Classes of adjectives. Relative adjectives: how to define, examples What does a relative adjective mean

The modern Russian language has two most important forms of existence: it is, firstly, a literary language and, secondly, diverse territorial dialects. Dialects are gradually dissolving into the literary language, but this process is still far from over. The defining feature of the literary language is the overcoming of the non-functional difference of units in it. Territorial dialects in their mass create a huge variance for all types of language units.: the same object is called differently in different dialects, the same syntactic connection is expressed in different ways, the same word receives a different phonetic form, etc. Each dialect collective does not remain closed; its members inevitably get acquainted with other dialects, meet interlocutors of other dialects, therefore, interdialect differences constantly become differences within the same speech act (primarily within the dialogue). These differences are not connected with the functions of the speech act, with the linguistic purpose of communication units.

The literary language opposes this non-functional diversity with unity.: it exists for the entire territory of Russian speech. Its interaction with dialects and enrichment at the expense of dialects does not lead to an increase in synonymy within the literary language, but to functional delimitation and to the complication of the system of linguistic units. Both the literary language and the dialects have phonetic, grammatical, and lexical norms. But the structure of the norms of the literary and dialect language is fundamentally different. Dialect in the widest sizes allows synonyms of units, i.e. a variety of words to express the same meaning (without functional language differences), a variety of syntactic arrangements, stylistically identical, for the same statement, sometimes a variety of phonetic "shells" for the same word, etc.

Language functions: communicative, cognitive (cognitive), cumulative (accumulates, transmits information)

Periodization: 14-16c, the language of Russian Naziia 15-17c

The culture of speech is a branch of linguistics (linguistics) that studies the speech life of society in a certain era (objective-historical point of view) and establishes on a scientific basis the rules for using language as the main means of communication between people, an instrument for the formation and expression of thoughts (regulatory point of view) . The comparison of different forms of oral and written speech, the disclosure of the norms of the literary language at all levels of the language system (pronunciation, stress, grammatical structures, word usage, the structure of phrases and sentences) allow not only to identify trends in language development, but also to influence this process, to contribute to real implementation of literary norms in speech practice, to pursue a targeted language policy.

3 aspects of speech culture: normative, ethical and communicative.

1) Normative the aspect implies the correspondence of speech to the requirements that were formed in a given language community in a certain historical period; it is associated with the correctness, exemplary speech, with the observance of literary norms of pronunciation (orthoepic norm), stress (accentological norm), word usage (lexical norm), form formation (morphological norm), construction of phrases and sentences (syntactic norm).

2) Communicative the aspect is connected with the selection of appropriate and justified language means in a certain situation of communication, with the conscious use in speech practice of those words, word forms and phrases that are most consistent with the communicative situation and meet the goals of communication. This aspect assumes the speaker's knowledge of functional varieties of the language, as well as the ability to focus on the pragmatic conditions of communication.

3) Ethical aspect of speech culture is determined by knowledge of the rules of speech behavior and the ability to apply them in specific situations of communication. This aspect of speech culture is associated with the concept speech etiquette, which is understood as a developed system of rules of speech behavior and speech formulas used in certain communicative situations.

Types of norms: 1. Pronunciation (orthoepic), 2.lexical (violation of the meaning of the word), 3.derivative,4.morphological.5.stylistic,6.spelling,7. Punctuation.

Phoneme(other Greek φώνημα - “sound”) - the minimum unit of the sound structure of the language. The phoneme does not have an independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but serves to distinguish and identify significant units of the language (morphemes and words):

when you replace one phoneme with another, you get another word (<д>ohm -<т>ohm);

changing the order of the phonemes will also result in another word (<сон> - <нос>);

deleting a phoneme will also result in another word (t<р>he is the tone).

The term "phoneme" in a close modern sense was introduced by the Polish-Russian linguists N. V. Krushevsky and I. who worked in Kazan. A. Baudouin de Courtenay (after the early death of Krushevsky, Baudouin de Courtenay pointed to his priority).

The phoneme as an abstract unit of language corresponds to the sound of speech as a concrete unit in which the phoneme is materially realized. Strictly speaking, the sounds of speech are infinitely varied; sufficiently accurate physical analysis can show that one person never pronounces the same sound in the same way (for example, shock [а́]). However, while all these pronunciation options allow you to correctly identify and distinguish words, the sound [а́] in all its variants will be a realization of the same phoneme<а>.

The phoneme is the object of study of phonology. This concept plays an important role in solving such practical problems as the development of alphabets, principles of spelling, etc.

Sound- the smallest, indivisible unit of sounding speech. Considered from the acoustic, articulatory and semantic sides

ORPHEPY (from Greek orthos "correct" and epos "speech"), correct pronunciation (cf. orthography - correct spelling). The word orthoepy is used in two meanings: 1) a system of uniform pronunciation norms in the literary language; and 2) the science (a branch of phonetics) dealing with pronunciation norms, their substantiation and establishment. Orthoepic norms are also called literary pronunciation norms, since they serve the literary language, i.e. the language spoken and written by cultured people. The literary language unites all Russian speakers, it is needed to overcome the linguistic differences between them. And this means that he must have strict norms: not only lexical - norms for the use of words, not only grammatical, but also orthoepic norms. Differences in pronunciation, like other language differences, interfere with people's communication by shifting their attention from what is being said to how it is being said. Orthoepic rules prevent a mistake in pronunciation, cut off unacceptable options. Pronunciation variants recognized as incorrect, non-literary, may appear under the influence of the phonetics of other language systems - territorial dialects, urban vernacular or closely related languages, mainly Ukrainian. We know that not all Russian speakers have the same pronunciation. In the north of Russia, they “okayut” and “joke”: they pronounce v[o]da, g[o]v[o]rit, n[e]su), in the south they “kayat” and “yak” (they say v[a] ]yes, n[ya]su), there are other phonetic differences. The orthoepic norm does not always affirm only one of the pronunciation options as the only correct one, rejecting the other as erroneous. In some cases, it allows for variations in pronunciation. Both the pronunciation e[zh "zh"] y, vi [zh "zh"] with a soft long sound [zh"], and e [zhzh] y, vi [zhzh] at - with a hard long; correct and up to [w "w"] and, and up to [wad] and, and ra [w "w"] to test and ra [w "h"] to test, and [d] believe and [d"] believe, and p[o]esia and p[a]esia. Thus, unlike orthographic norms that offer one option and forbid others, orthoepic norms allow options that are either evaluated as equal, or one option is considered desirable and the other acceptable. Orthoepic norms are established by scientists - specialists in the field of phonetics. On the basis of what do linguists decide which option should be rejected and which one should be approved? Orthoepy codifiers weigh all the “pros” and “cons” of each of the variants encountered, while taking into account various factors: the prevalence of the pronunciation variant, its compliance with the objective laws of language development (i.e. see which option is doomed and which has a future). They establish the relative strength of each argument per pronunciation. For example, the prevalence of a variant is important, but this is not the strongest argument in its favor: there are common mistakes. In addition, orthoepy specialists are in no hurry to approve a new version, adhering to reasonable conservatism: literary pronunciation should not change too quickly, it must be stable, because the literary language connects generations, unites people not only in space, but also in time. Therefore, it is necessary to recommend the traditional, but living norm, even if it was not the most common.

Russian graphics. How does our writing convey the sound composition of words? How many letters are necessary and at the same time sufficient to convey all the subtleties of the language? This number is different in every language. Previously, it was thought that it was ideal for one letter to correspond to one sound, moreover, always the same letter. The Russian linguist N.F. Yakovlev proved that there should not be more letters in a language than there are basic, independent sounds.

In Russian, as we have seen, there are five vowel phonemes and 34 consonants. In total, there are 39 distinguishing sounds. And there are 33 letters in the alphabet. What explains this “shortage”? It turns out that you can "save" the number of letters. Yakovlev calculated the formula for constructing the most economical alphabet in terms of the number of letters. He showed that if there are pairs of consonants in a language that differ in the same feature (for example, hardness - softness), then each pair can be denoted by the same letter, and an additional feature can be transmitted using the adjacent, next letter. The Russian alphabet prompted him to this idea. In Russian writing, consonants paired in hardness-softness are transmitted by the same letter: for [ with] and [ with"] - one letter - with , for [ m] and [ m"] - one letter m etc. In total, there are 12 such pairs, differing only in hardness-softness, in the Russian language. Hence, instead of 24 letters, our letter uses 12 letters to convey these consonants.

But how do we distinguish a hard consonant from a soft one? Why, when reading, do we not confuse when to pronounce soft and when hard? Because the next letter indicates the hardness-softness of the consonant - the neighbor on the right. Letter pairs serve as such indicators of softness-hardness of the preceding consonant. a – I , about – yo , at – Yu , uh – e , s – and (cf. small-crumpled,they say-a piece of chalk, onion-Luke, sir-ser, bald-fox). What if there is no vowel after the consonant? Then the “softening” role is played by the letter soft sign ( b ), which itself does not denote any sound, but conveys the softness of the preceding consonant. So, it took 12 consonants less (12 letters were saved), but we had to introduce a soft sign plus five more letters for vowels, so that they denote not only the vowel phoneme, but also the softness of the preceding consonant.

This principle of designation of hard-soft consonants is conditionally called syllabic.

The syllabic principle also determines the transfer of the phoneme j("iot"). How are the two words different? wolves and Christmas trees- not literally, but sounds? This can be seen from the transcription: [wolf "and],. These words differ in distinguishing sounds (phonemes) in and j. Phoneme j has its own letter th , but this letter is used to convey j only after word-final vowels and before consonants ( lei, watering can), and before vowels the letter th not used: we do not write apple, southern, jozhik etc., but we write Apple, southern, Hedgehog). So the letters I ,Yu , yo , e not only vowels + softness of the preceding consonant are transmitted: “in combination” they do one more job - they convey combinations j+ a, j+at, j+ about, j+ uh. In this case, one letter corresponds to a combination of sounds.

The syllabic principle is a striking feature of Russian graphics. It developed spontaneously, in the process of the development of the Russian language, and turned out to be very convenient. It not only allows you to get by with fewer letters, but also saves paper. After all, if there were no double set of letters for vowels, and the softness of consonants would always be indicated by a soft sign (for example, thiotya, lublue- instead of aunt, love), then the words would be much longer in writing.

So far, we have been talking about the use of letters, regardless of what words they are part of, when the choice of a letter is determined only by the environment of the transmitted sounds, the sound context. Such rules are called graphic rules as opposed to spelling rules in the narrow sense of the word. About them and will be discussed further.

Russian spelling. Now let's move on to the rules of another type, designed to convey sounds in writing in weak positions, i.e. in those in which two or more phonemes coincide in one sound. In order to correctly convey such a sound, you must first of all "free" it from the influence of the position, and to do this, correlate it with the sound in a strong position (in the same significant part of the word), and then select the desired letter. This is exactly what we did at school when we tested "dubious sounds."

The secret of Russian spelling turns out to be simple: the letter does not convey the changes in sounds that occur under the influence of the position. Sounds in weak positions are indicated in the same way as if they were in a strong position. This is not a whim, but the principle of our spelling. Our spelling is reasonable, it refuses to convey random, due to phonetic position.

It turns out that our spelling is not a heap of many different rules. There is one general rule applicable in the most different cases at first glance: we write letters according to the same rule about and w in the word labout woow ka(we check both letters by the position of distinguishing sounds: labout vit, fishingw ek). By the same rule, we write the letter with in place of the sound h] at the beginning of a word with quit(examination: with tear), and the letter d to denote [ c] in the word molo d ca (check: molod ec), and the letter d in place of the position of the sound in the word that “missed” on demand posesd but(examination: opozd at).

But it is necessary to check - to correlate with a strong position - not only the sounds “injured” from the position, but also those sounds of weak positions that have not changed in their sound: the unstressed vowel needs to be checked a in the word tra wa(not to write a letter about ), consonant f in the word scalef (not to write a letter at the end of a word in ).

So, in the spelling rules, the choice of a letter for a sound in a weak position is determined by what sound it alternates with in a strong position.

And what is this unit that we convey with a letter? Now we know that the sounds whose change is caused by a phonetic position form one and the same sound unit - a phoneme. We convey it in writing, no matter what sound it is presented in a weak position. We always designate a phoneme by its strong position. Therefore, the main principle of our orthography - the principle of ignoring positional alternations of sounds in writing - is called phonemic, or phonemic. This is a very handy principle. It works when writing both vowels and consonants, and in all parts of the word - not only in roots, but also in suffixes and endings. It provides a uniform transmission of morphemes (the smallest meaningful units of a language), and this helps us to easily recognize words when reading.

Why do we still often find it difficult what letter to write? There are several reasons. First of all, the language does not always have a word in which the sound being tested would correspond to a sound in a strong position. Then you have to remember which letter to write, for example, in words about laziness, toa empty, vitI sz, uh tazh, sewith tra, veh de. In addition, in our spelling there are deviations from the main principle. For example, at the root - height/growth- occurs only under stress about, and without stress we write the letter about (Rabout if, hydrogenabout if), then a : Ra style, expa whelping, proda become. Same with the root zor/zar-: write ha rya, ha rnitsa, although under stress about: habout ri, habout rka. And at the root - melt- on the contrary, it is written under stress only a – pla vat, without stress - about : swimmer. Such spellings, which contradict the main principle of our orthography, are called conditional or traditional; as a rule, they reflect the facts of the history of the Russian language.

We examined the basic principles of the rules for the literal transmission of the sound composition of words. In addition to these rules, spelling in the broad sense of the word includes the rules for continuous and hyphenated spelling, as well as the rules for using uppercase and lowercase letters. A collection of rules for the use of punctuation marks is called punctuation. These rules have their own laws and their own scope - not a word, but a sentence and a text. The name itself - "punctuation marks" - suggests that our writing takes care of "stammers" in the perception and pronunciation of the text. “Stuttering” when reading about punctuation marks, our eye gives a signal to the voice to make stops - pauses, to highlight some parts of the sentence with intonation. And this helps the listener to understand what we read aloud. Punctuation separates and highlights certain syntactic units in the text.

Lexicology as a science about the lexical system of the Russian language. Subject, goals and objectives.

Vocabulary is the science of the vocabulary of a language (Greek vocabulary). All the words of the SRY, naming objects, phenomena, m / y relations with other objects, form a word composition (lexicon). Like other levels of the language, vocabulary is the subject of a special section of linguistics called LEXICOLOGY. The subject of study l / l is a word from the point of view of its subject content. The subject of words. The composition of the language: 1. general l / l - the study of the general laws of the structure and functioning of different languages; 2. private l / l - it is possible to study words. composition of a particular language, elucidation of the patterns of its development and special. features; 3. descriptive l / l - studies the lex system. Units and nouns Simultaneously; 5. historical l/l - considers the formation of the lex. Composition in its historical development; 5. comparative l / l - studies the lex. Units of one language in comparison with lex. Units of another4 6. compare. l/l - compares unrelated units. languages. There are also practical and theoretical l / l. This science is closely related to other disciplines about language. To study words. The composition of the RJ, it is necessary to delve into history. Also, l / l interacts with non-linguistic. sciences: philosophy, logic, psychology, culture of the people. Vocabulary is a system that is multidimensional. Represents a set of microsystems, i.e. it can be systematized depending on different parameters. The word as a unit of the lexical system of the Russian language. The concept of the word. Word functions

The word is the basic unit of language. S. is twofold in nature: 1. external design, 2. it names an object, phenomenon, etc. The lexical meaning of the word is a connection with one or another phenomenon of reality. Nominative f-i - designation of an object, process, sign, saint, etc. generalizing f-i - the word means a concept, names not only phenomena taken separately, but also classes of phenomena that have common features (ex. BREAD). Also, the word has an evaluative property: it can express the attitude, assessment, emotions of the speaker. Lexical semantics. Types of lexical meanings of a word.

One of the main tasks of lexicology is the study of the subject meanings of words and expressions. The study of the meaning of linguistic units is the subject of a special important section of linguistics - SEMANTICS. Sema - the minimum limiting unit of the content plan. The term "semantics" is also used in a non-terminological sense. Linguistic semantics, i.e. linguistic, studies both the vocabulary of the language and its gram. Build and, accordingly, on the lexicon. semantics and gram. semantics. The subject of Gram. Semnatics yav-syagram. Forms, compositions of words and sentences. Lexical semantics has a subject. Studies of subject (lexical) meaning words. The lexic system is a language system. A sign in the lexicon has an expression plan and a content plan. Plan vyr-I - this is external. Word form and graphics. Shell. The content plan is the meaning of the word. The lexical meaning of the word is determined by a number of linguistic and non-linguistic factors. Under the language factors, there are links, existing m / y words and participation in the formation of lexical. Values. Extralinguistic factors are most important in the formation of lexical. The meaning of the word, because they determine the connection of the word with the real reality and the connection of the lexical meaning with the concept as a form of thinking reflecting the real reality. That. The lexical meaning of a word is, first of all, its content, based on lex. Values ​​lies concept, i.e. form of thinking, the concept of har-Xia volume and content. The scope of a concept is a class of definitions of phenomena generalized into a concept. The content of the concept is the totality of the essential features of these phenomena. S.p. always deeper than the meaning of the word. Because it contains the most detailed characteristics. In the meaning of the word, turn on the emotions. Components (daughter-daughter), the concept of emotions. Comp. Does not include. Lexico-semantic system of the Russian language. The content structure of the word. Classification of lexical meanings V.V. Vinogradova

1. Direct nominative meanings, indisputably connected with the subject or meaning, characterized by the free combination of words and the corresponding real connections m / y of the words with the meanings of the comp. main a lot of vocabulary r.ya. A word can have one lex. Meaning, then it is unambiguous, somewhat-multiple-valued. 2. Meanings, phraseologically connected, arise when the lexical meaning of a word is realized in combination with a definition. The circle of words, the limited compatibility of the condition is not real-subject-lexical connections, but internal. Lexical laws. R.I. systems (bosom → friend). 3. Syntactically conditional values, released only in the sentence, when the word is issued defined. Syntax F-th, most often f-th of the predicate (he is our head). 4. constructive-conditioned. Meaning, requires a definition for its expression. Grammatical The design and definition Lexic. District. (to get involved in a conversation, in work).

Polysemy (polysemy) of the word. Expansion and contraction of lexical meaning.

The original, basic meaning of any word is a direct meaning, but on its basis, by rethinking, other meanings can arise, figurative, naming perdmet not directly, not directly, but by combining signs or ratios of part and whole or contiguity location, etc. Polysemy is a consequence of the transfer of names from one subject of action to another. Polysemy is used to enhance the impact of constructing synonymous series and therefore is a powerful medium of sod-I express speech. The meaning of a word can change in the process of developing one language, it is possible to expand and narrow the language. Narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word, the name of a generic concept or the name of a whole, becomes the name of a specific concept or part. Etc. joke, duet 7. Direct and figurative meaning of words. Types of figurative meanings (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc.).

Such transfers occur on the basis of: 1. by similarity (shape, color, quality, internal St. to you, etc.) - a metaphor (river branch, strong friendship, garden ring). 2. by contiguity (temporal, spatial, logical) - metonymy - lyric tenor, famous tenor. 3. by function - personification - the sun laughs. 4. Deliberate exaggeration - hyperbole - scare you to death. 5. deliberate reduction - a boy with a finger. 6. irony - a stylistic figure of expression of mockery or slyness through allegory, when the word acquires in the context a meaning that is opposite to the initial one or denies it. The form of the floor-I, and the content of the negative-e, in oral speech is conveyed by intonation.

Correlation between the concepts of polysemy and homonymy.

Polysemy - the presence of a unit of language more than 1 value. It happens: lexical (the ability of one word to serve to refer to different objects and phenomena) and grammatical (the ability of the 1st gram. Forms to convey different meanings). Etc. chickens are counted in the fall (a personal verb acts in a generalized personal sense). The polysemantic difference is that with it, the m / y meaning of a polysemantic word has a certain connection, and this gives reason to consider them as the meanings of one word and distinguish them from the meaning of words - homonyms. Homonymy is a sound coincidence of different language units, knowing cat = x without connecting with each other. Lexical homonyms are the same-sounding words that do not have common El-s of meaning (sem) and are not associated associatively. The reasons for the appearance of homonyms are varied: - historically - sound changes (bow after the reforms of the 19th century), borrowing (marriage from German defect, from Russian Matrimony), - onomatopoeia (sh9ip, rose snakes), breaking the original. Unified semantics ambiguous. Words (light). Homonyms are complete and incomplete. Full homonyms coincide in all grams. forms. Incomplete coincide in a number of grams. Form. Luke, I will. Types of homonyms in the lexical paradigmatics of the Russian language.

Homonyms, in which only separate tims coincide. Forms, called Homoforms, unlike full homonyms, are words of both one and the other, and others. Grm. Forms. (mouth, verse - verb, noun). 2. Homographs - words that are the same in spelling, but different in terms of understanding (torment, mine, road). 3. homophones - words that are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling (company-campaign, fruit-raft, Serb-sickle). Paronymy and its connection with homonymy.

In connection with homonymy, it is often considered The phenomenon of parnomy is a partial sound similarity of words with their partial or complete semantic difference. (escalator-escalator, addressee-addressee). The most ancient stylistic means, paronomasia, is based on the use of parnomimes. (I would be glad to serve, it is sickening to be awarded).

Types of synonyms in Russian.

1. conceptual (semantic, iliographic) characterizes by some differences in shades of meaning. Noiseless - inaudible. 2. Stylistics single out one concept, but used in different styles (soldier, warrior, warrior). 3. semantic-stylistic. In addition, synonyms differ on the grounds: according to the degree of modernity, according to the area of ​​\u200b\u200buse (1 word-nationwide, 2-limited), according to the degree of compatibility (brown-brown), according to ext. Form (boundless, boundless, boundless), by different management (start work / start work)). Lexical synonyms, their varieties. Reasons for the emergence of synonyms.

Synonyms can be national and contextual. O. s. - these are words that have a close meaning in isolated use, i.e. out of context. Contextual - or individual - author's, are found only in a certain context. Synonyms contribute to the enrichment of speech, the elimination of monotony, to enhance expressiveness, they can be used to build an antithesis. Gradation - increasing and decreasing, arranges synonyms as the quality or intensity of the action increases. Descending - from wider to smaller. Reason: the appearance of synonyms - a change in the meaning of a word, or borrowing (linguistics-linguistics).

Antonymy as the most important semantic category of language.

One of the main and most ancient semantic categories of the language. The essence of antonymy is the correlative opposition of lexical units. Antonyms are words of the 1st part of speech that have the opposite meaning. Antonyms are united by common semes (seme of expression, emotions, time). Antonyms are able to form pairs (love-hate), or build microsystems of 3 or more Types of antonymic oppositions in Russian. Classification of antonyms in terms of structure. Semantic classification of antonyms. Antonyms as a means of creating expressiveness.

STYLISTIC FIGURES, special turns of speech fixed by stylistics, used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of an utterance (for example, anaphora, epiphora, simplock, ellipse, amplification, antithesis, oxymoron, parcellation, parallelism, gradation, inversion, non-union, multi-union, chiasm, silence and etc.). Sometimes stylistic figures include tropes, as well as unusual phrases, turns of speech that go beyond the language norm. ANTITHESIS - (from the Greek antithesis - opposition) - opposition of characters, circumstances, images, compositional elements, creating the effect of sharp contrast. Wider: comparison of opposite concepts, states, any elements of a literary work. Meet BUT.: character (in character organization), plot (in plot construction), compositional; for expression BUT. often used antonyms- words that are opposite in meaning ("Red and Black", "War and Peace", "Crime and Punishment", "Thick and Thin", etc.). OXYMORON (oxymoron) (Greek oxymoron, lit. - witty-stupid), a stylistic figure, a combination of words that are opposite in meaning (“a living corpse” - L. N. Tolstoy; “heat of cold numbers” - A. A. Blok).

General principles for the classification of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of its origin. Native Russian vocabulary, its historical layers.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has a long and complex history of its formation, development and enrichment. In the vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of it; historical formation can be distinguished two main layers: 1) words that have a native Russian character, and 2) borrowed words.

Native Russian vocabulary forms the main body of the vocabulary of the Russian language, which determines its national specificity. The original Russian vocabulary includes all words generated by the language itself at any stage of its development. The structure of native Russian vocabulary includes: a) words of common Slavic origin; b) Old Russian vocabulary; c) proper Russian words. 1. Common Slavic Vocabulary is an ancient vocabulary core of the Russian language, which was formed during the existence of the common Slavic linguistic unity, i.e. common Slavic language, until about the 6th-7th centuries. AD In the composition of the common Slavic vocabulary, nouns predominate, since their nominative function has a particularly vivid expression. Among these nouns, several thematic groups stand out: names of natural phenomena: storm, wind, whirlwind; names of the concepts of time: morning day Evening; names of topographic objects: shore, swamp, land; plant names: birch, beech, elm; names of animals and birds: ram, bull, sparrow; names of household items, tools, food: log, bucket, chisel, knife, grain, flour, cheese; the names of the anatomical parts of the body that make up its structure: hip, head. names of abstract concepts of spiritual and moral content: trouble, faith, guilt. The common Slavic lexicon also includes a number of adjectives that have a predominantly qualitative meaning, which is also relevant for the current state of the lexical system of the Russian language. As part of these adjectives, the following thematic groups are distinguished: color names: white, blue; names of external qualitative features: barefoot, fast, decrepit, smooth; names of internal qualitative features: important, proud, kind, evil, wise In the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, one can also find a significant number of verbs of common Slavic origin. They are divided into several thematic groups: verbs of labor activity: forge, wash, flog; verbs of movement and movement in space: wander, carry; verbs of thought, speech, feeling: mutter, be afraid, write; other verbs: fight, peck, take revenge, drink. Some numerals, pronouns, primitive adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions have a common Slavic origin: one, two, ten, one hundred; I you he; who what; where, then, there; without, about, at, for; but, yes, and, whether etc. 2. Old Russian vocabulary was formed during the period of existence of the Old Russian language (VII-XIII centuries). The vocabulary of the Old Russian language was enriched mainly due to internal word-formation resources, which made it possible to create new lexical units to denote new concepts that appeared as a result of the social, economic, cultural and moral development of the Russian people. New words that arose in the Old Russian language were mainly associated with the most relevant areas of everyday life and everyday life and are included in the same thematic groups that we mentioned when describing the common Slavic vocabulary. The following lexical units can be cited as examples of Old Russian vocabulary that has retained its functions in the modern Russian language (grouping by parts of speech and by topic is not given): beam, pamper, squirrel, ham, inject, talker, pea etc. 3. Actually Russian vocabulary- this is an extensive, constantly replenishing layer of words that have arisen and are arising on a native Russian basis in the chronological framework of the existence of the Russian language, starting from about the 14th century. and to the present. Here are samples of Russian vocabulary proper with distribution by parts of speech: nouns: butterfly, ice, blade, child; adjectives: vigilant, sullen, pistachio; Verbs: to strike, to rumble; adverbs: shut up, almost, completely. From the above examples, it can be seen that Russian words proper in almost all cases have a derivative stem with more or less affixes and are the result of different word-formation methods.

Borrowings from Old Church Slavonic.

At the stage of formation and development of the Old Russian vocabulary, a significant number of words and morphemes of Old Slavonic origin penetrated into the Russian language. The contacts of the Old Russian language with the Old Slavonic language are a significant phenomenon in the history of cultural life in Russia. In the era of the XXI century. these contacts became especially close, which was facilitated by the spread of Christianity in Russia and the popularity of ancient Bulgarian culture. The ancient Bulgarian religious ritual and cultural traditions penetrated the Russian land under the influence of numerous monuments of Old Slavonic writing, initially represented by liturgical books, and then by all kinds of secular sources. Through these monuments, the Old Church Slavonic language is first established as the official language of the Orthodox Church, and then gradually penetrates into various spheres of secular life, comes into contact with the Old Russian spoken language and thus has a significant impact on all its styles and genres. One of the results of this influence, as It has already been noted that the Old Russian language acquired a large number of Old Slavonic words, a significant part of which, having undergone various transformations, is preserved in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, forming in it a special lexical layer of Old Slavic words. Many Old Church Slavonicisms have entered the active stock, have become commonly used and are now perceived as proper Russian words: middle, power, different, work, equal, sweet, enemy, before etc. Being included in the composition of the Russian vocabulary, Old Slavonicisms were exposed to the semantic laws of the Russian language and were gradually distributed into three semantic groups.

Borrowings from living Slavic languages.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages. Signs of borrowed words in the Russian language (characteristic features of Greekisms, Latinisms, etc.). Late borrowings in Russian. Ways of mastering borrowed words in Russian. Active and passive vocabulary. The concept of the lexical core and periphery.

The dictionary of the Russian language in the process of its historical development is constantly changing and improving. Changes in the vocabulary are directly related to the production activity of a person, with the economic, social, political development of society. The vocabulary reflects all the processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects, phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that call them go out of use or change their meaning. Considering all this, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: active vocabulary and passive vocabulary.

The active vocabulary includes those everyday words, the meaning of which is clear to all people who speak this language. The words of this group are devoid of any signs of obsolescence.

The passive vocabulary includes those that either have a pronounced coloring of obsolescence, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet received wide popularity and are also not in everyday use.

The words of the passive stock are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).

Obsolete vocabulary: historicisms and archaisms.

obsolete words

One group of obsolete words consists of those that have already completely fallen out of use due to the disappearance of those concepts that denoted: boyar, veche, archer, guardsman, vowel (member of the city duma), burgmaster, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms.

Another group of obsolete words are archaisms, i.e. words that, in the process of language development, were replaced by synonyms, which are other names for the same concept. This group includes, for example, the words barber - hairdresser; this - this; better - because; guest - trade; eyelids - eyelids; piit - a poet; komon - horse; lanitis - cheeks; incite - incite; bed - bed, etc.

Both obsolete words are used in the language of fiction as a means of recreating a certain historical era (for example, in the novels "Razin Stepan" by A. Chapygin, "Peter I" by A.N. Tolstoy, "Emelyan Pugachev" by V.Ya. Shishkov, "Ivan the Terrible" by V. Kostylev, "Faithful Sons of Russia" by L. Nikulin, "I have come to give you freedom" by V. Shukshin, "Memory" by V. Chivilikhin and many others). They can be a means of giving speech a comic or ironic tone. Archaisms are part of the traditional sublime poetic vocabulary (for example, the words: breg, cheeks, lad, this, eyes, this, etc.). The use of historicisms and archaisms in special scientific and historical literature is already devoid of a special stylistic predestination, since it allows lexically to accurately characterize the described era.

Neologisms and occasionalisms in Russian.

Neologisms

New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from rp. neos - new + logos - word). A neologism that arose along with a new object, thing, concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used, publicly available, it ceases to be a neologism. Such a path was followed, for example, by the words soviet, collectivization, collective farm, linkage, tractor driver, Komsomol member, Leninist, pioneer, Michurinist, metro builder, virgin lands, lunar, cosmonaut and many others. Over time, many of these words also become obsolete and pass into the passive of the language.

Consequently, due to the continuous historical development of the lexical composition of the language, many words, back in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms with an abstract meaning (for example, fiction, liberty, reality, citizenship, humanism - humanity, idea, communism - communist, social, equality, socialism - socialist, etc.), in the modern language are part of the active stock of the dictionary.

And some words, having appeared relatively recently (tax in kind, surplus appropriation, NEPman, swagger, party maximum, party minimum, people's commissar, etc.), managed to become obsolete.

In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author stand out. Some of them entered the literary language, for example: a drawing, a mine, a pendulum, a pump, attraction, a constellation, etc. (by Lomonosov); industry, falling in love, absent-mindedness, touching (in Karamzin); fade away (in Dostoevsky), etc. Others remain part of the so-called occasional author's formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example: mandolin, smile, sickle, hammer, chamberlain and many others by Mayakovsky; turned stormy, roared at B. Pasternak; mokhnatinki, Ant Country and Muravskaya country by A. Tvardovsky; magic, cellophane, etc. from A. Voznesensky; broad-bodied, unfamiliar, above the world, inflexibility and others in E. Yevtushenko. A.I. has many non-usual words. Solzhenitsyn, especially among the adverbs: he turned around ready, rushed kiddingly, grinned chestily.

Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of its use. The lexicon is public.

Common vocabulary, which makes up the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language, is opposed by groups of words that are known only to a limited circle of people, united by a territorial-dialect or social community. The set of lexical units, which constitute a specific affiliation of a particular territorial dialect and are common in the speech of only the local population, forms dialect vocabulary .Dialect vocabulary remains outside the literary language and, as already noted, is used only in the oral speech of speakers of a particular territorial dialect. In addition, dialect vocabulary can be used by writers in works of art for the speech characterization of characters or general stylization of speech. However, excessive "saturation" of dialect vocabulary of the vocabulary material of a work leads to a decrease in artistry, makes it difficult to understand. Many dialect words penetrate into the literary language, are gradually fixed in it and even lose their dialect specificity. Such words are perceived by speakers as words of a literary language with one or another shade of emotionality and expressiveness. In this way, in the 19th century the following words entered the literary language and gradually lost their dialect specificity in it: hunger strike, kids, smartass, confusion, tedious etc.

It is necessary to delimit many colloquial words from dialect vocabulary. For example, colloquial vernacular (not dialectal) are the words: blond, plump, thrashing, tightly, flicker, foist, starve, dohlyak, muzzle, yell, swindle, stunned, mob, hard worker, canteen, hard worker, be rude, squishy, ​​hang around etc. Vocabulary of limited use: dialectal, professional, slang and slang.

Argo. Jargon. Slang. The first two terms are French in origin (French argot, jargon), the third is English (English slang). All three terms are often used interchangeably. However, it is advisable to distinguish between the concepts behind these names: slang is, unlike jargon, a secret language, to one degree or another, created specifically to make the speech of this social group incomprehensible to outsiders. Therefore, the phrases "thieves' slang", "argo ofenei" - wandering merchants in Russia in the 19th century, are preferable than "thieves' jargon", "argo ofenei". The term "slang" is more characteristic of the Western linguistic tradition. In terms of content, it is close to what is denoted by the term "jargon". Argo, jargon, slang are varieties of sociolect. The specificity of each of these linguistic formations may be due to the professional isolation of certain groups or their social isolation from the rest of society. Computer jargon (slang) is an example of professionally limited language formations, thieves' slang, student slang are examples of socially limited subcodes. Sometimes a group can be isolated both professionally and socially; the speech of such a group has the properties of both professional and social jargon. An example is soldier jargon, since military affairs are a profession, and people engaged in this profession live their own lives, quite isolated from the rest of society. Dialects are a kind of language that spreads over a limited area. They have their own vocabulary. Basically, there is no middle gender. In Russian the language of sect. three groups of dialects: North Great Russian, Middle Great Russian, South Great Russian. DIALECTISMS (from dialect), linguistic (phonetic, grammatical, etc.) features inherent in dialect speech interspersed in the literary language. Sometimes used as a stylistic device in works of art.

Language styles and stylistic differentiation of vocabulary. Stylistically neutral (interstyle) vocabulary. Vocabulary of book (written) speech.

The vocabulary of written speech includes words that are used mainly in written varieties of the literary language: in scientific articles, textbooks, in official documents - and are not used in everyday everyday speech. Vocabulary Fiction, based on interstyle words, can include words of both oral and written speech. There are three types of written vocabulary: bookish, high, official. Book vocabulary. Book words used. in all written varieties of the language (in journalism, in scientific literature, in official documents, business papers), giving the speech a “bookish” sound. The bookishness of borrowed words denoting abstract concepts is most noticeable: alternative, cataclysm, maxim, effective, prerogative. The “bookishness” of many words originally Russian and borrowed from the Old Slavonic language is not so strongly felt: verily, because-to the extent, exceedingly, holding, gathering. Vocabulary with a slightly pronounced bookish coloring is sometimes called moderately bookish. Colloquial vocabulary (vocabulary of oral speech).

The vocabulary of oral speech includes words that are characteristic for a casual conversation. These words, as a rule, are not used in written styles: in scientific and technical literature, in textbooks, in official documents and business papers. Not all words used in conversation belong to the vocabulary of oral speech. The basis of the vocabulary of casual conversation is neutral vocabulary. The vocabulary of oral speech is heterogeneous. All of it is “below” neutral vocabulary, but depending on the “degree of decline”, on the degree of literary content, this vocabulary is divided into two large groups - colloquial and colloquial vocabulary. Colloquial vocabulary: this includes words that give speech a touch of informality, ease, but not rude. From the point of view of belonging to different parts of speech, colloquial vocabulary is diverse: big guy, wit, brag, brand new, careless, hack, yeah, at random etc. A considerable part of colloquial words expresses an attitude to the called object, action, saint, attribute and their emotional assessment: grandmother, grandfather, antediluvian, imagine, dodge, fidget, scribble. But not all colloquial words can express an emotional assessment. For example: a smoke break, instantly, renewal, in an embrace, usher, just about, go home. Spoken words are close to interstyle vocabulary. However, they are still different. This is easiest to detect if they are "placed" in an official context, where they will be foreign. In explanatory dictionaries, colloquial words are given with the mark "colloquial", to which a mark is often added, indicating the emotional assessment expressed by the word - "joking", "ironic". An important feature of colloquial vocabulary yavl. the fact that it is included in the number of literary expressions. Spacious yavl. words that are outside the literary norm. one). Rough and roughly expressive words: wander around, shamble, belly, harp, muzzle, snout, zenki, paw, hamlo, kill. 2). Other words do not have rudeness, figurativeness, do not express assessments, they are perceived as incorrect from the point of view of the literary norm, as evidence of insufficient literacy of the one who uses them. They are called actually colloquial or common people. These include: without fail, in the heat of the moment, mother, to mischief, to shut up, to wait. Since the vernacular words themselves do not have figurativeness, do not contain evaluation, they are the exact semantic equivalent of the corresponding literary words: always-always, theirs-them, sew-sew, scare-scare.

Phraseologisms and their classification in Russian.

Phraseology is a section of the science of the Russian language that studies the structural and semantic-stylistic features of set phrases, their types and functioning in speech. Set phrases, unlike free phrases, are commonly called phraseological phrases, phraseological phrases, phraseological units, or simply phraseological units. In semantic-functional terms, phraseological units in most cases are correlated with words, since, like words, they perform a nominative function and act as its members in the sentence structure. As part of phraseological units, there are often units that perform a communicative function, i.e. having a sentence structure and acting as a unit of communication, these phraseological units are not created in the process of communication, but are reproduced as ready-made integral units; compare: Do you like to ride- love to carry sleds.- To be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest(ate). An important feature inherent in any phraseological unit is the invariance of the structural composition of the phraseological unit, the constant presence in it of the same word forms, which, moreover, in most cases have a forever fixed order of arrangement. For example: with sin in half- "with great difficulty, barely, somehow": After sitting in the county school for five years, Foma, with sin in half, finished four classes(M.G.). In other words, phraseological units are not formed in the process of speech, as is the case with free phrases, but are retrieved from memory in finished form. In this regard, phraseological turns are approaching words, which are also reproduced in speech as ready-made units.

A significant number of phraseological units are characterized by "impenetrable structure", i.e. the impossibility of including any word between the components of a phraseological unit. Thus, based on the criteria described, it can be concluded that a phraseological phrase is a stable phrase reproduced in its finished form, performing a nominative or communicative function and having a holistic constant meaning, constant composition and structure. In addition, many phraseological units are characterized by metaphorical and impenetrable structure. Consistency of phraseological units: grammatical categories and stylistic groups of phraseological units.

Style is a kind of literary language, which is traditionally fixed in society for one of the spheres of life. Each variety has certain linguistic features (primarily vocabulary and grammar) and is opposed to other similar varieties of the literary language, which correlate with other areas of life and have their own linguistic features.

Style is associated with the state of society, it is historically changeable. In Lomonosov's time, one could only speak of the styles of bookish speech; At the same time, three styles were distinguished: high, medium and low. The literary language is changing, and now four styles are distinguished in the language: three book styles (scientific, official business, journalistic) and a colloquial style.

One can only speak of the relative isolation of the styles of the literary language. Most of the language means in each style are neutral, interstyle. However, the core of each style is formed by its inherent linguistic means with the appropriate stylistic coloring and uniform norms of use.

Stylistic means are used by speakers or writers consciously. The style of a speech work is associated with its content, purpose, the relationship between the speaker (writer) and listener (reader).

Consequently, style is a kind of literary language that has historically developed at a certain time in a particular society, which is a relatively closed system of linguistic means that are constantly and consciously used in various spheres of life.

Each functional style has its own characteristics of using the general literary norm; it can exist both in written and oral form. Each style includes works of different genres that have their own characteristics.

Most often, styles are compared on the basis of their inherent word usage, since it is in word usage that the difference between them is most clearly manifested. However, grammatical characteristics are also important here.

Words and constructions should be selected in accordance with the chosen style, especially in writing. The use of different stylistic language means within the same text leads to the appearance of stylistic errors. Often there are errors associated with the inappropriate use of clericalism, as well as the abuse of special terms in a non-scientific text and the use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary in book texts.

functional styles.

1. Colloquial style.

2. Scientific style.

3. Official business style.

4. Artistic style.

5. Newspaper-journalistic style.

MORPHEMICS is a section of linguistics that studies the types and structures of morphemes, their relationship to each other and to the word as a whole.

A MORPHEME is the minimum indivisible meaningful part of a word, i.e. a certain meaning is assigned to the phonetic form.

In Russian there are words that are changeable and unchangeable. The former consist of a stem (i.e., a part of a word that contains lexical meaning) and an ending (i.e., a part of a word that indicates the relationship of a given word with other words in a sentence), the latter - only from the stem.

The basis necessarily includes a hoden (the main part of the word, which is common to all related words), and there may also be pschiyaaki (morphemes before the root) and suffixes (morphemes after the root before the ending, if any). All significant parts of a word, except for the root, are called affixes.

By function, affixes are divided into:

Derivational or word-forming (serve to form new words): anti-democratic (formative prefix), courage (word-forming suffix), - formative or inflectional (serve to form word forms): cats (ending), read (formative prefix), faster (formative suffix ).

Word formation- the formation of new words (derivatives) from single-root words and the resulting formal semantic relationship between the derivative and its generating word. For example: professor → professorial, work → worker.

_affixal.

Most often prefixes and suffixes are used. Accordingly, the models will be called: prefix, suffixal or prefix-suffix(depending on the method of education). For example: chew -> chew -> chewing gum.

semi-affixal.

The most common semi-affixes are used, for example: bluish-blue, etc., also in English: cyber-boy.

Compounding. connection of two roots.

Types of word formation:

through a connecting vowel (o, e):

• root+root = locomotive;

  root + similarity of the word = agriculture;

  root + word = logging.

without a connecting vowel:

• the combination of truncated words or truncated roots - collective farm;

  truncated root + word with a “taken out” middle: es (cadre) min (nose) ets = destroyer, nar (one) kom (issari) at = people’s commissariat;

  a combination of a truncated root + word: dance floor = dance floor, party + ticket = party card.

abbreviation: CIS, NATO.

reduction(end truncation): umbrella=umbrella; doctor=doc; teacher=teacher

conversion- transition from one part of speech to another without changing the word. In Russian, the phenomenon is limited exclusively to the substantivization of adjectives.

Substantiation is the transition of an adjective into a noun: ice cream, sick (as a noun), day off (“I have a day off today.” (n.)).

Telescopism, contamination.

A method of word formation in which a word is formed from the first part of one word and the last part of the second. For example, motel - motor + hotel - hotel for motorists

Noun. Lexico-semantic or lexico-grammatical categories of nouns.

Existing. - a part of speech that combines words with the grammatical meaning of objectivity (it is fashionable to call it a substantive), cat. expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness / inanimateness. In the sentence, it plays the role of the subject and object of the action (subject and additional; there can be both a narration, a definition, and a circumstance). Able to be defined by adjectives and participles. Depending on the lexical - semantic. and grammar. signs are divided into lexical - grammatical ranks: 1) Common nouns and own Common - serve as names of homogeneous objects, actions or states ( mother, island, bird, grief, sleep) Own. - are the names of single objects, isolated from a number of homogeneous ones: names and surnames, geographical. names, nicknames of animals, etc. etc. ( Yakovina Olga Anatolyevna, Khimki, Ukraine, Dnipro, “The Nibelungen Saga”, Renaissance, Victory Day, Vel. Fatherland. war,” “If he has already invited you to the “SEAMAN,” Marina continued, “then you two will make a wonderful newspaper” (Paustovsky). Stop shivering textbook quote) Their formally - grammatical. a feature is the absence of a plural form. number (in this case, the value changes). 2) Specific and non-specific Concrete - are used to name purely specific objects and purely specific phenomena of reality, taken separately and therefore subject to counting, that is, combined with quantities. counts., and is determined by ordinal words like “first”, “seventh, seventh, answer ...”, “so, thirteenth, who should the devil love?”. In the vast majority of cases, they have the forms of both numbers, except for. tantums (who has not entered yet - re-read the previous paragraph). Nonconcrete - all the rest, and more specifically (sorry for the pun): a) abstract (abstract) - courage, struggle, delirium. They do not form plural forms. numbers (in the plural - another meaning) and do not correlate with the number. num. b) collective - naming a set of objects that are homogeneous in some respect, etc., presented as a single whole ( youth, fools, proletariat). They are not quantified. num., but have special derivational. suffixes -v(a), -stv(o), -estv(o), -ur(a), -at. In some cases, the suffix can give emotional coloring ( officers, soldiers are negative, and baherism is so simply indecent!) c) real - they name the types of products, agricultural crops, materials, medicines, food and other waste (although it is written in the textbook, about waste!), in short, a mass homogeneous in composition, a substance that is not divisible into separate elements (rye, wine and hashish, sawdust, iron). They have the form of only one number and are not combined with quantities. num., but how words denoting the measured substance can be combined with the words of the measure - kg, liter, gram, cube, boat ... 3) Animated and inanimate Odush. - designate mainly living beings (people and animals), neod. - objects and phenomena of reality that are not classified as living nature<== лексически. Грамматически, категория од./неод. проявляется при склонении существительных. Форма вин. пад. одуш. совпадает с формой род. пад. Форма вин. пад. неод. - с формой именит. пад. По грамматич. признакам одуш. противоестественно признаются мертвецы, покойники, утопленники, удавленники, умершие, мертвые, всякие там дамы, ферзи, тузы и кони, куклы со всеми их разновидностями от петрушки до марионетки, все скопом мифологические твари и герои. А по поводу некоторых слов так и не определились маститые филологи: микробы или микробов, вируса или вирус и т.п.

Number category- lexico-grammar. inflectional category, which finds its expression in the opposition of correlative forms units. num. and plural. num., that is, the opposition of one object or phenomenon to a multitude of the same objects or phenomena.

Unit num. and plural. num. differ in grammatical means of expression:

1) the presence of various endings - book - books, house - houses

2) the presence of an ending in combination with a change in the place of stress - wall - walls, window - windows

3) truncation, growth or alternation of suffixes in the stem - earthling - earthlings, leaf - leaves.

4) using suppletive forms - man - people, child - children

Plural form num. can be formed from the form of units. num.

a) using the suffix ( ear - ear-j-a) b) by replacing the suffix ( kitten - kittens) c) changing the place of stress ( arm - arms, leg - legs) d) alternation of sounds ( friend - friends) e) in a suppletive way ( person people)

Genus category - ability n. (in singular) dictate grammatical. associated defining words with certain forms ( big house, big cattle). This category is inherent in all beings, except for those that are temporarily or for life in the plural. num. Ex. different genders differ in whole or in part in the declension paradigm ( house - home, lady - lady, village - village), word-formation structure ( brother - brothers, teacher - teacher), some lexico-semantic features. At noun. inanimate the genus is a pure formality, among souls. but not at all, since it is connected with the real gender of the object. Gender Masculine - a kind of grammatical. kind of nouns., characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and in souls. noun - belonging to her creatures husband. gender. Let's do without examples. It includes nouns that have in them. pad. units num. zero inflection after a hard or soft consonant stem (+ a proud exception - the word way) Genus Feminine - the same, but in noun. shower - the names of creatures belonging to it ... You guessed it right, everyone has a candy! Sorry, the roof is moving. This includes all nouns that have in them. pad. units num. graduation -and I noun with a base on a soft consonant, in the genus. pad. having inflexion -and.

Genus Middle - similar, only the declension paradigm partially coincides with the husband. r., and in general they are mostly inanimate. These include nouns that have in them. pad. units num. flexion -o/ -e, dissimilar nouns. on the -me, unslope. inanimate noun

In plural num. generic differences are preserved only in them., genus. and wine. fall., in the rest it happens unification. However, in the first three, they also do not always differ. Little is said about stylistic use: poets traditionally use the opposition of two objects of a different kind, under which “he” and “she” are perceived, as the textbook says, “tragically disunited or feeling the happiness of shared love” . At the same time, sometimes the category. genus serves at the same time as a means of creating the entire figurative basis of the lyrical narrative. Well, the mountain ash is there, with the oak across the road, the Giraffe with the Antelope, the golden cloud on the chest of the Cliff - the Giant, in short, come up with more examples where they feel something - and it will blow. This same category can also be used in texts of a humorous, playful character. (“ Managed to take a coffee pot With a fork in the grove for a walk” A.K. Tolstoy)

Declension of nouns: definition, classification of nouns, types of declensions in school and university grammar. Question about indeclinable nouns (nouns of zero declension). Declension of nouns Pluralia tantum.

A creature that has the form of only a unit. number, called singularia tantum. They are all sorts:

Real ( aspirin, iron, cereals, cellophane)

Collective ( foliage, students, raw)

abstract ( courage, fun, music)

Own ( Don, Moscow, Khlestakov, Griboyedov, “War and Peace”)

What pluralia tantum I think you have already guessed. They are also like uncut chickens:

Real ( yeast, cream, cabbage soup)

Collective ( money, jungle, cereal)

abstract ( runs, negotiations, funerals, frosts, twilight)

Own ( Alps, Khimki, Sparrow Hills)

Specific creatures denoting objects consisting of several parts or pairs of objects ( scissors, pants, sled)

Names of some games tags, hide-and-seek, checkers)

Unit num. used as a plural. num. -

1.) When designating beings. not one, but a whole heap of all sorts of things, nevertheless possessing common characteristic properties, that is, being a single class. (To err is human. A journalist must be physically developed. A dog is a man's friend) - a generalized meaning.

2.) At collective meaning beings, replacing the totality of objects presented as a single whole ( Poppy grew on the field. Mass reader.)

3). In the event of the same action committed by each individually from a whole group of persons - distributive (distributive) meaning (Children wrote with a pencil. The audience raised their heads.)

Plural num. in the meaning of units. num. - characteristic of the colloquial style of speech and is associated with a change in the meaning of these words.

1) Abstract beings. - the lexical meaning is concretized, for example, the words denoting a state denote the facts of the manifestation of this state ( sorrow - quench my sorrows, joy - the first joys)

2) Material beings. in portable use, they denote varieties and types of substances ( vegetable fats, vegetable oils), products from it ( window panes), the space occupied by this substance ( Baltic waters, Troekurov lands, arctic ice)

3) Proper names go into the category of common nouns, denoting the type of people ( Chichikovs, Khlestakovs), or denote members of the same family ( the Skrynnikov family)

All sorts of authorial, that is, occasional intrigues with a change in numbers and, accordingly, the meanings of words are possible. A couple of examples - “Rostov jasmines are blooming” Vinogradsky (not the one), “Running fire trunks” Pasternak (the one).

Animation-inanimateness- this is a lexical and grammatical category that refers the called object to the category of animate (i.e., living beings) or to the category of inanimate (i.e., objects of inanimate nature and plants, as well as events, phenomena, qualities, actions, states, etc. . P.).

Formal means of expressing the category of animateness ~ inanimateness are both paradigmatic and syntagmatic (and for indeclinable nouns - only syntagmatic). For animate nouns, the plural accusative form of both the noun itself and the adjective or participle that agrees with it coincides with the genitive case, and for inanimate nouns, with the nominative case:

Animated (V. = R.)

AND. beautiful horses, ducks, animals, kangaroos R. AT. beautiful horses, ducks, animals, kangaroos

Inanimate (V. = I.)

AND. R. beautiful tables, roses, windows, coats AT. beautiful tables, roses, windows, coats

In the singular form, animateness ~ inanimateness is paradigmatically expressed only for masculine nouns of the type student, home(with null ending) and hourly, day off(substantiated adjectives): we know a student, sentry(V.=R.), but we know the house, day off(V.=I.). For masculine nouns uncle, youth(I declension), as well as for indeclinable types dandy animation is expressed in the singular only syntagmatically: No this uncles, dandies; seethis uncle, dandy(V.=R.). In neuter and feminine nouns, animateness ~ inanimateness in the singular form is not expressed.

Some nouns that do not denote living beings, according to grammatical properties, are included in the category of animate: 1) words dead man, deceased(but not dead body); 2) the names of mythical creatures that never took place in reality, such as goblin, mermaid; 3) the names of the figures in some games: queen, ace, jack, trump, ball; 4) designations of dolls: matryoshka doll.

Nouns denoting an undivided (collective) set of living beings are grammatically inanimate: lead the people, detachment, troops, armies etc. In constructions like enroll in volunteers, go to the soldiers, elect to deputies, accept as members a special form of the accusative plural is used, modeled on inanimate nouns (cf. the usual form of the accusative of the same nouns: see volunteers, teach soldiers, believe in deputies).

The words virus, germ, bacterium can be either animate or inanimate: study viruses, microbes, bacteria and viruses, microbes, bacteria; linguistic consciousness, as it were, hesitates whether these microorganisms should be classified as living beings.

case(population of students, caused by the facial expression of the teacher) - inflectional lexical and grammatical category of beings., cat. denotes its relation to another word of a phrase, sentence or an entire syntactic construction with the help of a system of case forms opposed to each other. It is expressed by word inflections, which may be accompanied by a shift in stress, a change in word order and intonation, and prepositions.

We have 6 main cases and a few additional ones.

Nominative (nominative). Who? what?

This is the only direct case, all the rest are indirect. Not used with prepositions. It has the following values: 1. subject actions (clouds are coming), states (the child is sleeping) 2. object (the house is built) 3. definitive - in the nominal part of the predicate (son was a student) and in the appendix to the subject ( girl is beautiful) 4. adverbial - in documents and information messages ( May 1998) 5. vocative ( vocative form) - as an address (Vasya!) Here, in colloquial speech, such a perverted variant as a phatic meaning is possible (I don’t know, however, how it is spelled correctly - the features of the diction of Assoc. Van! Zin!) The vocative also has an archaic form ( My Father, Sergius, Father Seraphim! Lord! etc.) 6. imperative modal - (silence! the curtain! music!)

Indirect cases tend to vary their meanings depending on whether they are adjectival or verbal. Briefly speaking.

Genitive (genitive) Whom? what?

Nominative 1. subject (arrival of deputies, the appearance of Christ to the people) 2. object (raising children, fear of the dark) 3. definitive (Karelian birch furniture, the land of unafraid idiots) The verbal has no third meaning, everything else is the same. But that's not all, there's more adverbial value (twenty-fifth day of this month), modal (people here...), possessive ( belonging )-- teacher's portfolio, partitive(the meaning of part of the whole) - in coll. speech - oh, I want tea! prepositions genus. pad. : without, near, for, before, because of, from under, between, from, with, at, about, after, except for, besides, etc. + about a hundred derivative prepositions like in the name of what, etc. Please do not forget that subjects and objects are direct and indirect, however, only the Serpent Gavrilych knows how to distinguish between them and it is known, far to me, insignificant.

Dative ( dative) To whom? What?

Verbal: 1. state subject- in impersonal constructions ( the children became ill, the son is three years old) 2. indirect object(addressee) - write to a friend, tell son 3. object - adverbial- time, place, cause, purpose, measure (go to the forest) Nominal: 1. subject - a letter to his brother 2. definitive (a monument to Pushkin, a comrade in misfortune). And so that life does not seem like honey, there is still modal meaning - look to me! sit yourself! Date suggestions. pad.: to, according to (both are used only with it), thanks to, contrary to, depending on, in relation to what, etc.

accusative (accusative) Whom? What?

The verbal is his life credo. Others don't. Combines with transitive verbs or words of the state category. Values: 1. object ( unprepositional ) - read a book, drink tequila 2. adverbial- measure, place, time, cause, purpose, number - stay an hour, go across the river, it costs a million 3. definitive - a notebook in a cage, pants with stripes 4. modal - a carriage for me, a carriage! poison me, poison... wine prepositions. fall: in, on, behind, oh, about, on, under, about, with, through, through, including, regardless of, etc.

Creative (ablative) By whom? How?

Verbal: 1. subject - the mistake was made by the student 2. object - to speak the language 3. attributive - dad was a teacher (God forbid, of course!) 4. adverbial - time, instrumental, image and mode of action, comparison - sit in the evenings, fly in flocks, write with a pen, stand face down, flow like a stream. The nominal has no second meaning. Prepositions: for, between, between, over, before, under, with, in accordance, etc.

Prepositional (locative) About whom? About what?

Can't live without excuses. Prepositions - in, on, at, about, on. Verbal: 1. object of speech, thought (explanatory) - talk about horses 2. circumstantial - place, time, mode of action - to be ill in childhood, to live at school. Nominal: 1. object - a report on the problem 2. definitive - a bound book, drawing on porcelain. 3. circumstantial - attributive - garden at the house, life in the city

I wish you success in trying to remember this whole canoe. God help.

Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives. Short forms of adjectives. Degrees of comparison of adjectives.

Qualities. adj. able to form degrees of comparison. But it is not clear here - Mr. Rosenthal and his friends distinguish three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and excellent. Two resolute women Su-Rah do not see the positive at point blank range. Who is closer to you, decide for yourself.

The form positive degree names a feature without comparison with another manifestation of the same feature. By means of expression for p.s. serve as unit forms. num. and plural. num. adjectives - strong voice, cool days.

The form comparative degree indicates the quality of an object, manifested to a greater extent than in another object, or in itself, either earlier or later - the voice got stronger, the days were cooler. There are two forms of comparison. step.:

1) Synthetic (simple) - using suffixes -her (-her; -e - for those adj., base cat. ends with sounds g, k, x, d, t, h, st, sk; -she - just a few adj. - longer, shorter, stronger, farther. Form on -her It is used mainly in colloquial and poetic speech. Several app. form an s.p. in a supple way: small - less, good - better, bad - worse. Sometimes in the formation of s.p. together with the suffix, the prefix is ​​\u200b\u200bparticipated on- ( is conversational ) - farther, stronger. This form is invariable and in a sentence it is usually a predicate - "Girl, be smart". Not all quality. adj. capable of such a feat as the formation of s.p.: 1) adj. with suffix -sk-, -ov- - ironic, business 2) adj. with suffixes of objective evaluation - pretty, clean, as well as with prefixes and suffixes, cat. already in themselves indicate the degree of manifestation of the trait - cheerful, cute, furious, reddish, plump 3) some. adj. with suffixes -k-, -n- - timid, avid, early 4) adj. with color meaning, relative in origin - pink, coffee, raspberry, chocolate, amber 5) adj., which are participles by origin - brilliant mind, outstanding ability, open mind 6) many reprimanded. adj. with suffix -l- - retarded, seedy, sunken 7) adj., denoting the colors of horses - bay, brown, piebald 8) indicating the absolute degree of manifestation of the trait - barefoot, widowed, alive, dead, single, married

2) Analytical (complex) - using a combination of the original form adj. and words more or less - stronger, less hot. It changes in cases, genders and numbers, in a sentence it can act as a predicate and as a definition - I put on a warmer jacket, because. today was a less warm day.

These forms differ stylistically: syn. f. more neutral, their use is possible in any style of speech, en. f. also give speech a bookish tone. Both forms appear in the sentence as a definition and as a nominal part of the predicate, but an. f. often the first. If the defined noun stands in cosv. pad., then only she is the only usable.

The form superlatives indicates the highest degree of quality of the subject compared to others - the strongest voice, the hottest day. It also has several forms of manifestation:

1) Synthetic - using suffixes -eysh-, -aysh- ( after acc. g, k, x) - the most important, stupidest, easiest. Sometimes the prefix is ​​involved in this the most beautiful. S.p. cannot form: 1) adj. with suffixes -sk-, -ov- 2) some. adj. with suffix -k- - caustic, catchy, well-aimed, timid 3) rebuff. adj. with suffix -l- 4) participles used in a figurative sense 5) a number of adj. with a non-derivative basis - big, young, long, dry, tight. This form is more typical for book speech.

2) Analytical - with the help of words most, most and the original form of the adjective - “I am the strongest, I am the coolest”, the most popular.

3) This form is not recognized this time by Mr. Rosenthal, who combines 2) and 3) under one word “complex”. Ladies, on the other hand, distinguish a complex form as a combination of synthetic. comparative forms. Art. with words everyone, everything - “We are the best of everyone, we are more beautiful than everyone, smarter than everyone and more modest than everyone” This is an immutable form.

Forms prev. step. also differ stylistically. Neutral - an. f. with the word most and complex shape. Forms with most are bookish in nature, they are even formed mainly from adj. Forms with -aysh-, -aysh- have book coloring and great expressiveness. In thin and unfold speeches are used as elative, i.e. regardless of the high degree of manifestation of the trait - “The purest beauty, the purest example”. Forms with most- are found mainly in the oral speech of educated people, the intelligentsia. The combination of suffix prev. step. with the words most and most is a gross speech error, although it is possible in lang. thin literature.

Qualitative, relative and possessive adjectives.

Adjectives are divided into three groups according to their meaning and grammatical features: 1) qualitative, 2) relative and 3) possessive.

Qualitative adjectives denote a feature that may be characteristic of an object to a greater or lesser extent (color, size, temperature, taste, sound, strength, internal qualities of a person and living beings in general, etc.); so they tend to have degrees of comparison, for example: 1) Walls white, and the ceilingswhiter. 2) The fox is cunning, but the hunter smarter. 3) Volga - longest from the rivers of Europe.

Many quality adjectives have a short form, for example: snow white, beast cunning, road long as well as special suffixes, for example, introducing an affectionate diminutive value or expressing a weaker or stronger degree of quality: -enk; -ovat-, -usch- (-yusch-) - a little white handkerchief, a whitish fog, a long rope.

Relative adjectives denote signs through relation to the subject; most often they indicate material, place, time, etc., for example: leather mittens(leather gloves) Siberian wheat(wheat from Siberia), spring flowers(flowers that come in spring). Relative adjectives do not have degrees of comparison and a short form. They have special suffixes, for example: -n-, -an-, -sk-, -ov- (forest, leather, urban, pine).

Qualitative and relative adjectives have the same endings, the same declension system, for example: a beautiful wooden house, a beautiful wooden hut, beautiful wooden huts; a new wooden house, a new wooden hut.

Having the same basic forms with qualitative adjectives, relative adjectives are often used with a qualitative meaning. In combination gold cigarette case adjective gold relative: it refers to a material, derived from a noun gold. In combination golden ripe orange adjective gold used in a qualitative sense: it indicates not the material from which the object is made, but the color of the orange: yellow and shiny. Receiving a qualitative meaning, some adjectives acquire the ability to be used (in poetic and colloquial speech) in a short form and in the form of a comparative degree, for example: I) As in autumn, the fruit is ripe gold . (V. B.) 2) Everything more stone steps, steeper, steeper rise. (V. B.)

Note. There is no sharp border between qualitative and relative adjectives, very often an adjective includes both relative and qualitative meanings; one of them stands out in a certain context, for example: 1) Mother majestically entered lilac dress, in lace, with a long string of pearls around the neck. (M. G.) (lilac dress, i.e. a lilac dress is a quality adjective); 2) Around the terraces have grown lilac bushes(i.e. lilac bushes - a relative adjective).

That is why qualitative and relative adjectives are sometimes combined into one group of qualitative-relative adjectives.

Possessive adjectives designate a sign that indicates that an object belongs to a single person (less often, an animal); they are formed on behalf of a noun with the help of suffixes - in (- un ), -ov(s), For example: sister's book, sister's album, father's hat, uncle's house; they have a special declension that combines the endings of nouns and adjectives, for example: sistersa book, see sistersat book(endings of nouns); no sistersoh books talking about sistersoh book(adjective endings).

A special group in terms of meaning and endings are adjectives in - uy (fox), -ya (fox), -ye (fox), -uh (fox), which are formed from nouns denoting people or animals (fisherman - fisherman, fox - fox). They have mixed endings: both short and full, for example: foxya fur coat(short ending) foxye th fur coat(full ending) foxye flair(short ending) foxeshis flair(full ending).

These adjectives combine different meanings. They are used in a possessive sense, for example: human voices, a fishing boat, fox tricks; at the same time, they do not indicate belonging to a single person or animal, but indicate a sign characteristic of either a certain group of people, or a whole species of animals, for example: bearish den; To whom, if not me, everything fox fool to know. (Cr.) In this meaning they differ from possessive adjectives with suffixes -in, -ov, denoting belonging to a single person (grandfather's sheepskin coat - this is a sheepskin coat belonging to someone's grandfather, and not at all a sheepskin coat typical of all old people).

Adjectives are used for -y, -ya, -ye and in relative terms, for example: fox collar, bear coat, hare hat, sheepskin coat.(Adjectives indicate the material from which things are made.) The same adjectives can also acquire a qualitative meaning, for example: disservice(an unintelligent service that causes damage, trouble instead of helping), hare soul(cowardly, timid).

BRIEF APPENDICES

Many qualitative adjectives, along with full forms, form short ones: beautiful beautiful beautiful beautiful

beautiful beautiful beautiful beautiful

Short adjectives do not bow(do not change by cases, only by gender and number) and as definitions not used(only as a nominal part of a nominal predicate).

History reference: In the Old Russian language, both short and full adjectives equally acted as definitions. Short adjectives changed according to the nominal declension and were used with an “indefinite” noun (that is, with a noun denoting either an unknown or first-mentioned object), and full adjectives formed by merging short forms with demonstrative pronouns I, I, E , were used with a “certain” noun (that is, with a noun denoting an already known object). Such relationships can be compared to the difference between the definite and indefinite articles in English, French and German. However, the category of certainty-uncertainty turned out to be unstable, and over time, short adjectives ceased to be used as a definition, and since the nominal part of the predicate always appears in the nominative case, short adjectives have lost their forms of indirect cases. In a frozen form in several phraseological expressions, the remains of such case forms have survived to this day:

genus. case - from young to old, in broad daylight

dates case - around the world

wines case - barefoot

As for full adjectives, they not only supplanted the short forms used in the function of definition, but, starting from the 15th century, they also began to be used as a predicate:

Young a man was walking down the street.(definition)

Her brother is veryyoung . (predicate)

He is stillyoung for this job.(predicate)

In modern Russian, short adjectives are little used in colloquial speech, she prefers full forms. Thus, the use of short adjectives is, as a rule, an accessory of literary and bookish styles of speech. However, in some cases, the use of short adjectives as a predicate necessarily:

being predicates, short adjectives acquire some verb properties:

have an additional meaning of time - the full form of adjectives expresses constant sign, and the short form is temporary:

Her mother is sick. His mother is sick. I am offended that my mother, always so strict and beautiful, is now so ugly and funny.(M. Gorky)

agree with the pronoun YOU as part of the forms of politeness:

Please. Be kind. How careful you are.

develop the ability of prepositional management:

be angry with someone → he is angry with him, agree with someone → he agrees with me

are distributed as an add-on:

Siberia is rich in forests. The theater is full of spectators. He is good at languages.

combined with an infinitive in colloquial speech instead of a subordinate clause with a union to(some):

You are young to teach me (to teach me). I'm happy to see you. He is always ready to help.

combined with adverbs how, so(as opposed to full adjectives, which combine with pronouns what, such)

How beautiful she is. The air is so clean and fresh here.

some short adjectives differ from full ones in meaning:

She is good, kind. - She looks amazing in this dress.

His character is alive. “His father is still alive.

He is a tall, prominent man. - You can see the park from our window.

the short form gives the statement greater categoricalness, expressiveness, expressiveness. So in some cases the difference between short and long forms is purely stylistic:

He is brave, smart and honest. ― positive qualities are highlighted

He is ugly, cunning and angry. ― expressed a sharp negative characteristic, condemnation

Full forms with a negative characteristic soften the statement:

― You, Masha, are stupid. The dumbest in our family. Excuse me please.(A. Chekhov)

You're stupid less embarrassing than you are stupid. You are stupid sounds offensive.

a few adjectives are only known in short form:

glad, must, much, necessary

the short form is obligatory if the predicate is at the beginning of the sentence, and the subject has another agreed or inconsistent definition with it. In this case, the short form has an intensifying connotation:

My story will be sad.(Pushkin) Quiet Ukrainian night. Transparent sky. Great was the year and terrible year after the birth of Christ 1918, from the beginning of the second revolution.(Bulgakov)

degrees of comparison have most qualitative adjectives.

Adjectives have two degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative.

The use of a qualitative adjective in abstraction from the degree of its manifestation is called positive degree.

Beautiful(positive degree) – more beautiful(comparative) - most beautiful(superlative).

Characterized by lexico-semantic, syntactic and stylistic features, the ability to move from one category to another.

Lexico-semantic features of relative adjectives

OP denote the relationship of an object to another object, to a number, action or circumstance: pewter, triple, grindstone, today.

Examples of relative adjectives:

• The Moscow Reading Room has been replenished with new editions of books.

The adjectives "Moscow" and "reading" are relative. The adjective "Moscow" indicates the sign of the subject in place, and "reading" indicates the purpose of the subject. In a sentence, these adjectives play the role of definitions: they answer “what?”

OP can be attributed to the main and constantly replenished group due to the continuous updating of vocabulary and the emergence of new words of neologisms: space dust, modeling agency, computer room.

The sign of the relative name of the adjective is expressed through the relation:

• to the subject: notebook, door, window, tea;
• In time: winter, night, second, semi-annual;
• in place: rural, home, sea, earth;
• to face: female, medical, civil, mining;
• to material: bronze, marble, concrete, lead;
• to quantity: double, seven-year-old, thirty-kilogram;
• to the concept of abstraction: mathematical, social;
• by property: night haze, spring rains;
• to action: vaccination, dance, running.

OP is called an absolute feature that does not form degrees of comparison depending on the measure of manifestation. For example, you cannot say "very wooden door" or "this staircase is more marble than that one."

Also, relative discharges are not able to form a short form: one cannot say "the bridge is iron."

Structural and derivational features of relative adjectives

Structural and derivational features of relative adjectives are characterized by special suffixes: -an- (-yan-), -ansk- (-ensk-), -ovsk-, -esk-, -insk- . For example: sandy, linen, bast, hooligan, Moscow, maternal.

1. Relative adjectives with suffixes -an- (-yan-) get the following values:
   made from any material clay, leather, glass; intended to store something: wardrobe, wood;related to the industry: peat, oil.
2. Suffixes of relative adjectives -ast- (-at-) form the values ​​of the external signs of a person or animal: bespectacled, horned.
3. Suffixes -ev- (-ov-) form the membership value: garden, pear.
4. Suffixes -enn- (-onn-) point to the value of the property: morning, traditional.
5. Suffixes -ensk- (-insk-) indicate geographic location: Penza, Cuban.
6. Suffix -n- (-shn-) reproduces the meaning of a place, number, time, action or phenomenon: home, yesterday, thousandth, read, distant.
7. Suffix -teln- indicates the value of the action to be performed: observant, tactile, selective.
8. Suffixes -cell- (-uch-), (-uch-) give the value of propensity to some action: smelly, hanging.

Stylistic features of relative adjectives

Stylistically relative adjectives are used in the communicative and informational function: construction contract, cityscape. Such a function is primarily characteristic of the official business, scientific and journalistic style, where most of the adjectives are used in their direct meaning. According to linguists, their use in the scientific style is more than 13%, and in the official business style - less than 10%.

Thus, the use of OP in a scientific style is due to the need to name the relationship between objects and persons, the formation of compound terms and scientific clichés of a phraseological nature. For example, in the textbooks of botany and zoology you can find a large number of them: fruit bushes, heat-loving plants, synthesizing substances, carbon dioxide, ungulates, predatory animals. Such adjectives are always used in their direct meaning, they do not have expressive coloring, synonyms and antonyms. Also, these linguistic adhesions cannot be broken: for example, in zoology there is no concept of “wild animals”, only “predatory” can be used.

In an official business style, for example, when drafting legislative documents, the use of relative adjectives is associated with the need to describe the relationship between citizens and the state, objects and persons. Adjectives are used here public, legal, financial, private, state. These adjectives do not have a focus on aesthetics, their purpose is communicative and informational.

The ability to move into the category of quality

When adjectives are used, the meanings change. A relative adjective can become qualitative if its direct meaning has changed and the adjective has acquired a figurative meaning due to subject similarity.

So, for example, the phrase "raspberry jam". Adjective "crimson" relative: it cannot form degrees of comparison (very raspberry, more raspberry) and can be converted into a subordinative phrase (raspberry jam).

In the phrase "raspberry beret" the same adjective already acquires a different, figurative meaning by similarity. This refers to a shade of raspberry, a rich pink color. Although it is impossible to form a degree of comparison from the name of a color derived from a noun, it is also impossible to form a subordinating phrase “takes from raspberries”, that is, the adjective has lost its original, direct meaning. Consequently, the relative sign is lost, it has passed into the category of qualitative ones.

What are relative adjectives? Relative adjectives are aimed at denoting a feature that cannot be compared with anything. They lack a short form, the ability to create abstract nouns and adverbs with the suffixes o, e. Relative adjectives are used in all five styles of Russian speech.

Adjectives are divided into three groups according to their meaning and grammatical features: 1) qualitative, 2) relative and 3) possessive.

Qualitative adjectives denote a feature that may be characteristic of an object to a greater or lesser extent (color, size, temperature, taste, sound, strength, internal qualities of a person and living beings in general, etc.); so they tend to have degrees of comparison, for example: 1) Walls white, and the ceilings whiter. 2) The fox is cunning, but the hunter smarter. 3) Volga - longest from the rivers of Europe.

Many quality adjectives have a short form, for example: snow white, beast cunning, road long as well as special suffixes, for example, introducing an affectionate diminutive value or expressing a weaker or stronger degree of quality: -enk; -ovat-, -usch- (-yusch-) - a little white handkerchief, a whitish fog, a long rope.

Relative adjectives denote signs through relation to the subject; most often they indicate material, place, time, etc., for example: leather mittens(leather gloves) Siberian wheat(wheat from Siberia), spring flowers(flowers that come in spring). Relative adjectives do not have degrees of comparison and a short form. They have special suffixes, for example: -n-, -an-, -sk-, -ov- (forest, leather, urban, pine).

Qualitative and relative adjectives have the same endings, the same declension system, for example: a beautiful wooden house, a beautiful wooden hut, beautiful wooden huts; a new wooden house, a new wooden hut.

Having the same basic forms with qualitative adjectives, relative adjectives are often used with a qualitative meaning. In combination gold cigarette case adjective gold relative: it refers to a material, derived from a noun gold. In combination golden ripe orange adjective gold used in a qualitative sense: it indicates not the material from which the object is made, but the color of the orange: yellow and shiny. Receiving a qualitative meaning, some adjectives acquire the ability to be used (in poetic and colloquial speech) in a short form and in the form of a comparative degree, for example: I) As in autumn, the fruit is ripe gold. (V. B.) 2) Everything more stone steps, steeper, steeper rise. (V. B.)

Note. There is no sharp border between qualitative and relative adjectives, very often an adjective includes both relative and qualitative meanings; one of them stands out in a certain context, for example: 1) Mother majestically entered lilac dress, in lace, with a long string of pearls around the neck. (M. G.) (lilac dress, i.e. a lilac dress is a quality adjective); 2) Around the terraces have grown lilac bushes(i.e. lilac bushes - a relative adjective).

That is why qualitative and relative adjectives are sometimes combined into one group of qualitative-relative adjectives.

Possessive adjectives designate a sign that indicates that an object belongs to a single person (less often, an animal); they are formed on behalf of a noun with the help of suffixes -in (-un),-ov(s), For example: sister's book, sister's album, father's hat, uncle's house; they have a special declension that combines the endings of nouns and adjectives, for example: sisters a book, see sisters at book(endings of nouns); no sisters oh books talking about sisters oh book(adjective endings).

A special group in terms of meaning and endings are adjectives in -uy(fox), - ya(fox), - ye(fox), - uh(fox), which are formed from nouns denoting people or animals (fisherman - fisherman, fox - fox). They have mixed endings: both short and full, for example: fox ya fur coat(short ending) fox ye th fur coat(full ending) fox ye flair(short ending) foxes his flair(full ending).

These adjectives combine different meanings. They are used in a possessive sense, for example: human voices, a fishing boat, fox tricks; at the same time, they do not indicate belonging to a single person or animal, but indicate a sign characteristic of either a certain group of people, or a whole species of animals, for example: bearish den; To whom, if not me, everything fox fool to know. (Cr.) In this meaning they differ from possessive adjectives with suffixes -in, -ov, denoting belonging to a single person (grandfather's sheepskin coat - this is a sheepskin coat belonging to someone's grandfather, and not at all a sheepskin coat typical of all old people).

Adjectives are used for -y, -ya, -ye and in relative terms, for example: fox collar, bear coat, hare hat, sheepskin coat.(Adjectives indicate the material from which things are made.) The same adjectives can also acquire a qualitative meaning, for example: disservice(an unintelligent service that causes damage, trouble instead of helping), hare soul(cowardly, timid).

Exercise 189. Read and indicate in what combinations relative adjectives are used in a qualitative sense.

An iron chain is an iron discipline, steel scissors are steel muscles, a wooden face is a wooden house, a cherry tree is a cherry dress, tin soldiers are pewter eyes, a golden character is a golden bracelet, a stone heart is a stone building.

190. Read and indicate which adjectives are qualitative and which are relative; then indicate the gender, number, and case of each adjective. Specify adjectives-epithets.

At a provincial half-station Boundless, hot as desire,

Silence for dinner. Direct country lane.

Buntings sing lifelessly Purple forest in the background

In the bush near the canvas. Whirlwind of a gray cloud

(B. Pasternak.)

191. Insert the missing epithets: then compare them with those given in M. Gorky's story "Old Woman Izergil".

The air was saturated with ... the smell of the sea and ... the evaporation of the earth, shortly before evening, abundantly moistened with rain. Even now fragments of clouds roamed the sky, lush, like clouds of smoke, gray and ash-blue, there - sharp, like fragments of rocks, matte black or brown. Shreds of the sky adorned with flecks of stars shone affectionately between them.

192. Compose verbally with each synonym phrase; indicate the difference in the use of synonyms, then select antonyms for them (where possible).

1) Strong, durable, hard, strong, powerful, irresistible. 2) Fast, agile, fast, nimble, frisky, lively. 3) Fearful, timid, cowardly, indecisive, humble. 4) Thin, skinny, lean, lean, dry, lean. 5) Wonderful, marvelous, beautiful, charming, magnificent, excellent. 6) Red, scarlet, purple, crimson, crimson, crimson.

1. Adjective- an independent part of speech that denotes a sign of an object and answers the questions what? whose?

The main features of the adjective

A) General grammatical meaning	Examples
This is the value of the attribute of the item:
Colour;	Blue, blue, lilac.
taste, smell;	Sweet, fragrant, spicy.
grade;	Good bad.
character;	Kind, humble, funny.
mental and speech activity.	Smart, stupid, talkative.
B) Morphological features	Examples
The same as for a noun - gender, number, case. But unlike nouns, adjectives change according to gender, number, cases, and gender differences are observed in adjectives only in the singular form. This is due to the fact that adjectives serve, explain nouns: adjectives agree with nouns in gender, number and case.	Wed: blue carpet, blue ribbon, blue saucer - blue carpets, blue ribbons, blue saucers.
B) Syntactic signs	Examples
In a sentence, adjectives are usually definitions or nominal part of the predicate.	Wed: The cheerful clown made the guys laugh; The clown was funny.
Adjectives agree with nouns in gender, number, and case.	Wed: The cheerful clown made the guys laugh; A funny joke made the guys laugh.
Adjectives can be extended by nouns and adverbs, forming phrases with them.	Wed: weak from illness, very weak.

2. According to the nature of the lexical meaning, adjectives are divided into three categories:

A) quality
B) relative;
B) possessive.

A) Qualitative adjectives

Quality adjectives denote various qualities of an object:

value: big, large, small;

age: old, young;

Colour: Red Blue;

the weight: light heavy;

appearance: beautiful, slender;

personal traits: smart, strict, lazy.

characteristic grammatical and word-forming features quality adjectives are:

the presence of degrees of comparison;

Big bigger Biggest; smart - smarter, smarter.

the presence of a full and short form;

Strict - strict, old - old.

ability to combine with adverbs of degree;

Very strict, very big, very smart.

form adverbs with suffixes -o, -e, -i.

Smart → smart, brilliant → brilliant, brutal → brutal.

However, not all quality adjectives have these features:

adjectives have no degrees of comparison barefoot, oblique, blind, lame, dead, married, because they express absolute qualities, that is, qualities that cannot be compared (one cannot be more or less dead; one cannot be more or less married);

there is no short form for adjectives like business, friendly, comic because by origin they are relative;

there are no degrees of comparison for relative or possessive adjectives in a qualitative sense.

Wed: a gold bracelet(relative adjective) - golden character(qualitative value); Fox's tail(possessive adjective) - this person has a fox character / fox smile(qualitative value).

They designate signs not directly, but through relation to:

These signs cannot be manifested to a greater or lesser extent.

Relative adjectives are synonymous with case or prepositional case forms of nouns.

Wed: iron hoop - a hoop made of iron; the Volga bank - the bank of the Volga; sports shoes - shoes for sports.

B) possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives denote the attributes of an object by its belonging to some person or animal.

Father's jacket, mother's scarf, fox tail, wolf trail.

These adjectives answer the question whose? whose? whose? whose? Such signs also cannot be in an object to a greater or lesser extent.

Possessive adjectives have suffixes:

Ying/-yn : mother, chicken, sister;

Ov/-ev : fathers, grandfathers;

ij/-j- : bear - bear[j] his.

Note!

1) Possessive adjectives with suffixes -in / yn, -ov / -ev, -y / -j- in the singular form of the nominative case in the masculine gender, they usually have a zero ending, while in the feminine and neuter genders they have the same endings as nouns.

Wed: bearish□ , bearish , bearish.

2) When adjectives are used, their meaning can change. So, relative adjectives can go into the category of qualitative ones.

Wed: lilac branch- relative adjective; lilac dress- quality adjective.

Possessive adjectives can move into the category of relative and qualitative.

Wed: bear trail(the footprint belongs to the bear) - possessive adjective; bear fur coat(the fur coat is made from the skin of a bear, and does not belong to a bear) - a relative adjective; bear walk(gait like a bear) is a quality adjective.

Exercise for the topic “3.3.1. The concept of an adjective. Morphological features of adjectives. Classes of adjectives »

During the lesson, sixth-graders will get acquainted with the characteristic features of relative adjectives, their difference from qualitative ones, consider cases of transition of relative adjectives to the category of qualitative ones and the reasons for such a transition.

In this lesson, we will talk about adjectives, which, unlike quality adjectives, do not like to show off. They are simply not capable of this, since they cannot be combined with the adverb VERY and do not have degrees of comparison.

As you already know, adjectives denote various attributes of objects. For example, there are adjectives that mean material from which the object is made: plastic- made of plastic. Other adjectives call the attribute of an object according to place: Chinese- Brought from China, made in China. And there are adjectives that indicate the attribute of an object according to time: yesterday's- happened yesterday. Adjectives plastic, Chinese, yesterday characterize a feature through its relation to the material, to the place and time and are called relative.

1. Remember the definition

Relative adjectives denote a feature of an object that cannot be manifested to a greater or lesser extent. For example, a plastic ruler cannot be more or less plastic.

Relative adjectives can denote not only the material, time and place of action, but also, for example, name the attribute of an object:

by way of action (tear-off calendar),

towards the face (playground, student ID)

in count(five-year-old daughter, two-story house),

by nationality(Russian writer, Ukrainian poet).

2. Distinctive features of relative adjectives

Relative adjectives do not have short forms, degrees of comparison, do not combine with the adverb VERY, do not have antonyms, and in this way they differ from qualitative ones.

- Wooden is a relative adjective, as it denotes the material from which the object is made. It does not have a short form (we do not say: the table (what?) Is wooden). From the word wooden it is impossible to form degrees of comparison: there is no table more wooden than a chair. Adjective wooden does not combine with the adverb VERY and has no antonym. All this proves that wooden- relative adjective.

Relative adjectives can be recognized by special suffixes.

This is suffixes -AN-, -YAN-, which indicate the material from which the object is made: leather, rye, clay, linen.

Suffix -SK-:Moscow, Chinese, April.

Suffix -OV-: aspen, orange, porcelain.

Relative adjectives have another feature. They can be replaced by a combination of a preposition with a noun from which this adjective is formed.

Podmoskovny = near Moscow

Child = for children

Clay = made of clay

Accordingly, phrases built according to the model RELATIVE ADJECTIVE + NOUN, can be replaced by a synonymous construction: NOUN + NOUN WITH PREPOSITION.

for example: stone fence - stone fence, meat broth - meat broth, seaside town - a city near the sea, January frost - frost in January, playground - playground for children.

3. The transition of relative adjectives into qualitative ones

Sometimes relative adjectives get tired of being relative, and then they pass into the category of qualitative ones, while being used in a figurative sense and acquiring the meaning of a feature that can be more or less.

In the phrase raspberry jam a relative adjective is used, which indicates what this jam is made of. And in the phrase crimson beret adjective crimson moved into the category of quality, as it denotes a dark red color, the saturation of which can be different.

Bibliography

1. Russian language. Grade 6 / Baranov M.T. and others - M .: Education, 2008.
2. Babaitseva V.V., Chesnokova L.D. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 cells - M.: Bustard, 2008.
3. Russian language. 6 cells / Ed. MM. Razumovskaya, P.A. Lekanta. - M.: Bustard, 2010.

1. Discharges of adjectives ().
2. About relative adjectives ().

Homework

Task number 1

Write out phrases that include relative adjectives.

Tin soldier, pewter eyes, cold day, long train, brave deed, kind person, stupid question, heart muscles, cordial hello, stone house, stone face, short dress, fat boy, blue scarf, Moscow metro, children's literature, double chin , woolen suit, lead bullet, lead clouds, city park, heavy briefcase, heavy industry, deaf old man, deaf consonant, grandfather's office, Machine work, tit nest, goose paw, doghouse, wolf's mouth, wolf coat, wolf's appetite, deer horns, marines, dog cold, katyushin bicycle, grinder, snake venom, snake smile, vegetable oil, lean face, mouse tail, neighbor's garden, grandiose plans, observant person, tragic fate, wooden voice, chicken paw, chicken soup, squirrel collar, iron will, grandfather's words, bird's hubbub, hare's hat, December frosts, school uniform, Serezhin's briefcase, Barents Sea, Bering Strait.

Task number 2

Write down 5-6 sentences, including adjectives in them, which have moved from relative to qualitative.