysis of individual less complex cases to his servants - tiuns.

The trial was carried out by representatives of the local administration - mayors and volostels.

Along with the princely court and the court of other officials, there was a court of individual feudal lords, who acted on the basis of immunity letters.

With the adoption of Christianity, the judicial competence of the church began to spread. The organs of the church court were the highest clergy - metropolitans, bishops, abbots, and in feudal estates the church court was also administered by administrative officials. Church jurisdiction extended to the clergy, and in some cases to the entire population (in family matters, crimes against the church, against morality).

The church court also operated in relation to the feudal-dependent population of church estates.

It is worth noting that the social system of the ancient Russian state can be called quite complex, but the features of feudal relations were already visible here. At this time, feudal ownership of land began to form, which entailed the division of society into classes - feudal lords and, accordingly, peasants who were always dependent on them.

Features of the social system

The princes were considered the largest feudal lords. There were even entire princely villages where peasants who were dependent on the upper strata of the population lived. Boyars can also be classified as large feudal lords. We are talking about the feudal aristocracy, which grew rich through predatory wars and exploitation of the labor of peasants.

When Christianity was introduced, monasteries and the church could be considered collective feudal lords. The church gradually became richer in land, and was also given a tenth of the population's income.

As for the lower layer of feudal lords, this included servants and warriors, who were formed from both free people and slaves. Sometimes such people could become exploiters, having received land with the peasants from the owner as a reward for their service. Such a historical source as Russkaya Pravda talks about equating vigilantes with boyars, contrasting them with smerds.

The main privilege of a feudal lord is the right to land, as well as exploitation. It is interesting that the life of the feudal lord was also quite well protected: if there was an encroachment on them, then the law could establish the highest penalty.

Smerds made up the bulk of the population, which constantly worked. If we talk about their living conditions, they lived in communities. The rope was connected by a mutual guarantee, as well as a system of some kind of mutual assistance.

In addition, in the state of Ancient Rus' there was a figure of the purchaser - the feudal-dependent peasant. Such a person had his own household, but a difficult life situation forced him to go to the master in the so-called bondage. Such a peasant received money from the owner in exchange for physical work. But the purchase worked for the owner only for the interest that he owed, so he could not pay him for life. The purchase was also responsible for damage that could have been caused to the gentleman due to negligence. If the purchase ran away, he could turn into a slave.

In addition, the social structure of the ancient Russian state also distinguishes servants, which include unfree women and men. This segment of the population was almost completely powerless. Servants resemble slaves, although there was no enslavement in the Old Russian state.

Among the population of cities, merchants and artisans were distinguished. It is worth noting that the cities were considered real centers of culture. But the village was considered illiterate for a long time.

What was the political system of the ancient Russian state?

In the Old Russian state there were estates. We are talking about a large group of people who are united by a unified legal status. More specifically, this state was multi-ethnic. The state of ancient Rus' was a monarchy, headed by a prince. It was this prince who possessed the supreme legislative power in the state. The princes adopted important laws like the Truth of Yaroslav and the Charter of Vladimir. The princes were heads of administrations, concentrating executive power in their hands.

If we talk about external functions, they were performed both diplomatically and with the help of weapons. At that time, various treaties were signed with other nations. The prince was guided by the opinions of those around him, which led to the emergence of councils. At that time there were also popular assemblies called Veche. Originally there was a decimal, numerical system of government that grew out of a military organization. Such a system could separate local government from central government.

The church became an important element of the state's political system. The head of the church was the metropolitan. This is exactly what the political system of ancient Rus' was like.

Video: Old Russian statehood

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Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..3

Formation of the ancient Russian state………………………………….5

1. Prerequisites and reasons for the emergence of the Old Russian state………………………………………………………..5

   The emergence and development of ancient Russian law………………….10

Development of the ancient Russian state……………………………………...15

1. Social and socio-economic relations……………...15

   Domestic and foreign policy…………………………………………………….19

State and political system of the ancient Russian state….24

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………...31

List of used literature……………………………………………………..32

Introduction.

The conquest and subjugation of the Slavic, as well as their neighboring tribes, to the new political center, which became Kyiv, was a distinctive feature of the initial stage of the Old Russian state. This is how his territory developed. The earliest chronicles began their presentation, apparently, with the presentation of Kiy, the founder of the Kyiv principality and the city of Kyiv. The legend about the emergence of Kyiv (about its construction by Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv) arose before the 9th century, since it was recorded in the Armenian chronicle already in the 8th century. Other chroniclers considered the beginning of statehood in Rus' to be the “calling of the Varangians” in the second half of the 8th century.

The emergence of state institutions in Kievan Rus was inextricably linked with the emergence and strengthening of princely power. The prince personified the power; he was the central link, the core of the political system. The supreme legislative power belonged to him. He headed the entire military organization of the ancient Russian state and personally led the army into battle. The grand dukes performed the external functions of the state not only by force of arms, but also by diplomatic means. Ancient Rus' stood at the European level of diplomatic art. It concluded various international agreements of a military and commercial nature, either orally or in writing. Diplomatic negotiations were conducted by the princes themselves; they sometimes headed embassies sent to other countries. The princes also performed judicial functions.

Many historians equate the political system of the ancient Russian state with a monarchy, but on the other hand, the “anti-monarchists” reduce their argument to the fact that the power of the Grand Duke of Kyiv was never complete; it was limited either by the council of boyars, or the people's assembly, or other princes - members of the princely dynasty.

Purpose This course work is a study of the political system of the ancient Russian state.

Based on the goal set, we have identified a number of tasks :

Study the prerequisites and reasons for the emergence of the ancient Russian state;

Analyze the emergence and development of ancient Russian law;

Identify social and socio-economic relations developing in the ancient Russian state;

Analyze the internal and foreign policies of the ancient Russian state;

Determine the state and political system of the ancient Russian state.

In this course work, textbooks and teaching aids were used by Bystrenko, V.I., Andreev, I.A., Danilevsky I.N., Isaev I.A., Karamzin N.M., Klyuchevsky V.O., Markov A. .N. Smirnova A.N., Titova Yu.P. “Fundamentals of State and Law”, “History of Public Administration and Self-Government in Russia”, “Ancient Rus' through the Eyes of Contemporaries and Descendants (IX – XII Centuries)”, “History of State and Law of Russia”, “History of the Russian State”, “Russian Course history”, “History of public administration in Russia”, “Rus X - XVII centuries”, “Ancient Slavs”, “History of state and law of Russia”, which contributed to the study and analysis of the ancient Russian state, its formation and development of the political system.

Research methods used in course work: study of specialized literature on the chosen topic; analysis of the political system of the ancient Russian state.

1. The formation of the ancient Russian state.

   1. Prerequisites and reasons for the emergence of the Old Russian state.

The moment of the emergence of the Old Russian state cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy. Obviously, there was a gradual development of those political formations that we talked about earlier into the feudal state of the Eastern Slavs - the Old Russian state. In the literature, this event is dated differently by different historians. However, most authors agree that the emergence of the Old Russian state should be attributed to the 9th century.

The question of how this state was formed is not entirely clear. And here we are faced with the so-called Norman theory.

The fact is that we have at our disposal a source that, it would seem, to some extent answers the question about the origin of the Old Russian state. This is the oldest chronicle collection “The Tale of Bygone Years”. The chronicle makes it clear that in the 9th century. our ancestors lived in conditions of statelessness, although this is not directly stated in the Tale. We are only talking about the fact that the southern Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars, and the northern ones to the Varangians, that the northern tribes once drove out the Varangians, but then changed their minds and called the Varangian princes to themselves. This decision was caused by the fact that the Slavs fought among themselves and decided to turn to foreign princes to establish order. It was then that the famous phrase was uttered: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no decoration in it. May you come and reign over us.” The Varangian princes came to Rus' and in 862 sat on the thrones: Rurik - in Novgorod, Truvor - in Izborsk (not far from Pskov), Sineus - in Beloozero.

This interpretation raises at least two objections. Firstly, the factual material presented in The Tale of Bygone Years does not provide grounds for the conclusion that the Russian state was created by calling the Varangians. On the contrary, like other sources that have come down to us, it says that statehood among the Eastern Slavs existed even before the Varangians. Secondly, modern science cannot agree with such a primitive explanation of the complex process of formation of any state. The state cannot be organized by one person or several even the most outstanding men. The state is a product of the complex and long development of the social structure of society. Nevertheless, the chronicle mention in a certain sense was adopted back in the 18th century. This is how the notorious Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state was born.

Already at that time, Normanism met with objections from advanced Russian scientists, among whom was M.V. Lomonosov. Since then, all historians studying Ancient Russia have been divided into two camps - Normanists and anti-Normanists.

Modern domestic scientists predominantly reject the Norman theory. They are joined by the largest foreign researchers of Slavic countries. However, a certain part of foreign authors still preach this theory, although not in such a primitive form as was done previously.

The main refutation of the Norman theory is the fairly high level of social and political development of the Eastern Slavs in the 9th century. The Old Russian state was prepared by the centuries-old development of the Eastern Slavs. In terms of their economic and political level, the Slavs were higher than the Varangians, so they could not borrow state experience from the newcomers.

The chronicle story contains, of course, elements of truth. It is possible that the Slavs invited several princes with their squads as military specialists, as was done in later times in Rus' and in Western Europe. It is reliably known that the Russian principalities invited squads not only of the Varangians, but also of their steppe neighbors - the Pechenegs, Karakalpaks, and Torks. However, it was not the Varangian princes who organized the Old Russian state, but the already existing state that gave them the corresponding government posts. However, some authors, starting with M.V. Lomonosov, doubt the Varangian origin of Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, believing that they could also be representatives of some Slavic tribes. In any case, there are practically no traces of Varangian culture in the history of our Motherland. Scientists, for example, have calculated that per 10 thousand square meters. km of Russian territory, only five Scandinavian geographical names can be found, while in England, which the Normans conquered, this number reaches 150.

We do not know exactly when and how exactly the first principalities of the Eastern Slavs arose, preceding the formation of the Old Russian state, but in any case they existed until 862, before the notorious “calling of the Varangians.” In German chronicles, already from 839, Russian princes were called Khakans - kings.

But the moment of unification of the East Slavic lands into one state is known with certainty. In 882, the Novgorod prince Oleg captured Kyiv and united the two most important groups of Russian lands; then he managed to annex the rest of the Russian lands, creating a huge state for those times.

The Russian Orthodox Church is trying to link the emergence of statehood in Rus' with the introduction of Christianity.

Of course, the baptism of Rus' was of great importance for strengthening the feudal state, since the church sanctified the subordination of Christians to the exploitative state. However, the baptism occurred no less than a century after the formation of the Kievan state, not to mention the earlier East Slavic states.

In addition to the Slavs, the Old Russian state also included some neighboring Finnish and Baltic tribes. This state was thus ethnically heterogeneous from the very beginning. However, it was based on the Old Russian people, which was the cradle of three Slavic peoples - Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians and Belarusians. It cannot be identified with any of these peoples separately. Even before the revolution, Ukrainian nationalists tried to portray the Old Russian state as Ukrainian. This idea has been picked up in our time in nationalist circles, trying to quarrel the three fraternal Slavic peoples. Meanwhile, the Old Russian state did not coincide either in territory or in population with modern Ukraine; they only had a common capital - the city of Kyiv. In the 9th and even 12th centuries. It is still impossible to talk about specifically Ukrainian culture, language, etc. All this will appear later, when, due to objective historical processes, the Old Russian people split into three independent branches.

Also, the Old Russian state arises in a heterogeneous society and is a way of regulating relations between different social strata, classes, etc.

Statehood among the Slavs began to take shape in the 6th century, when there was a transition from the clan and tribal community to the neighboring community, and property inequality was formed. There are many reasons for the formation of the Old Russian state, here are the main ones:

Social division of labor . The sources from which people drew their livelihood became more diverse; Thus, military spoils began to play a major role in the life of the clan. Over time, professional artisans and warriors appeared. Frequent migrations of clans, the emergence and disintegration of inter-clan and inter-tribal unions, the separation from the clan of groups of war booty seekers (teams) - all these processes forced every now and then to deviate from tradition, based on custom; old solutions did not always work in previously unknown conflict situations.

Economic development . Not only the changed individual and group identity and the established inter-tribal relations, but also economic activity encouraged people to search for more suitable forms of common existence. The importance of the economic factor in the emergence of the state is usually exaggerated in studies by supporters of Marxism and other teachings that consider production (or distribution of what is produced) the basis of social life. The relationship between the economy and the ideas that guide people, between economic activity and the ways of organizing power is much more complex than it seems to Marxists. Without going into the details of the long-standing dispute between “materialists”, who highlight the economic needs of people, and “idealists”, who consider ideas to be the main factor of social development, we will limit ourselves to recognizing the close relationship between the material world and human consciousness. Private property could not arise until a person realized his distance from the clan, but the further development of the self-awareness of the individual was undoubtedly influenced by the practical, material results of the fragmentation of common clan property. Economic factors influenced the formation of the state, but this influence was neither direct nor decisive. The state arose when property differences directly related to the economy were not too significant; The emerging state power initially made almost no claims to serious participation in economic life. The bearers of the new, pre-state and state power (princes, warriors) were distinguished from society not on property, but on professional grounds. At the same time, the often coinciding professions of a warrior and a ruler (standing above the traditional, patriarchal power of clan elders) were almost unanimously recognized as socially useful.

Society's interest in the emergence of a state . The state arose because the overwhelming majority of members of society were interested in its emergence. It was convenient and beneficial for the community farmer to have the prince and warriors with weapons in their hands protect him and save him from burdensome and dangerous military affairs. From the very beginning, the state solved not only military, but also judicial problems, especially related to inter-tribal disputes. The princes and their warriors were relatively objective mediators in conflicts between representatives of various clans; the elders, who from time immemorial had to take care of the interests of their clan, their community, were not suitable for the role of impartial arbiters. Resolving communal disputes by force of arms was too burdensome for society; As the general utility of power was realized, above private and tribal interests, the conditions were created for the transfer of the most important judicial powers historically.

Hence it turns out that the created Kievan Rus was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages in the 9th-12th centuries. Unlike Eastern and Western countries, its process of statehood formation had its own specific features - spatial and geopolitical. The geopolitical space in which Kievan Rus was located was at the junction of different worlds: nomadic and sedentary, Christian and Muslim, pagan and Jewish. During its formation, Rus' acquired the characteristics of both Eastern and Western state formations, since it occupied a middle position between Europe and Asia and did not have clearly defined natural geographical boundaries within the vast flat space. The need for constant protection of a large territory from external enemies forced peoples with different types of development, religion, culture, language to unite and create strong state power.

In historical science, opinions were divided regarding the nature of the political system of Ancient Rus'. It is generally accepted that Ancient Rus' (9-11 centuries) was an early feudal state that preserved remnants of tribal relations.

The great princes gradually lost the features of military leaders (characteristic of them in the 4th-7th centuries) and, becoming secular rulers, took part in the development of laws, the organization of courts, and trade. The prince's responsibilities included the functions of state defense, tax collection, legal proceedings, organizing military campaigns, and concluding international treaties.

The prince ruled with the help of a squad, the backbone of which was a guard of mercenaries (initially the Varangians, in the Kiev period - nomads). The relationship between the prince and the warriors was of a vassal nature. The prince was considered first among equals. The warriors were fully paid and lived in the princely court. They were divided into senior and junior. The senior warriors were called boyars, from among them representatives of the highest ranks of the princely administration were appointed. The boyars closest to the prince formed the princely council, which made the most important decisions.

By the 10th century. the fullness of legislative, executive, judicial and military power was concentrated in the hands of the Grand Duke. The Grand Duke was a representative of the Kyiv dynasty, which had the supreme right to power. He ruled in Kyiv, and his children and relatives were governors in the lands under his control. After the death of the Grand Duke, power was transferred by seniority from brother to brother. This led to strife, since often the Grand Duke tried to transfer power not to his brother, but to his son. In the second half of the 11th century. the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy were resolved at princely congresses.

Gradually, tribal gatherings turned into veche meetings. For a long time their role was insignificant, but in the 9th century. with the beginning of fragmentation it increased sharply.

Rus' 9-12 centuries was a federation of city-states headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

A significant political role was played by veche meetings, at which city residents resolved issues of war and peace, legislation, land structure, finance, etc. They were led by representatives of the nobility.

Veche meetings, which were an element of people's self-government, indicate the presence of democracy in the ancient Russian state. 14 great Kyiv princes (out of 50) were elected at the veche. As the princely power strengthened, the role of the latter decreased. By the middle of the 12th century. During the evening, only the function of recruiting the people's militia was preserved.

In the ancient Russian state there was no division between administrative, police, financial and other types of self-government. In the practice of governing the state, the princes relied on their own law.

The court was dominated by the accusatory process, used in both civil and criminal cases. Each side proved its case. The testimony of witnesses played the main role. The princes and their posadniks served as intermediaries between the parties, charging a fee for this.

Old Russian legislation was formed as statehood strengthened. The first set of laws that has survived to this day is “Russian Truth,” compiled during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise on the basis of an even more ancient set of laws.

The document included a set of criminal and civil laws. In civil cases, Russkaya Pravda established a court of twelve elected officials.

The law did not recognize corporal punishment and torture, and the death penalty was imposed in exceptional cases. The practice of monetary fines was used. “Russian Truth” was replenished with new articles during the reign of the Yaroslavichs (second half of the 11th century) and Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125).

Socio-economic relations in ancient Rus' In the economy of the Old Russian state, the dominant system of production relations was feudalism, but slaveholding and primitive patriarchal relations were preserved. The main wealth and the main means of production was land. Therefore, a privileged position was occupied by those groups of the population that owned it.

A common form of organization of production was feudal fiefdom. The owner of the estate was a prince or boyar. In Kievan Rus, along with princely and boyar estates, there were a significant number of communal peasants who were not yet subject to private feudal lords. Such peasant communities, independent of the boyars, paid tribute in favor of the Grand Duke.

The entire free population of Kievan Rus was called “people” or “lyudins”. Hence the term meaning collection of tribute - “polyudye”. The bulk of the rural population, dependent on the prince, were called “smerds”. They could live both in peasant communities, which bore duties in favor of the state, and in estates. Those smerdas who lived in estates were in a more severe form of dependence and lost personal freedom. One of the ways to enslave the free population was procurement. Ruined or impoverished peasants borrowed “kupa” from the feudal lords - part of the harvest, livestock, money. Hence the name of this category of the population – purchases. The purchase had to work for his creditor and obey him until he repaid the debt.

In addition to smerds and purchases, in the princely and boyar estates there were slaves, called serfs or servants, who were replenished both from among the captives and from among the ruined fellow tribesmen. The slave system, as well as the remnants of the primitive system, were quite widespread in Rus'. However, the dominant system of production relations was feudalism, which had significant differences from the “classical” Western European one. The main feature of feudalism in the Old Russian state was the large role of the public sector in the country's economy. There were a significant number of free peasant communities here that were feudally dependent on the grand ducal power.

The Baptism of Russia is the introduction of Christianity as a state religion in Kievan Rus, carried out at the end of the 10th century by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich. Sources give conflicting indications about the exact time of baptism. Traditionally, following the chronicle chronology, the event is usually attributed to 988 and is considered the beginning of the official history of the Russian Church (some researchers believe that the baptism of Rus' took place later: in 990 [or 991[].

consequences:
1 Christianity affirmed the idea of ​​equality of people before God, which helped soften the harsh morals of former pagans
2 strengthening of state power and territorial unity of Kievan Rus
3 strengthening international authority, rapprochement with Christian states, in particular with Byzantium
3 penetration into Russian culture of Byzantine and ancient cultures

§ Despite the apparent unity of Kievan Rus, its individual territories enjoyed great independence. The centers of these lands were cities. Each city was a well-fortified fortress and became a castle for the inhabitants of the entire area.

§ The cities were surrounded by wooden walls and towers, which were erected on a high earthen rampart. A deep ditch was dug in front of the fortress walls. Inside there were stone cathedrals, mansions, and the streets were paved with wooden flooring.

§ Markets appeared in cities. Peasants from surrounding villages and foreign merchants traded here. Among the goods: weapons, spices, fabrics, jewelry. Most of the city's residents were artisans.