Signs and superstitions 

Techniques of poetic speech in a fairy tale. What are literary devices called? What is the name of a literary device with a play on words. Epigraph to the lesson

Lexical devices of modern poetry. Realities, vernacular, jargon, prosaisms, archaisms, terms. Stylization: historical stylization and historical poetry.
Examples of lexical devices. Modern poetic techniques, part 5.

Poetic dictionary.

Modern poetic devices, part 5

Poetry is impossible without figurative speech, i.e. speech is lively (not clerical), bright, expressive, having aesthetic value. An important role in the creation of figurative speech is played by the selection of vocabulary, i.e. a specific layer of words from the entire vast context of the language, a layer that is organically suitable for fulfilling the author's task when writing a specific work. It should not be assumed that it does not matter what vocabulary and in what neighborhood is used in poems: each layer of the language has its own coloring and its own effect when used, especially if words from different vocabulary layers are combined in the context. On this they are based lexical devices in poetry - the conscious use of certain layers of the language in the works and the variation of their combinations in the context.
Each poet above the average level has his own individual author's style, a special creative style - this is what distinguishes him even among those who write in the same vein and makes him recognizable. Lexical devices typical for a particular author to a large extent help this recognition, individuality.
In poetry, the following lexical devices are used to create expression:

realities

  1. Realities - purely modern life concepts, signs of life, facts of culture, political life, significant recent events, etc.; a lexical device that helps to establish a close spiritual connection between the author and the contemporary reader:

Where the days melt like half-stations.
Where not "Stop tap", but "Delete".
(Alexey Torkhov)

The word “Delete” mentioned in this example is known to absolutely all computer users, which include the majority of poetry lovers.

vernacular.

  1. Colloquialism is a lexical device based on the use of folk colloquial words and expressions that give the character of ease and rude humor:

Yes, good Polyakov, laziness is our mother.
But catchy words - do not put a limit.
For cha the horse mackerel of the whole Taurida understand?
He chews his own - munching every now and then.
(Stanislav Minakov)

Poets like to inadvertently screw a colloquial expression into the context of high style. When it is appropriate in tone, mood of the work and content, the lexical device of using vernacular emphasizes the natural flow of colloquial speech. However, unfortunately, with the use of vernacular and vulgarisms - especially in parodies and humorous works - they often “go too far”, trying to “be closer to the people”. It looks tasteless and primitive.

Local color.

  1. Local flavor - the introduction of elements that characterize local life, customs, nature, etc., including characteristic local catchwords.
    “Whose words are combined into speech, like an amber low” (Stanislav Minakov) - the Ukrainian word “low” (beads, necklace) is used here.

At least for the duration of the verse,
Movement of a living thing across the sky, across the sky,
Save ourselves from the powerful embrace of sin,
Leaving the day - his zradu and malice.
(Ibid.)

Ukrainian "zrada" means "treason, betrayal."

Was to myself. And grew big.
And you appeared, so great -
knocked me out of my thoughts, off my feet, off the path and off the pantalik.
And so I live, with a torn soul.
(Elena Buevich)

Here the author uses a Ukrainian idiom, which also has a colloquial sound and means "to confuse". Colloquialism, a lively and expressive word, very characteristic of everyday Ukrainian speech, moreover, in the same row of enumerations with a literal and not figurative meaning (knock down), contributes to the strong expressive coloring of this poignant lyrical poem.
The use of local realities and Ukrainisms (“Surzhik” words formed from a Russian root according to Ukrainian grammatical norms, or words that sound the same in both languages, but have accents in different places), is very characteristic of the Russian lyrics of Ukraine:

Ah, the river is fun!
Towel dangled
To the pimply water - the braids of the hands - willows A...
And in rye stripes -
Sets hair on fire
A dahlia flame at a steep forehead!
(Igor Litvinenko)

The lexical device of local color can help achieve several goals at once: creating emotional closeness with readers - representatives of a given linguistic community that uses these realities; introduction of the reader - a native of other places in a specific language environment, familiarization with the interesting features of speech in a given area, which allows you to "plunge into live speech"; and also - sometimes - the creation of a light comic effect - for example, in recent years, a clearly visible tendency has manifested in the Russian poetry of Ukraine to write poems of a satirical or political orientation in the so-called "ukr-rus" (Mikhail Perchenko's term). Those. combine lines in Russian and Ukrainian in one poem, as well as sentences of a mixed type (with words from two languages ​​and with author's neoplasms in Surzhik).

Ukrainomovniy, do not lakaysya words Rus!
Russian-speaking, do not be afraid and do not be afraid!
I present my future shoulders.
Yes, I undertake to recreate the unity:
Russia, Ukraine, Belarus -
Slavic unity of forces and speech.
(Mikhail Perchenko "Ukr-Russian language")

"Do not sneer" - in Ukrainian "do not be afraid", "maybutnє" - "future".

Jargon.

  1. Jargons are words from the lexical layer used by various social groups: youth, criminal elements, social classes, etc.

Here is such a whim. This is such a fool.
Does not let you fall asleep, stomps like a dose.
I would like to become a horse. Dear Sivka-Burka.
And rush you away from mirrors and prose.
(Alexey Torkhov)

Goose, shout, goose, shout.
Cheerful, shout, gander!
As long as the owner, gloomy by night,
You didn't get hooked.
Until the prunes got into the bush...
(Stanislav Minakov)

The lexical device of using jargon in these specific cases clearly gives the poems a strong effect of modernity, although - I warn you - of course, there is always a danger of "replaying", enough of too much, which can damage the impression of the work.

Prosaisms.

  1. Prosaisms are expressions from everyday, clerical, scientific and other prose vocabulary that are used in a poem as outwardly foreign elements, but with internal motivation for validity and plot integrity:

“I was asked every morning about the futility of the day” (Elena Morozova), “I signed the landscape with a turquoise willow branch, / So, March redeemed my travel ticket until spring" (Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya). The lexical method of using prosaisms requires the author to have a developed sense of language, the ability to combine it with a high style. For an author who does not have these properties, arbitrarily introduced prosaisms reduce the high sound and give the situation a shade of absurdity, comicality, even when it comes to romantic and pathos things. Read more here:.

Stylization.

  1. Stylization - reproduction of the features of the style of another era, literary movement, writing style, features of the language of a particular social stratum or nationality:

On the! The hammer fighter cracked his right hand on the table,
And the face of an intellectual rival was blown off.
And what? We recently plugged into the belt
Two candidates of sciences from the eighth and thirtieth apartments!..
(Stanislav Minakov)

It seems to us like a shot of an ungulate:
“Tug-taritam. Tug-taritam."
(Svetlana Skorik)

And this is an excerpt from my poem-dilogy "Trizna", from the cycle "Polovchan". I used stylization for the Turkic languages ​​and at the same time - for the clatter of horse hooves (although the latter is already a technique of onomatopoeia).

In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the movie "The Diamond Hand", where the actor Andrei Mironov very similarly imitates the English language, while not pronouncing a single phrase in English.

In story poetry, a common technique historical styling.
A good example of historical stylization is Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya's poem "The Vault of Fire", plotted with a ban on love for the priestesses-servants of the temple of Fire. The heroine of the poem - the high priestess of the temple - has to make a life choice: either calling, or finding a loved one, moreover, with the help of bribery. The introduction of the problems and ideas inherent in modernity into the plot, without interfering with the description of the historical era, helps the author's main idea - to consider the situations encountered in life in an original way:

The Vault of Fire is your path.
Do you, O Great One, not know
What can't be ordered to love?
If the wrath of your angry gods,
Like a gardener, portends death,
I prefer novice love,
Because I can have a family with her.

However, the reception of historical stylization does not require the author to have a good knowledge of historical realities, conditions, culture, reproduction of the details of events, therefore, such poetry should be distinguished from historical poetry as such.

The crowd flowed into the Ides of March.
Look, Spurinna: the ides have begun!
Pompey laughs in the statue like an idol:
Ah, Caesar, you do not value your own life!

But Caesar should not be a coward,
And if death happens only once,
Then let her secretly prepare a sting,
And the one to whom it is appointed will betray.

Not every Guy cherishes Brutus for himself, -
Gaius Cassius and Gaius Casca do not count here.
Your child at the last minute
Betrayal will cut the thread of life...
(Yuri Gridasov "Caesar. Final")

In this case, this is purely historical poetry, considering the issue of betrayal of loved ones - a universal human issue and inherent in any historical period - from the height of a universal approach and with very good knowledge of this particular historical era.

Archaisms.

  1. Archaisms are obsolete words and old grammatical forms, mostly Slavic. The lexical technique of using archaisms is used in historical poetry and in narrative poetry - in the case of historical stylization - to convey the color of the era, and in high-style lyrics - to enhance solemnity:

Pray, little one, pray to the number!
Lean towards the tsifiri with a shaky neck!
Look at both! .. But do not miss
that hour, that moment when Khodyna
will lay "thing fingers"
on the strings and in the feather-grass retinue
shakes "scarlet shields".
(Stanislav Minakov)

Using archaisms in an ordinary lyrical work of a non-ironic and non-romantic hue, the author must coordinate them with the lexical context, otherwise these words will look ridiculous and alien, and next to prosaisms and jargon - simply ridiculous. Of course, authors with a developed sense of language perfectly organically combine archaisms and jargon or colloquial words side by side without negative consequences and without even a hint of irony. But sometimes they deliberately organize an incongruous neighborhood in order to achieve an ironic sound:

Say more? My friend, you are quite a penguin.
(Ibid.)

And two maternity mothers
carry chickens from the store,
and hens prophetic fingers
stick out, buried in the sky,
threaten from bags and shopping bags.
(Ibid.)

Here, the colloquial phrase “maternity mothers” and prosaic realities (“chickens”, “shop”, “bags and shopping bags”) are adjacent to the archaic phrase “prophetic fingers” (in conjunction with the emotionally colored verb “threaten”), which gives a magnificent ironic connotation to the whole work declared as "poetry".

Terms.

  1. Terms are a narrowly professional lexical layer, usually used only by representatives of a particular profession in communication with each other. The terms can be mathematical, medical, computer, philological, etc. etc. The lexical method of using terms is used for “professional color” (my expression, by analogy with the concept of “local color”), as well as for the effect of modernity or irony.

Your copyright is protected
in all living languages.
(Natalia Belchenko)

Where is the chip that inescapably stores in me
A code of love that protects a child's soul...
(Ibid.)

And you need an audit of your soul
Finish before the New Year.
Liability with an asset lead to zero
Showing all your naivety
When passive: I love you,
In the asset: no hope for reciprocity.
(Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya)

And the doctor, subject to autumn,
Recipes for everyone:
"A moment of beauty. Three drops of happiness.
Dawn glass. Leaf fall.
(Ibid.)

Pasta.

  1. Pasta - foreign words and catchphrases inserted into the text.

(My term is derived from the concept of "macaronic poetry" by A. Kwiatkowski - humorous or satirical poetry sprinkled with foreign vocabulary for comic effect.) The lexical method of using pasta is characterized by writing foreign words and expressions both in Latin letters, in their original form, and using the Russian alphabet. Now a lexical device based on the use of pasta is far from always used for irony - on the contrary, it is used to increase tension in emotional moments or in the context of “smart”, intellectual words used for the sake of modern sound: “I don’t argue, love story is strange. Especially - close ”(Stanislav Minakov). In this case, the relevance of pasta is also due to the internal rhyme: dispute yu - love story (love side and).

Do not believe the pillars and do not believe the scribes:
at the finita la comedia sunset
like a celestial you are mortal like a beast
vulnerable, and bright, like an emperor.
(Irina Ivanchenko)

Patch of sand and ant traffic.
(Gennady Semenchenko)

And Reichelson sonata. CD
Honey from melodies interferes in the chest ...
(Lyudmila Nekrasovskaya)

Of great importance in creating figurative poetic works with an original, unique author's sound are author's neologisms. This is such an important issue that it requires a detailed comprehensive consideration in a separate article.

© Svetlana Skorik, 2012
Article published, protected by copyright. Distribution on the Internet is prohibited.

S. I. Skorik. Position School, 2012.
















Back forward

Attention! The slide preview is for informational purposes only and may not represent the full extent of the presentation. If you are interested in this work, please download the full version.

10th grade

Purpose: To promote the formation of a creative person who is able to see, feel and create beauty, masterfully master the poetic word; a person who retains the ability to be surprised by a bright, talented word.

  • Analyze the finished exemplary text: understand and reveal the topic, determine the main idea, features of form and content.
  • To develop the ability to analyze linguistic phenomena, assisting young poets in mastering the skills of professional mastery by attracting masters of artistic expression to cooperation.
  • Develop the oral and written language of students.
  • To cultivate a culture of communication in joint creative work, developing communication skills.
  • To instill a love for poetry, for the native land .

Epigraph to the lesson:

What a glorious road
The path of creativity, the bright path!
E.V.Tatarintseva

Writing is God's gift, God's spark. And its kindling in the human heart is perceived as a miracle of revelation.

What is this mission - to be a poet? Here is how Ninel Alexandrovna Mordovina (Astrakhan poetess, 1928-2001) answered this question: “To shine, burning down, is a rare readiness.” And she added: "Thank you for the grace, poet." At the lessons of the creative association "Young Linguist" we get acquainted with the works of the masters of the artistic word, study the means of expression and poetic techniques, meet Astrakhan writers and poets, try to create ourselves ... The process of SO - creativity inspires. During such meetings, images, thoughts, words are born in us:

Inspiration is like a revelation of the soul.
Inspiration is the highest ray of insight.
Inspiration is like thoughts floating.
Inspiration is a unity of different worlds...

Serova Xenia

Night city

Behind the noisy scattering of moorings
The city sleeps, frosty dreaming,
Quietly dormant threads of channels,
Someone's heart beats in unison.

Midnight trams don't rattle
In the windows, the light went out almost everywhere,
Our city is good not only in May,
Every day is good, every hour.

Astrakhan

My city, kind and sunny,
Called Russian Venice,
Until the starry mysterious midnight
Your lights are glowing softly.

You so suit gray hair
white-stone Kremlin,
Here the Russian spirit of depth
Absorbed steppe land.

Unravel the sailor's hair,
Drive the river waves
The willows will whisper in an undertone -
Everything is filled with the joy of life.

Sitaliev Mirhat

Turning pages slowly
Books that touched the heart.
Here is Cleopatra's chariot
Flashed gold for a moment.

Flight of fantasy invisible
Again the thoughts were carried away.
And we have been walking towards the truth for so long,
And the way to it is still far away.

Marakhtanov Alexander

Cat

Cat with dirty paws
Walked the path home.
She was in no hurry.
She had a day off.

The sun was shining outside
And a warm breeze blew.
And where did she wander
Nobody could guess.

And something else seemed strange
What surprised everyone around
After all, cats are so clean!
(For them it is important, my friend).

And nothing bothered this
And she walked without hesitation,
That everyone gave way
The kids laughed at her.

And there have been controversies for a long time.
And the wind was spinning crazy.
Cat with dirty paws
Walked the path home...

Teacher: We begin each of our classes with warm-up exercises that develop creative imagination. So today I suggest you find something in common between words denoting abstract concepts (life, fate, family, love, happiness, soul, friendship, hope, time, earth), and the names of specific objects (table, anthill, river, tree, flower , statue, cat, sand, woman, computer). Guests, join our warm-up…

Student responses:

  • “Friendship and a flower: they are similar in that friendship can bloom like a flower and wither in the same way”
  • “Friendship and the table: they are strong. Several people can sit at the same table, and friendship can unite several people”
  • “Table and love: they are strong and clean”
  • “Soul and statue: the soul is the image of a person, and the statue too: both are easy to break”
  • “Cat and Hope: Both Calm”
  • “Life and the river: life, like a river, flows either turbulently or quietly. It has ebbs and flows. Sometimes funnels come across, waves roll in, floods come. It is easier to swim with the current than against the current.”

Teacher: For an inexperienced reader, almost every poem is fraught with many mysteries, so it may turn out to be incomprehensible, and therefore uninteresting. But if you treat the poem with reverence and heartfelt, if you know the artistic means of expression and try to find them in the work, then these riddles will turn into sparkling poetic facets. “Metaphor is the engine of form!” exclaimed the poet Andrei Voznesensky. So what is a metaphor?

Student: Metaphor - from the Greek. “transfer” is an artistic means of expressiveness, which is based on the transfer of properties from one object to another, resulting in a bright, figurative picture. A word used in a metaphorical sense acquires extraordinary expressiveness, figurativeness, visualization, and emotionality. Therefore, the metaphor is widely used in works of fiction, especially in poetry.

Teacher: Guys, your homework was to find beautiful, vivid examples of metaphors in the poems of Astrakhan poets ...

Student responses:

Space is filled with pupils of stars... (Sergey Motygin)

My soul is in the color of the wings ... (Zhanna Migunova)

Forgiveness was considered an empty relic,
Putting an end to the soul and pectoral crosses ... (Andrey Belyanin)

April - inveterate torturer
We are brainwashed! (Olga Markova)

Mercilessly Astrakhan sun:
Blinding rabid eyes.
Heat - Queen of Shamakhanskaya -
She pitched a tent in the steppe. (Galina Podolskaya)

Cathedral of the Assumption powerful chest
In the dawn fog, he sighs a little.
And they look at the painted windows, crossing,
Slavic tenderness, Tatar passion. (Irina Serotyuk)

But down there, shining blue,
The Volga opened in the manes of reeds ... (Ninel Mordovina)

When I'm out of touch with life
And all the words - set on edge,
I break the ringing tune,
So that I don’t remember the old ... (Ninel Mordovina)

The dream exploded!
colored shards
They shattered the silence. (Ninel Mordovina)

Teacher: If the metaphor shows the power of the poet's imagination, the richness of his associative series, the luxury of his images, then the epithet reveals the depth of his thought, the inquisitiveness of his nature, the intentness of his gaze. “A good epithet is a passport of identity. This is the highest level of skill,” said the poet Lev Ozerov. So what is an epithet?

Student: Epithet - from the Greek “application” - a figurative characteristic of a person, phenomenon or object through the expressiveness of a metaphorical adjective.

Teacher: The only possible, irreplaceable, accurate epithet is the victory of the artist! An epithet is his power over an object and a phenomenon. An epithet is an arrow to the essence! Among poets it is customary to say: "Tell me what your epithet is, and I will tell you who you are." Your homework was also to find examples of unusual, amazing epithets in the poetic works of our countrymen ...

Student responses:

You are beautiful, wormwood,
All in sunset fire.
What are you dreaming about me
Only melancholy epic? (author - Claudia Kholodova)

Multilingual, dense with passions:
North - restrained,
Asia - burning ... (Irina Serotyuk)

I dare not express in verse
Drops of intoxicating dew! (Pavel Morozov)

And lies down on the ground, sinless,
Like an unborn year. (Galina Podolskaya)

Stubborn and absurd
Spring screamed in my face ... (Dina Nemirovskaya)

The city, frosted from the heat,
With domes of domes ...
How can I cover you
From nobles and fools? (Olga Markova)

The whole world is green-blue-red
It swims and soars in them,
Oh, the narrow tail of beautiful dragonflies,
Oh emerald! Oh malachite! (Olga Markova)

And a starry trusting look ... (Sergey Motygin)

Teacher: The deepest understanding of Astrakhan; love of life; to the Volga open spaces; to the people living here; to beauty; to human kindness; to Russia we find in the work of Ninel Alexandrovna Mordovina (the song “In the form of a trinity” sounds on the verses of N.A. Mordovina, performed by the actress of the Drama Theater of Astrakhan Alexandra Kostina). The floor is given to the student N.A. Mordovina, Astrakhan poet Eleonora Vladimirovna Tatarintseva…

Teacher: Today we will learn about another poetic device that is completely new for us - ANZHANBEMAN. They were masterfully used by F.I. Tyutchev, M.I. Tsvetaeva and some other poets. So, what is an engenbeman? Engenbeman (fr. enjambement, from enjamber - “to step over”) –a syntactic means of expression, based on the transfer from line to line of a single sentence, when it does not fit into a poetic line or stanza and occupies part of the next one. F. I. Tyutchev, “Fountain”:

Beam rising to the sky, is he
touched cherished height.
M. Tsvetaeva, “Over the black cliff”:
Over the raven cliff –
White dawn sleeve.
Leg - already skidding
running - with difficulties having dug
Into the ground laughing that first
got up , in the dawn crown -
Max, I was - so true
Wait on your porch!

ON THE. Mordovina was very fond of the work of M.I. Tsvetaeva also used anzhanbeman as an artistic medium in her works. Let's try to find them in the proposed poems:

... August is generous royally: meteor showers
Gives everything so that people are happy
Make a wish.
Joy and success will come true!
The main thing is to believe adamantly
august, star and sky
Everything is possible, life is generous in full,
And adversity is not her fault ...

On the rolls

... The Volga rolled across the steppe.
Ras-ka-ti-las! -
No end no edge
eye don't measure the water.
And such beauty such
Latitude and will-
Like nowhere else!

The mice are scurrying rustling,
in the leaves autumn garden,
Glows quietly soul,
as if lamp in the morning...

Tachycardia

Do not amuse Pride: do not feed Evil -
The heart will grow with resentment - it will suffocate.
charred, dying souls
There where unbelief has ascended into love.

On the edge

… Do not overcome in doubt and timidity
Ways, where is the guide one-

Consciousness.

Consciousness is the only opportunities
Don't give above us dominate-
Violence.
And break out of the deceit and caution
country, what called
Russia.
On the blade?!
Well we'll walk the blade
Though unbearable burning
Winds counter,
And life knits legs
With his illness...
But this is temporary
And Russia is eternal!

Today we once again repeated the artistic means of expression (such as metaphor and epithet), saw them in the works of our countrymen poets, got acquainted with a new stylistic device - engenbeman and found that N.A. masterfully used it in her work. Mordovin. Let's listen to a poem performed by Ninel Alexandrovna herself (a recording of the poetess's live voice with video slides sounds).

(E.V. Tatarintseva addresses young poets with parting words, talks about the N.A. Mordovina Prize, shows collections of young poets of the Astrakhan region).

1. Means of poetic vocabulary

Application (lat. - "attaching") - weaving a well-known expression into the text as a direct or close quote:

Now all the faithful in the world rejoice,
In heaven all the forces in Christ triumph,
"Our king is born," they sing in praise,
"Glory to God in the highest, peace on earth!"

Another example:

Or or! lama savahfani?
What a pain, how hard, and they
Ruthlessly hammering nails into hands...
Around the cross - mocking evil sounds

Applications help, without the help of references to the Bible, to strengthen one or another statement of the author.

Archaisms (Greek - "ancient") - words that have fallen out of use due to the prescription of time. They are used to more vividly convey the color of the era:

Arise, prophet, and see, and listen,
Fulfill my will
And, bypassing the seas and lands,
Burn people's hearts with the verb.

In this example, obsolete words are used, bringing the author's text closer to its true, biblical expression.

Since the literary language in Russia until the 18th century was Church Slavonic, typical archaisms are Slavicisms (“vale”, “today”, “zane”, “is”).

Example: (Bibleisms):
May my companion be firm
All virtues with you,
Walking the path of the commandments,
Merciful in justice;
Yes, I will visit those who are in dungeons,
Drink thirsty, eat smooth ladies,
Balm for those suffering in hospitals
And Father's bosom to the orphans.

Slavicisms, common for the biblical language and the language of worship, are called biblicalisms (“hungry”, “behold”, “how much more”, “for”)

Barbarism is the introduction of words of a foreign language into coherent speech.
Most often, barbarisms are found in a modified form, assimilated by the Russian language, when the sounds of a foreign language are replaced by the corresponding Russian ones, foreign suffixes are also replaced by Russian ones: French resignation turns into "resignation", English fashionable - into "fashionable"

As they are used, barbarisms are assimilated by the language, turning into words of foreign origin. The use of barbarism in spiritual poetry is not justified.

Dialectisms are borrowings of words from dialects of the same language, mostly non-literary, i.e. without their own written literature. At the same time, they distinguish: ethnic dialectisms - from the dialects of ethnic groups (Little Russian dialect, Ukraine); provincialisms - from regional dialects; the use of dialects of certain social groups. Basically, dialectisms are taken from the dialects of people who are far from literary culture, and here a certain “decline in the language” is noticed, i.e. the use of forms of speech neglected in the dialect of the average "literary educated person."

Examples: "identity", "smoking", "slope", "nonche", "mother", "hope".
The same class of vocabulary includes the imitation of the Russian dialect of foreigners who do not speak Russian well: "you get a government apartment."

The area of ​​dialectisms should also include the use of the vocabulary of professional groups, as well as dialects that arise in a certain everyday environment - the so-called jargons (thieves' jargon, street "argot", etc.).

The so-called "vulgarisms" are also adjacent to jargonisms, i.e. the use in literature of rude words of common speech (rotten and nasty words, to put it simply).
Dialectisms should be avoided in the poetic speech of a Christian.

Neologisms are newly formed words that did not previously exist in the language. so-called. "word-creation" uses the laws of Russian word formation and is widespread in poetry.

Example:
Where in the still turquoise waters
Forerunner John baptized him,
When for the first time His people
The Son of Man has revealed himself.

In Benediktov, neoplasms are encountered such as: "wave-flowing", "daredevil", "alien", "rhyming", "irrepressibility", etc.
Neologisms are a phenomenon not characteristic of spiritual poetry. Like dialectisms, they draw too much attention to themselves, sometimes destroying the spiritual impact on the listener.

Prosaisms are words related to prose vocabulary used in a poetic context.
In poetry, the law of lexical tradition is very strong. Words live in poetry that have long since fallen into disuse in prose, and, on the other hand, words of new origin, which have the full right of citizenship in prose language, hardly penetrate into poetry. Therefore, in every era there are a number of words that are not used in poetry.

The introduction of these words into poetry is called prosaism:

And perjury, and torture,
And laughter, and scolding, and slander -
Ineffective attempts
Humiliate the Lord Christ.

Another example:
"XX century"
The twentieth century rushes
Rip and rumble.
Turn to God
The person does not want.
Invented displays,
Video cassettes.
Every day it gets worse
Rockets sizzle.
The twentieth century is busy
He's good, he's scary!
The clouds are piercing
Peaks of TV towers.
Smog over the whole planet
Splashed thickly:
The person in this
Life is lost.
In these stresses, twists,
Thunder and gloomy talk
Leaked clean
The stream is transparent.
That brook - Word -
Heals, not hurts.
He calls us to a new
Living in God's Plan!

The use of prosaisms and foreign words here is justified by the direction of the verse. In the last two stanzas - an appeal to the Word, the vocabulary changes.
Many words that were considered prosaic in the 19th century have poetic synonyms. For example, the word "cow" in poetry was replaced by the word "calf", "horse" - "horse", "eyes" - "eyes", "cheeks" - "cheeks", "mouth" - "mouth". The introduction of a colloquial synonym instead of a poetic one into a verse was considered prosaic. The use of a scientific or technical term sounds like prosaism in a verse.

2. Stylistic devices of poetics

Anaphora (Greek - "unity of command") - the repetition of related sounds, words, syntactic, rhythmic and other equivalent groups. The composition of any lyrical poem, especially a song, is not complete without the use of anaphora.

Sound anaphora is the repetition of consonant combinations at the beginning of adjacent lines:

From the top of Mount Calvary
"It's done!" - there was an exclamation.

From the above example, it can be seen that sound anaphora is a kind of sound alliteration or assonance.

Lexical anaphora is the repetition of the same words at the beginning of poetic lines:

When trials overcome you,
When you get tired of the struggle

Most often, as a lexical anaphora, there are not meaning-bearing, but service parts of speech: pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, particles. The most common is the biblical anaphora, expressed by the union "and":

And he clung to my lips,
And tore out my sinful tongue,
And idle-talking, and crafty,
And the sting of the wise snake
In my frozen mouth
He invested it with a bloody right hand.

In this example, the stylistic meaning of the repeated "and" is especially clearly revealed; it creates the impression of an increase in lyrical excitement directed towards one event.
Syntactic anaphora is a parallel arrangement of two or more members of a sentence in adjacent verses:

I see the face in the crown of thorns,
I hear a groan from the mouth of Christ.
Strophic anaphora is the repetition of one or more words at the beginning of each new stanza:

Oh really, King of the universe,
Your throne is not glorious in heaven,
What is in the depths of the humble soul
Have you found the kingdom for yourself?
Oh really, the King of heaven,
The expanse of your heavens is so small,
What's in my bodily hut
Would you like to build a temple?

Such a stylistic device is characteristic of many works intended for musical arrangement. The repetition of the same words at the beginning of each stanza ultimately ties the entire work together, which contributes to a better assimilation of the topic.

Syntactic inversion (lat. - "permutation") - the arrangement of words in a sentence or phrase in an order not established by the rules of grammar. With a successful inversion, a sharply changing intonation gives the verse greater expressiveness:

I'm not looking for paradise on this earth,
And God - the Creator of this paradise.
Or:
God gives gifts with such a desire,
With what people cannot accept them.

In these examples, the inverse word order does not at all hide the meaning of the sentence, but, on the contrary, makes it more vivid and memorable. Unfortunately, such permutations are very rare in spiritual verses. Much more often, inversion is simply a good patch to hide the poverty of the writer's vocabulary. Sometimes you have to read the stanza for several minutes in order to understand the meaning of the sentence distorted by inversion.

Often, unreasonable permutations of words make sentences ambiguous, where the secondary meaning sometimes brings the thought to the point of absurdity:

The fire of forgiveness lit up
In the faces of dead people.
(The word "extinct" can be attributed to "persons" and ... to "people")
Or:

And the altar of the calves was stained with blood...

(The author means: the altar was stained with the blood of the bulls, but an unfortunate inversion led to the concept that the altar of the bulls was stained with some kind of blood).
Such blunders are typical, they are found in almost all beginning poets. Therefore, when working on a verse, special attention should be paid to understanding inverse sentences.

Ring - repetition at the end of a poetic line, stanza or the entire work of the initial words or individual sounds.
Sound Ring:
Cross responded, echo resurrected.
Or:

The past is thrown into the sea of ​​oblivion.
Such a repetition of consonant words at the beginning and at the end of a verse (an increase in the number of rhymes in a stanza) contributes to a vivid expression of the author's feelings.
Lexical ring:

I'm tired of the torment of the soul,
Tired of mortal doubts.
Such repetition reinforces the meaning of the word important for the sentence.

Strophic ring:
The Lord is with me - and the cross, heavy for many,
Does not press the flesh ...
And I'm not afraid of anything in the world -
The Lord is with me!

Both the lexical and strophic ring serve to enhance the emphasis on the phrase conceived by the author, which carries a particularly deep feeling or thought. Such repetitions pull together different stanzas to the utmost by verbal repetition and give the whole poem a single connection with the theme.

Polyunion - the construction of a phrase in which all homogeneous members of a sentence are interconnected by the same union (more often the union "and"):

And rivers, and fields, and groves, and mountains,
Both the sky and the stars magnify the Creator!

With the help of a repeated word, the purposefulness and unity of the enumerated is emphasized.

Transfer - a discrepancy between the completeness of a sentence and the end of a verse or stanza:
He was dying... And the blood from His wounds

Tekla ... And it's getting harder
He breathed... On Him
They didn't care... Nazirite,
Come down from the cross quickly
Then we believe
What are you from God...

Transfer as a conscious technique for recreating a more expressive image is used very rarely. Its use in this example is justified by the narrator's agitated, confused speech. In other cases, the transfer of a special one word that carries meaning to another line or stanza is a violation of the law of euphony. Such transfers are especially unacceptable in texts intended for singing, since a musical phrase followed by a caesura (pause) usually coincides with the end of a verse (line). And this distorts the meaning of the text beyond recognition:

From all nations will remove the burden
Enmity. We will be given a good lot.

God calls darkness to those who reject the Light.
He convicts a liar with a word of truth,
Who says that there was not and no
Christ, he calls him a fool.

Polymetry (Greek - "multi-dimensionality") - the use in large poetic works (usually in poems) of various poetic sizes.
The use of this technique relieves a large work of monotony, gives it a rhythmic variety.

Enclitic - the construction of a phrase, in which the word behind the stressed one, as it were, merges with it into one:
Call to salvation, singing a song,
For the glory of the Gospel.

Enclitic is the basic principle of constructing compound rhymes, which serves to introduce fresh, not pretentious sound repetitions into the verse.

3. Compositional and methodological techniques

Allusion (lat. - "hint") - a brief explanation, the transfer by the author of his experiences or thoughts through one or more words associated with well-known historical events:

Hosanna often covers
Glory flowers way to Calvary.

Alogism (Greek - "denying a generally accepted conclusion") - a deliberate violation of logical connections in order to emphasize the depth of the thought expressed:

I am blind by the illumination of thought,
I see the invisible world.

This technique is continuously connected with the approval of all Christian provisions. The pages of Scripture contain innumerable examples of such vivid expression of the truth.

The following words of the Apostle Paul can serve as an example of poetic alogism:

We are beggars, but we enrich many,
We have nothing, but we have everything...

Antithesis (Greek - "opposition") - the use of sharp contrasts in the expression of words and concepts, images and positions:
Do not love the world, nor what is in the world:
Love the world as Christ loved.
Turn your heart away from worldly feast,
Turn your heart to eternity seriously.

Antithesis, like alogism, permeates the entire Christian teaching: the incarnation of the King of kings in the form of a slave, His love for those who hate, trampling death by death. Poems built on the antithesis create not a soullessly flat, but a volumetric-living image.

Oh Pavel, tell me where can I get strength,
To consider yourself the first sinner?!

Or referring to an inanimate object (allegory) as an animate one (this technique is more common in poetry):

Tell me, branch of Palestine,
Where did you grow up, where did you bloom?

Time, where are you going?
Time, where are you going?

The apostrophe is a kind of personification - one of the key provisions of poetics.

Apophasia - (Greek - "contrary to the above") - a refutation of the above thought:

Is the eternal teaching killed
Shameful death sting?
- Not! The death of Christ was the beginning
Sunday victories.

Hyperbole (Greek - "exaggeration") - a figurative expression that exaggerates an action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression:

The soul suffered so that a groan reached it
The borders of countless, invisible galaxies.

The stream of holy blood flows
In the washing away of sins.

The use of such a device in Christian verses cannot be considered a distortion of the truth, since it symbolizes a great spiritual truth: what is insignificant before people is great before God.

Staircase - the arrangement in the poem of words and expressions in ascending order of their meaning:

My Friend, my Shepherd, my Teacher,
Heavenly Father, my Savior -
The Creator of everything is the great God!

Such a stylistic device helps to better express the growing emotional flow of the theme and creates an advantageous contrast for the statement of the resolving main idea.

Litota (Greek - "simplicity"):

A) definition of a concept by negating the opposite:
We are bought by God at a great price
(instead of "large")

B) understatement - a technique inverse to hyperbole:
My blood has frozen
And numb language.
No strength to breathe
There are no words for repentance.

David's psalms are impregnated with an underestimation of one's capabilities, a belittling of one's "I". Unfortunately, in the verses of modern Christian poets, litotes are almost never found. But the hyperbole of one's "I" is used all the time. In contrast to the quatrain built on litotes, here is a similar stanza (typical of many poets) built on hyperbole:

My blood is burning
The fire of holy love.
My inspirational verse
Brings salvation to all.
I got the power of God
In the blood of Christ
I became the light
In the valley of the shadow of death.

Metaphor (Greek - "transfer") - the use of a word in a figurative sense. Metaphor is one of the main tropes (positions) in the theory of verse. It is based on an unnamed comparison of one object with another on the basis of a feature common to both.

In a metaphor, the context allows you to understand what word was meant here. And the word used instead of it should have secondary features that are similar to the features of the replaced word. The more of these signs and the more naturally they appear in the representation, the brighter and more effective the metaphor, the more it "amazes the imagination."

Example:
A bee from a wax cell
Flies for field tribute.
The metaphorical state or action of inanimate objects can be expressed in the form of verbs, nouns, adjectives inherent in thinking beings:
Among meadows and blue dews
The sunflower has sprouted.
And suddenly, as to an old acquaintance,
He turned his head towards the sun.
All day beautiful light
He was fed with his warmth.
He loved the sun. So what?
He looked like the sun himself.

A metaphor is a kind of comparison in which comparative words are omitted: "like", "like", "like", etc.

Metonymy (Greek - "renaming") - the replacement of a word or concept with another word that has a causal relationship:

Read, people, fiery prophets,
Pay attention, people, to the Book of books.
Instead: "Read the books of fiery prophets. Heed, people, the words of the Bible."

The whitewashed walls were silent,
Their black hearts grew blacker.
Instead: "The Pharisees were silent."

This technique expands the poet's word usage, makes speech more vivid, and facilitates easy selection of the desired rhyme.

Metonymy differs from metaphor in that it does not imply comparative words: "as if", "as if", "like", etc.

Paraphrase (Greek - "retelling") - replacing a word or phrase with a figure of speech, which indicates the signs of an unnamed object directly:

Mountain of damnation and mountain of salvation,
The pinnacle of torment and glory height,
Rock of immortality, faith on Sunday,
Soaked in the blood of Christ.
(Instead of one word "Golgotha").

It can be seen from the example that the paraphrase is based on the principle of extended metonymy. Such a technique makes us take a fresh look and re-evaluate words that have become habitual and emasculated by frequent use.
Sarcasm (the highest degree of irony). Used in accusatory verses:
Crucify Him. He's not worth more!

Because heaven is in His eyes
They interfere with your life, your conscience is disturbed,
They inspire fear in the coming judgment.

The speech of Jesus Christ addressed to the Pharisees is based on sarcasm: "The tombs are painted", "the walls are whitewashed", etc.

Silleps (Greek - "combination") - a stylistic device in which the subject and predicate do not agree in number:
Not an afterlife mystic
Saved us from sin.
This is life, this is truth
Entered our heart.
(Instead of "entered".)

The people were indifferent.
They looked at the crucifix
Not knowing that God was dying.
("They" instead of "He".)

Silleps expands the possibilities of the poet in his handling of the word.
Symphora (Greek - "correlation") - the highest form of metaphorical expression without comparative words:

"The sky repented - tears shed ..."
Instead of: "There was thunder and it started to rain."

The use of a refined form of metaphor sometimes makes it difficult to understand the text, but nevertheless it is a highly artistic expression of everyday phenomena. Without directly naming the subject, the symphora evokes a new figurative idea of ​​it, leaving a deep aesthetic impression.

Synecdoche is one of the types of metonymy associated with the use of:

A) parts instead of the whole:
Jerusalem, Jerusalem
Why did you give God to be crucified?!
(Instead of: Judea or the Chosen People);

B) a whole instead of a part:
After the resurrection of Jesus
Mankind exclaimed: "I'm sorry!"
(Instead of: followers or believers);

C) a larger number instead of an indefinite set:
And a million sky-high luminaries
They composed a song of jubilation to God
(Instead of: countless);

D) singular instead of plural:
Christian, bring your wonderful fire,
that Christ gave you.
(Instead of: Christians, carry ...)

Synecdoche, like the sylleps, liberates the poet in choosing the word required for the rhythmic flow of the verse, and performs the function of a kind of hyperbole or litote.

Synonymy (Greek - "coname") - the use of synonyms in artistic speech, that is, words different in sound, but the same in meaning:

By the day of the glorious harvest, the fields turned yellow,
Dressed in gold autumn fields.
Both lines speak of the same thing, but, expressed in different synonymous words, they paint a brighter, more lyrical picture of autumn for us.
Comparison is the most common stylistic device used in poetic works of any genre.

The simplest form of comparison is expressed using the words: "like", "exactly", "similarly", "as if", "as if", "as if", etc.

For example:

"Like a bright ray, hope will flash"
"Like the sky, the saved eyes shine"
"Like a bird, I aspire to the blue"
A more complex, but at the same time beautiful form is a comparison formed without auxiliary words by means of the instrumental case of definitions:
Grace spilled in a gentle wave ...
(Instead of: "like a gentle wave.")

Such forms of comparison actually develop into metaphors and give the poem unique lyrical nuances and an unusual, figurative reproduction of everyday phenomena.

Silence is a stylistic figure in which the started speech is interrupted based on the guess of the reader or listener:

And now the Savior is brought to judgment:
"He blasphemes," said the high priest.
"He is beside himself, in Him is a demon," the crowd shouted. "He...
... And He was silent in the name of their salvation.

The use of default sharpens the emotional essence of the image, contributes to the reader's empathy with the events described.

Usage is a stylistic turnover based on the principle of extended comparison. All gospel parables and moralizing poems are built on this technique.

In clothes to swim to the saving shore -
Deprive yourself of saving hope.
So, observing decency before people,
In the abyss of hypocrisy we perish,
Sometimes we lose eternity because of clothes.

A detailed comparison contributes to an easier assimilation of the truth and makes the most complex concepts accessible to every person.

Ellipse - omission in the phrase of implied words:

To eat from the life of Bread,
Build a temple out of the rubble
Look - to Golgotha, heart - to the sky
And the mind - to God's words.

(Implied verbs "strive", "turn", "direct".)

The ellipse does not confuse the meaning of the phrase, but, on the contrary, makes it more expressive and concise.

Epithet (Greek - "application") - a figurative characteristic of a person, a phenomenon through a metaphorical adjective.
The epithet is often confused with defining adjectives, which differ from it in the literal characterization of the noun. For example: "bright sun", "white snow", "cold winter". The adjectives in these combinations are simply subject definitions, and, for example, "good sun", "laughing snow", "sleepy winter" are epithets in which there is a metaphorical image.
Sometimes, instead of an adjective, the role of an epithet is played by a pronoun expressing a superlative state:

What a blessing this is
Awakening from dead life!

Often poets use constant (generally accepted) epithets: "blue sea", "clear field", "white snow", "red sun", etc. Such epithets are very close to definitive adjectives and, due to their habitual sound, usually do not create a vivid lyrical image inherent in metaphorical epithets.
Some of the methods of expressiveness of the image given above should serve only as an auxiliary means for affirming the idea of ​​the work.

Bibliography:
1. Shatalovsky N.F. Structure and clarity (a manual on versification). M.: "Spiritual Renaissance" ECB, 1999.-90 p.
2. Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics: Proc. allowance. - M.: Aspect Press, 2002. - 334 p.
3. Butterfly flight: Japanese three-line / 612 Per. from Japanese V.N., Markova.-M.: LLP Chronicle, 1998.-348 p.
4. Carnegie D. How to develop self-confidence and influence people by speaking in public. / Per. from English. - Rybinsk: AOOT "Rybinsk Printing House", 1996. - 800 p.
5. Christian lyre (poems). Moscow: Transfiguration, 1992.
6. Song of the Resurrection (collection of ECB spiritual songs), edition 1. Friedenshtimme, 1993
7. Song of the Resurrection, edition 2. Publishing House "Christian", 2002
8. Fidelity (collection of Christian verses), publishing house of SC ECB, 1984
9. Poetry of heaven (God and man in Russian classical poetry of the 18th-20th centuries). - St. Petersburg, "The Bible for Everyone", 1999. - 640 p.
10. Collection of Christian verses ("with Ruth"), vols. 1 and 2. Minsk, 1997

Many researchers have repeatedly noted that stylistic devices find their most vivid reflection in a poetic text. Stylistic devices are a means of connecting sentences in the structure of a complex poetic whole. By organizing the connection of the micro-context with the surrounding context, stylistic devices perform a text-forming function, contribute to an increase in the overall expressiveness of a poetic text, and the organization of its special rhythm-melody. In stylistics, there is also such a thing as poetic devices. According to Kwiatkowski's definition, poetic devices (tropes) are transformations of language units, consisting in the transfer of a traditional name to another subject area. Most often, figurativeness and expressiveness is achieved through the stylistic use of lexical units. The author uses words in a figurative sense (in the form of metaphors, metonyms, synecdoches or epithets), compares them with the meaning of other words (through comparisons), contrasts different meanings within the same word or the meaning of words - homonyms, etc.

The author refers to poetic devices: epithets, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, litote, hyperbole, oxymoron, pun, etc. An epithet is one of the tropes, a figurative definition of an object (phenomenon), expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb, a noun , numeral, verb. Unlike the usual logical definition, which singles out a given object from many (“quiet ringing”), the epithet either highlights one of its properties in the object (“proud horse”), or - as a metaphorical epithet - transfers the properties of another object to it (“ living track).

Comparison is a figurative verbal expression in which the depicted phenomenon is likened to another according to some common characteristic for them in order to reveal new, important properties in the object of comparison: Metaphor is a type of path based on transferring the properties of one object to another, according to the principle of their similarity any relation or contrast. In metaphor, various attributes (what the object is likened to and the properties of the object itself) are presented in a new undivided unity of the artistic image.

Personification is a special kind of metaphor based on the transfer of human features (more broadly, the features of a living being) to inanimate objects and phenomena. There are the following types of personification:

  • 1) personification as a stylistic figure inherent in any expressive speech: “the heart speaks”, “the river plays”;
  • 2) personification in folk poetry and individual lyrics as a metaphor, close in its role to psychological parallelism;
  • 3) personification as a symbol that grows out of a system of private personifications and expresses the author's idea.

Metonymy is a type of trope based on the principle of contiguity. Hyperbole is a stylistic figure or artistic device based on the exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon: “In a hundred and forty suns, the sunset burned ...” (V. Mayakovsky).

Litota - a trope, the opposite of hyperbole: an underestimation of the attribute of an object (“man-s-marigold”, “boy-s-finger”).

Irony (in style) is an allegory expressing mockery or slyness, when a word or statement acquires in the context of speech a meaning that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it. Irony is reproach and contradiction under the guise of approval and consent.

An oxymoron is a concise and therefore paradoxically sounding antithesis, usually in the form of an antonymous noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb.

A pun is a play on words based on their ambiguity (polysemy), homonymy or sound similarity, in order to achieve a comic effect. A special role in the literary language, in its literary and bookish variety (in the written type of speech), is played by words and phraseological combinations known as poetisms.

Under this concept, words of high, solemn coloring are also often summed up. The very term "poeticism" indicates the limitation of the use of words by a certain style of language, namely the style of artistic speech. Contrasting the language of poetry with the language of prose, not in terms of the rhythmic-phonetic and figurative features of each of these types of literary speech, but in terms of a special vocabulary allegedly characteristic of poetry, has its own historical and literary tradition.

The special vocabulary and phraseology of poetic works, which, supposedly, is designed to maintain a special halo of poetry, tends to break away from the commonly used vocabulary of the national language.

Academician S.I. Vinogradov characterizes the role of poetisms in the language as follows: “a web of “poetic” words and images envelops reality, “stylizing” it according to given literary norms and canons. The word is divorced from the real thing. Involved in the system of literary styles, the words here were selected and grouped into images, into phraseological series, which froze, became stereotyped and became conventional symbols of certain phenomena or characters, certain ideas or ideas.

Poeticisms are a heterogeneous layer of words in the modern English language, including archaisms, which are revived by poets in special stylistic tasks, for example, the use of such words as whilome, ne, leman and many others in the first stanzas of the first song of Childe Harold. These archaic poetisms also include forms that are outdated for modern English, such as the forms of the 3rd person singular of the present tense - eth (casteth) and words, one of the meanings of which is outdated.

So, for example, in the sentence “Deserted is my own good hall, its hearth is desolate” - the word “hall” means palace - palace, castle, house - a meaning that is now archaic.

Here are some examples of the most common poetic words in the English language. Nouns: billow (wave), swain (peasant), main (sea). Adjectives: yon (there), staunch (firm), hallowed (holy). Verbs: quit (leave), fare (walk), trow (believe). Strong forms of the past tense are preferably used: wrought (worked), bade (bid), clad (clothed). Adverbs: happy (perhaps), oft (often), whilome (formerly). Pronouns: thee, ye, aught (anything), naught (nothing). Conjunctions: albeit `although), ere (before) o "er (over), etc.

In addition to archaisms, poeticisms include words that, due to frequent use in poetry, did not become archaisms, that is, they did not become outdated in their use, but crystallized as a certain poetic terminology. In other words, they can be considered as poetic terms. These words include the words bard poet, woe grief, billow wave, steed and charger horse, etc.

Further, words that can be called rarely used should also be classified as poeticisms. These are usually words borrowed at different periods from French, Latin, and other languages, such as robe, garment, apparel, adieu, joyaunce, pleasaunces, reverie, circumambient, matin, perchance, etc.

It is also necessary to include some neologisms created by the classics of English poetry and remaining in the sphere of their individual use as poeticisms. Most often these are complex words. Here are some examples of such compound words from Byron's works: goar-faced, dew-drops, sea-mew, long-reluctant, wave-reflected, dark-glancing (daughters), sea-girt (citadel), blood-red, awe- struck (world) and many others.

Poeticisms or poetic phraseology are also called words and phrases that arose as a result of a periphrastic reflection of reality.

The sphere of use of poetisms is not any poetry of the national English language, but the poetry of certain literary movements, certain historical stages in the development of the literary language. We observe the greatest use of poeticisms in the literary movements of classicism and romanticism. It was the classicist poets who considered poetry as "art for the elite", and the presence in it of special words that support this poetic tradition of classicism was the norm. Currently, poeticisms are used in stylistics in order to create a satirical effect. The satirical function of poetisms is realized when poetism stands next to words whose stylistic characteristics are opposed to poetisms. In modern English, despite the absence of a special poetic style, a layer of vocabulary is preserved, which, due to associations with poetic contexts, has a component in the constant meaning of the words included in it, which can be called a poetic stylistic connotation. This component is stable, and dictionaries mark it with a special label poet, and lexicologists call such words poetisms. These include not only those lofty words that were recognized by the classicists, but also archaic and rare words introduced into poetic use by the romantics.

There are also phonetic stylistic devices in poetry, such as euphony, alliteration, rhyme. Rhyme is the repetition (usually at certain intervals) of identical or similar sound combinations at the end of words. The emergence of rhyme in the English language is associated with the development of high-quality versification. It is the result of the adaptation of classical versification to the English language. An attempt to adapt the Greek metric system of versification to languages ​​with a different morphological structure led to some modification of the classical metric system, in particular, to the appearance of rhyme. The rhymes of English poetry are rich and varied in both sound and structure. A rhyme is called masculine if the sound repetition is created by one stressed syllable that ends the foot, for example: Palace - roof of cloudless nights! Paradise of golden lights! If one stressed and one unstressed syllables are repeated, then the rhyme is called feminine, for example:

  • - Higher still and higher From the earth thou springest;
  • - Like a, cloud of fire

With the sound repetition of the last stressed and two unstressed syllables in the line, the so-called dactylic rhyme is formed: “They have a number, though they never exhibit `emFour wives by law, and concubines at libitum”.

Dactylic rhyme is more common in works written in three-syllable meter (dactyl, anapest). According to Galperin, the most common in English are male and female rhymes, since they can be used in all poetic meters. Often, English authors can find a special kind of rhyme, the so-called “composite” rhyme (the term “broken rhyme” is used in English): two or more words are consonant with a word or part of it.upon her - honor - won her bottom - forgot ` em - shot him.

Compound rhymes are typical for humorous and satirical works. A rhyme is called complete when the vowel of the stressed syllable and all the sounds following it (vowels and consonants) coincide, for example:

  • - might - right;
  • - headless - needless.

If the consonant, vowel and all subsequent sounds are repeated, then the rhyme is called exact or identical:

  • - hours - ours;
  • - perfection - infection.

With incomplete rhyme, as the self-name indicates, not all sounds of rhyming syllables are repeated.

A.I. Efimov distinguishes two types of incomplete rhymes depending on the quality of repeated sounds:

  • - assonant rhyme, which is formed by the repetition of only vowels;
  • - consonants in such a rhyme do not match: tale - pain - flesh - fresh - guess;
  • - consonant rhyme based on the repetition of identical consonants with different vowels: tale -pull, worth -forth.

He believes that some rhymes in English are based not on sounds, but on letters, that is, not on the coincidence of final sounds, but on final letters. The author defines such rhymes as visual:

  • - love - prove;
  • - flood - brood;
  • - have - grave.

The sound differences in these rhymes are the result of the many changes that the sound system of the English language has undergone in the course of its development. In earlier periods, the vowels in these rhymes sounded the same.

I.V. Gutorov distinguishes the following rhymes in the stanza:

  • 1) paired - in adjacent rows (aa);
  • 2) triple - (aaa);
  • 3) cross - (abab);
  • 4) inclusive (circular or framing), in which the extreme lines of the stanza rhyme: (abba);
  • 5) ternary - through two lines to the third (aabaab), etc.

Each type of stanza is characterized by a certain arrangement of rhymes. The rhyme can be not only at the end of the line, but also inside it. Such a rhyme is called internal, in contrast to the external rhyme, which is formed at the ends of lines. The internal rhyme appears more often in multi-foot lines: I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.

Yu.S. Sorokin, in addition, gives a definition of belted rhyme: belted rhyme is rhyming of verses according to the abba scheme, that is, when in a four-line stanza the first line rhymes with the fourth, as if encircling the second and third lines, mutually rhyming by adjacency.

The role of rhyme in verse is extremely great. Rhyme specifies the metrical division of the verse into rhythmic units. It makes the rhythm of the verse more tangible and makes it easier to perceive. This is the main role of rhyme. In addition to the rhythm-forming meaning, the importance of rhyme for the semantic selection of a word should be emphasized. A word based on sound repetition becomes especially noticeable and attracts attention. Another technique associated with the sound organization of the utterance is onomatopoeia (onomatopoeia). The essence of this technique lies in the fact that sounds are selected in such a way that their combination reproduces some sound that we associate with the producer (source) of this sound.

For example: buzz, bang, cuckoo, tintinnabulation, to mew, etc., onomatopoeia can be direct or indirect.

Direct onomatopoeia is the creation of an independent word in which the combination of sounds is designed to reproduce the desired sound. Examples of direct onomatopoeia are the above onomatopoeic words. There are few such words in the language, their purpose is not only to name the phenomenon, but also to reproduce it with sound writing. For example: ting-tang, ping-pong, tap. These words can be called sound metaphors of the language. They, like ordinary metaphors, create an image. However, unlike the lexical metaphor, the image is created not visually, but soundly. The word to mew, just like the Russian word meow, not only objectively names the action associated with its producer (cat), but also creates a sound image. Consequently, direct onomatopoeia, since it is realized in separate words, is impossible without the implementation of subject-logical meaning.

Indirect onomatopoeia is the reproduction of a sound in nature by means of combining different sounds in different words.

Thus, indirect onomatopoeia is a special form of alliteration: sounds repeated in different words create an objectively existing sound, causing association with the producer (source) of this sound, in the individual perception of the author. For example, in the motor line of a sentinel tongue twister, the repetition of the sound [p] in different words of this line gives the impression of a motor knock. In the line: And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain... (E.A. Poe) the alliteration of the sound [s] to some extent (in the individual perception of the poet) reproduces the rustle of a curtain moved by the wind.

Rhythm also plays an important role in poetry. L.I. Timofeev defines rhythm as follows: the rhythm of a verse is based on the correct alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a poetic line (the tonic principle). The tonic system is divided into purely tonic, syllabic and syllabic-tonic. The latter can be regarded as characteristic of Russian and English versification. An important feature of poetic speech is the ordered repetition of the rhythmic units that organize it, namely stops, lines, stanzas.

Thus, poetic devices include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, litote, hyperbole, oxymoron, pun, as well as phonetic stylistic devices of euphony, alliteration, rhyme. Rhyme can be masculine, feminine, dactylic, complete, exact, identical, assonant, consonant, visual.

And there is also a belted rhyme, paired, triple, cross, encompassing, ternary. Another technique associated with the sound organization of the utterance is onomatopoeia. Its essence lies in the choice of sounds, the combination of which evokes certain associations. There are two types of this technique: direct onomatopoeia and indirect. Rhythm, which is based on the tonic principle, plays a very important role in poetry. The tonic system is divided into purely tonic, syllabic and syllabic-tonic. The latter can be regarded as characteristic of Russian and English versification.

The rhythmic units of poetic speech are foot, line, stanza, meter.

The sound and rhythm of the verse sets the meter, which is a certain order in which stressed and unstressed syllables are placed in the foot in modern poems (or long and short-sounding syllables for ancient poetry).

Poetic devices are the real arsenal of the poet. The use of each of them allows you to make the verse more expressive, convey a hidden meaning or some emotions, make the very sound of the poem more interesting. For example, one of the most common techniques is the use of epithets - an expressive means designed to emphasize, highlight certain qualities of the described object. Comparisons are used for the same purpose.

The use of tropes is associated with the use of words in a figurative, allegorical sense - it allows you to somewhat complicate the verse, make it more interesting for perception. A similar poetic device, the synecdoche, suggests allegory in what is associated with the number of objects (in this case, the plural is replaced by the singular, and vice versa). Quite common devices in poetry are metaphor and allegory, when using which the properties inherent in one object are attributed to the described object or phenomenon.

Another technique - personification, involves the transfer of the qualities of an animate object to an inanimate object. There are quite a lot of similar techniques that make it possible to give a verse one shade or another, to expand its meaning, to complicate its perception. Their competent use is one of the bases in poetry - in many respects it is the expressiveness of a poem that makes it a poetic work.