Abstract: “collapse of the USSR. causes and consequences. The collapse of the USSR significantly reduced both in Russia and in other CIS countries the opportunities for economic maneuver with financial, industrial, natural and other resources due to the isolation of economic
In March 1990, at an all-Union referendum, the majority of citizens spoke in favor of preserving the USSR and the need to reform it. By the summer of 1991, a new Union Treaty was prepared, which gave a chance to renew the federal state. But it was not possible to maintain unity.
Currently, there is no single point of view among historians on what was the main cause of the collapse of the USSR, and also on whether it was possible to prevent or at least stop the process of collapse of the USSR. Possible reasons include the following:
· The USSR was created in 1922. as a federal state. However, over time, it increasingly turned into a state controlled from the center and leveling out the differences between the republics and subjects of federal relations. The problems of inter-republican and interethnic relations have been ignored for many years. During the years of perestroika, when interethnic conflicts became explosive and extremely dangerous, decision-making was postponed until 1990-1991. The accumulation of contradictions made disintegration inevitable;
· The USSR was created on the basis of recognition of the right of nations to self-determination, The federation was built not on a territorial, but on a national-territorial principle. In the Constitutions of 1924, 1936 and 1977. contained norms on the sovereignty of the republics that were part of the USSR. In the context of a growing crisis, these norms became a catalyst for centrifugal processes;
· the unified national economic complex that developed in the USSR ensured the economic integration of the republics. However As economic difficulties grew, economic ties began to break down, the republics showed tendencies towards self-isolation, and the center was not ready for such a development of events;
· the Soviet political system was based on strict centralization of power, the real bearer of which was not so much the state as the Communist Party. The crisis of the CPSU, its loss of its leading role, its collapse inevitably led to the collapse of the country;
· the unity and integrity of the Union was largely ensured by its ideological unity. The crisis of the communist value system created a spiritual vacuum that was filled with nationalist ideas;
· political, economic, ideological crisis, which the USSR experienced in the last years of its existence , led to the weakening of the center and the strengthening of the republics and their political elites. For economic, political, and personal reasons, the national elites were interested not so much in preserving the USSR as in its collapse. The “Parade of Sovereignties” of 1990 clearly showed the mood and intentions of the national party-state elites.
Consequences:
· the collapse of the USSR led to the emergence of independent sovereign states;
· the geopolitical situation in Europe and throughout the world has radically changed;
· the breakdown of economic ties has become one of the main reasons for the deep economic crisis in Russia and other countries - successors of the USSR;
· serious problems have arisen related to the fate of Russians who remained outside Russia, and national minorities in general (the problem of refugees and migrants).
1. Political liberalization has led to an increase in the numberinformal groups, since 1988, involved in political activities. The prototypes of future political parties were unions, associations and popular fronts of different directions (nationalist, patriotic, liberal, democratic, etc.). In the spring of 1988, the Democratic Bloc was formed, which included Eurocommunists, Social Democrats, and liberal groups.
An opposition Interregional Deputy Group was formed in the Supreme Council. In January 1990, an opposition democratic platform emerged within the CPSU, whose members began to leave the party.
Political parties began to form. The CPSU monopoly on power was lost, and from mid-1990 a rapid transition to a multi-party system began.
2. The collapse of the socialist camp (“Velvet Revolution” in Czechoslovakia (1989), events in Romania (1989), the unification of Germany and the disappearance of the GDR (1990), reforms in Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria.)
3. The growth of the nationalist movement. Its reasons were the deterioration of the economic situation in national regions, the conflict of local authorities with the “center”). Clashes began on ethnic grounds; since 1987, national movements have acquired an organized character (the Crimean Tatar movement, the movement for the reunification of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia, the movement for the independence of the Baltic states, etc.)
In the same time a new project was developedUnion Treaty, significantly expanding the rights of republics.
The idea of a union treaty was put forward by the popular fronts of the Baltic republics back in 1988. The center adopted the idea of a treaty later, when centrifugal tendencies were gaining strength and there was a “parade of sovereignties.” The question of Russian sovereignty was raised in June 1990 at the First Congress of People's Deputies of the Russian Federation. Was Declaration on State Sovereignty of the Russian Federation was adopted. This meant that the Soviet Union as a state entity was losing its main support.
The Declaration formally delimited the powers of the center and the republic, which did not contradict the Constitution. In practice, it established dual power in the country.
The example of Russia strengthened separatist tendencies in the union republics.
However, the indecisive and inconsistent actions of the country's central leadership did not lead to success. In April 1991, the Union Center and nine republics (with the exception of the Baltic, Georgia, Armenia and Moldova) signed documents declaring the provisions of the new union treaty. However, the situation was complicated by the ongoing struggle between the parliaments of the USSR and Russia, which turned into war of laws.
At the beginning of April 1990, the Law was adopted On strengthening responsibility for attacks on the national equality of citizens and violent violation of the unity of the territory of the USSR, which established criminal liability for public calls for the violent overthrow or change of the Soviet social and state system.
But almost simultaneously it was adopted Law Oprocedure for resolving issues related Withthe exit of the union republic from the USSR, regulating order and proceduresecession from the USSR throughreferendum. A legal way to leave the Union was opened.
The Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in December 1990 voted to preserve the USSR.
However, the collapse of the USSR was already in full swing. In October 1990, at the congress of the Ukrainian Popular Front, the struggle for the independence of Ukraine was proclaimed; The Georgian parliament, in which nationalists received a majority, adopted a program for the transition to a sovereign Georgia. Political tension remained in the Baltic states.
In November 1990, the republics were offered a new version of the union treaty, which, instead of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, mentionedUnion of Soviet Sovereign Republics.
But at the same time, bilateral agreements were signed between Russia and Ukraine, mutually recognizing each other’s sovereignty regardless of the Center, between Russia and Kazakhstan. A parallel model of the union of republics was created.
4. In January 1991, it was held currency reform, aimed at combating the shadow economy, but causing additional tension in society. The population expressed dissatisfaction deficit food and necessary goods.
B.N. Yeltsin demanded the resignation of the President of the USSR and the dissolution of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
Was scheduled for March referendum on the issue of preserving the USSR(opponents of the Union questioned its legitimacy, calling for the transfer of power to the Federation Council, consisting of the top officials of the republics). The majority of voters were in favor of preserving the USSR.
5. At the beginning of March, miners of Donbass, Kuzbass and Vorkuta began a strike, demanding the resignation of the President of the USSR, the dissolution of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, a multi-party system, and the nationalization of the property of the CPSU. The official authorities could not stop the process that had begun.
The referendum on March 17, 1991 confirmed the political split in society; in addition, a sharp increase in prices increased social tension and swelled the ranks of strikers.
In June 1991, elections for the President of the RSFSR were held. B.N. was elected Yeltsin.
Discussion of drafts of the new Union Treaty continued: some participants at the meeting in Novo-Ogarevo insisted on confederal principles, others on federal ones. It was supposed to sign the agreement in July - August 1991.
During the negotiations, the republics managed to defend many of their demands: the Russian language ceased to be the state language, the heads of the republican governments participated in the work of the Union Cabinet of Ministers with the right to a decisive vote, enterprises of the military-industrial complex were transferred to the joint jurisdiction of the Union and the republics.
Many questions about both the international and intra-Union status of the republics remained unresolved. Questions remained unclear about union taxes and the management of natural resources, as well as the status of the six republics that did not sign the agreement. At the same time, the Central Asian republics concluded bilateral agreements with each other, and Ukraine refrained from signing an agreement until the adoption of its Constitution.
In July 1991, the President of Russia signed Decree on departition, prohibited the activities of party organizations in enterprises and institutions.
6. Created on August 19, 1991 State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR (GKChP) , declaring his intention to restore order in the country and prevent the collapse of the USSR. A state of emergency was established and censorship was introduced. Armored vehicles appeared on the streets of the capital.
The collapse of the USSR, formalized by the Belovezhskaya Agreement between the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus by B. N. Yeltsin, L. M. Kravchuk and S. S. Shushkevich on December 8, 1991, is one of the most significant events in the world history of the 20th century. This is perhaps the only assessment that is accepted by most historians and politicians. All other issues related to the analysis of the causes and significance of the collapse of the USSR remain the subject of heated debate.
Reasons for the collapse of the USSR. In March 1990, at an all-Union referendum, the majority of citizens spoke in favor of preserving the USSR and the need to reform it. By the summer of 1991, a new Union Treaty was prepared, which gave a chance to renew the federal state. But it was not possible to maintain unity. The USSR collapsed. Why? Here are the most common explanations offered by researchers:
The USSR was created in 1922. as a federal state. However, over time, it increasingly turned into an essentially unitary state, governed from the center and leveling out the differences between the republics and subjects of federal relations. The problems of inter-republican and inter-ethnic relations were ignored for many years, difficulties were pushed deeper and were not resolved. During the years of perestroika, when interethnic conflicts became explosive and extremely dangerous, decision-making was postponed until 1990-1991. The accumulation of contradictions made disintegration inevitable;
The USSR was created on the basis of recognition of the right of nations to self-determination; the federation was built not on a territorial, but on a national-territorial principle. In the Constitutions of 1924, 1936 and 1977. contained norms on the sovereignty of the republics that were part of the USSR. In the context of a growing crisis, these norms became a catalyst for centrifugal processes;
The unified national economic complex that emerged in the USSR ensured the economic integration of the republics. However, as economic difficulties grew, economic ties began to break down, the republics showed tendencies towards self-isolation, and the center was not ready for such a development of events;
The Soviet political system was based on strict centralization of power, the real bearer of which was not so much the state as the Communist Party. The crisis of the CPSU, its loss of its leading role, its collapse inevitably led to the collapse of the country;
The unity and integrity of the Union was largely ensured by its ideological unity. The crisis of the communist value system created a spiritual vacuum that was filled with nationalist ideas;
The political, economic, ideological crisis that the USSR experienced in the last years of its existence led to the weakening of the center and the strengthening of the republics and their political elites. For economic, political, and personal reasons, the national elites were interested not so much in preserving the USSR as in its collapse. The “Parade of Sovereignties” of 1990 clearly showed the mood and intentions of the national party-state elites.
Consequences of the collapse of the USSR One of the most significant events of the last ten years was the collapse of the Soviet Union and the formation of 15 independent states on its territory. The collapse of such a great power could not pass unnoticed by the population. As a result of the signing of the Belovezhskaya agreements, all existing ties between the union republics were severed. First of all, the breakdown of these ties affected the lives of people in the post-Soviet space. National relations sharply deteriorated, which led to interethnic clashes in almost all union republics. There is also an aggravation of the social consequences of the political and economic crisis, there is a sharp increase in nationalism, discrimination against the Russian-speaking population and the Russian language in the republics of the former Soviet Union. All these consequences of the collapse of the USSR plunged millions of people into despair and led to a sharp differentiation of society into poor and rich, and an unprecedented increase in the flow of refugees. All this has given rise to an acute crisis situation, led to a sharp increase in social and political tension in society and represents a kind of time bomb. Material impoverishment of the population in conditions of economic crisis According to expert estimates, in 1990 in Kazakhstan at least 10% of the population was in a difficult financial situation. A specific factor in impoverishment in many areas is environmental pollution. Thus, the Aral Sea region is classified as an environmental disaster zone. More than 1 million people live here, 300 thousand of them are on the verge of extinction. /3, p.23/ According to estimates, by the beginning of 1993, already 50% of the population of Kazakhstan was below the poverty line, and the gap in the standard of living of different groups of the population was rapidly increasing. The situation is complicated by the fact that employment levels in Kazakhstan have traditionally been lower than in Russia.
Generally, The meaning of the collapse of the USSR. The significance of such large-scale events is determined by time. Only 10 years have passed since the collapse of the USSR, historians and politicians, citizens of the states that arose in the place of the USSR, are at the mercy of emotions and are not yet ready for balanced, well-founded conclusions. Let us therefore note the obvious: the collapse of the USSR led to the emergence of independent sovereign states; the geopolitical situation in Europe and throughout the world has changed radically; the severance of economic ties became one of the main reasons for the deep economic crisis in Russia and other countries - the heirs of the USSR; Serious problems arose related to the fate of Russians who remained outside Russia, and national minorities in general.
The process of formation of a new Russian statehood began with the adoption by the Supreme Council of the RSFSR of the Declaration of the Sovereignty of Russia (1990) and the election of the first Russian president (June 12, 1991). With the collapse of the USSR (December 1991), the status of the Russian Federation as an independent sovereign state became a legal and factual reality. The period of formation of Russian statehood ended on December 12, 1993, when the Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in a national referendum and the Soviet political system was finally dismantled. The birth of the modern Russian state was a dramatic, extremely painful and complex process.
"Economic consequences of the collapse of the USSR"
empire economic collapse politics
Introduction
The collapse of the USSR, formalized in Belovezhskaya Pushcha by the leaders of the three republics, is one of the most important events of the late 20th century, which resulted in the emergence of independent sovereign states. Moreover, the geopolitical situation has changed radically both in Europe and throughout the world. Here it is worth noting the economic crisis that overtook Russia and other states of the former USSR due to the severance of economic ties.
The USSR is a powerful empire and the process of its collapse is nothing more than the collapse of a large empire.
In this regard, there is an opposite statement, or rather an assumption, that all empires collapsed, disintegrated, perished due to the inability to combine the essence of the empire as a simultaneously self-disintegrating and self-destructive system. At the modern level, this should be taken as the country’s exhaustion of its spatial framework, and the state’s lack of understanding of the need to change the direction of foreign and, above all, domestic policy. Based on the principle of analogies, one can see here perhaps the main reason for the collapse of the USSR and, naturally, its internal economic relations, that is, the entire socialist national economic complex.
In the period from 1917 to 1991. took place nothing less than the Great Revolution, and the entire existence of the Soviet state was only a transition period to the new Russian statehood. It was the collapse of the army that led to the collapse of the USSR. There is an opinion about the discrepancy between ethnopolitics and geopolitics of the USSR.
The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that many issues related to the analysis of the causes and consequences of the collapse of the USSR are still the subject of heated debate to this day.
The purpose of the study is to examine the underlying preconditions and causes of the collapse of the USSR, as well as the economic consequences.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to complete the following tasks:
Study the events immediately preceding the collapse of the USSR;
Identify the main prerequisites and reasons for the fall of the world superpower;
Consider the process of collapse of the USSR itself;
Analyze the economic consequences of the collapse of the USSR;
Draw conclusions.
Moreover, it is necessary to pay special attention to the international aspects of the collapse of the USSR, since the international situation played a rather important role in the events that are the subject of the study.
The subject of the abstract is a set of theoretical and practical aspects of the mechanism of the collapse of the USSR.
1. Socio-economic state of the country
After the death of L.I. Brezhnev, Yu.V. became the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in November 1982. Andropov, who previously headed the State Security Committee. Administrative measures, measures to strengthen labor discipline, and expose corruption are associated with his name. However, the political and economic systems remained unchanged. K.U., who replaced Andropov, also did not strive to carry out any reforms. Chernenko, who served as General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee from February 1984 for thirteen months.
After being elected General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in 1985, M.S. Gorbachev, a new period is beginning in the USSR, the period of “perestroika” and a change in the socio-economic system.
In April 1985, at the plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, a course was proclaimed to “accelerate socio-economic development” through more complete use of the potential of the socialist system - strengthening labor discipline and intensive exploitation of production facilities and the introduction of scientific and technological progress.
In May 1986, a decree of the CPSU Central Committee and the Council of Ministers “On measures to strengthen the fight against “unearned income” was published. A campaign against “unearned income” has begun. Formally, it was directed against large businessmen in the shadow economy; in practice, its main victims were artisans, small traders, collective farmers and townspeople who grew fruits and vegetables for sale.
The anti-alcohol campaign of 1985 caused serious damage to the economy and financial system, which led to a catastrophic increase in moonshine and substance abuse and the loss of more than 63 billion rubles from trade turnover over the four years of this campaign. Many vineyards were cut down and wineries were destroyed.
In 1986, it became clear that the acceleration policy was ineffective and that the situation could not be corrected without serious political, economic and social changes. In February - March 1986, the XXVII Congress of the CPSU was held, at which a number of economic and social programs were adopted, providing for new investment and structural policies. The implementation of many long-term programs was also envisaged, for example, “Housing - 2000” and others.
At the XXVII Congress of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev stated that the principle issue at this stage is the question of expanding glasnost; without glasnost there is and cannot be democracy, political creativity of the masses, their participation in consumption. The media began to receive more freedom in describing the problems that existed at that time. Since the end of 1986, previously banned books began to be published, and films that had previously been on the shelves for years were released.
Reform of the political system.
The process of “sovereignization of Russia” led on November 1, 1990 to the adoption of a resolution on the economic sovereignty of Russia.
During this period, various parties were formed that did not have significant influence. All of them were in opposition to the CPSU, which continued to control the allied power structures. However, the CPSU was also experiencing a rather serious crisis. The XXVIII Party Congress in July 1990 led to the exit of its most radical members, led by Boris Yeltsin. The size of the party in 1990 decreased sharply - from 20 to 15 million people. The political situation in the country is out of control. The struggle against communist ideology unfolded; Concepts such as internationalism, class struggle, proletarian solidarity, and friendship of peoples were particularly attacked. At the same time, nationalists in all republics of the USSR, on the basis of historical constructions and distortions of economic calculations, sought to separatism, to prove that they were nations living at the expense of others.
In the conditions of such a multinational state as the USSR, this propaganda was destructive in nature and contributed to the formation in society of an awareness of the necessity and inevitability of the collapse of the state. The main role in this propaganda was played by the nationalist intelligentsia, which, in fact, was the ideologist and mouthpiece of the nationalist party elite and a representative of the criminal shadow economy. All of them sought power, to achieve their narrow group interests and were against a strong central government that prevented them from achieving their goals. Interethnic conflicts flared up, which swept across the country in the late 1980s and early 1990s (in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Moldova, Crimea and other republics). It was these conflicts that contributed to the collapse of the state, and from party functionaries and representatives of the nationalist intelligentsia emerged leaders who later became heads of new states created on the ruins of the USSR.
During 1990-1991, the so-called “parade of sovereignties” took place, during which all the union (including the RSFSR) and many of the autonomous republics adopted declarations of sovereignty, in which they challenged the priority of all-union laws over the republics, which began the so-called “ war of laws."
The leadership of the union republics, territories and regions saw the path to improvement in the decentralization of management, in providing even greater rights and economic opportunities to the regions in solving economic and social problems locally. At the same time, their demands were expressed in a movement for leaving at the disposal of the regions a larger share of the national income created there compared to the previous period. Naturally, this led to a decrease in the share going to the centralized funds of the state.
All of the above was reflected in the struggle between the union and republican parliaments. Economically unqualified deputies who came to the Supreme Council on the crest of the wave of the democratic movement, instead of finding ways to resolve their crisis situation, creating a legislative framework to improve the economic situation in the country, strengthening deputy control over the formation and use of budgetary funds by the government, engaged in destructive political activities aimed at confronting the center and regions.
Thus, calls for faster, radical reforms in politics and the economy contributed to the intensification of crisis phenomena in the economy and political crisis in Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Lithuania, accompanied by mass protests of the population and bloody clashes. The popular fronts of the Baltic republics raised the question of secession from the USSR and began the process of transforming them into independent states. By 1991, the Supreme Council of Georgia declared independence.
2. Some features of the domestic and foreign policy of the USSR in the late 1980s and early 1990s - content and most important results
In March 1991, by decision of the IV Congress of Soviets of People's Deputies of the USSR, a nationwide vote was held - a referendum - on the preservation of the USSR. 76.43% of voters were in favor of preserving the USSR. Under these conditions, the leadership of the USSR decided to prepare a new union treaty, which should have reflected the expansion of the rights of the union republics. Based on the concept of a referendum, it was planned to conclude a new union - the Union of Sovereign States.
However, in August 1991, on the eve of the signing of a new agreement, a group of people from the top leadership of the country - G. Yanaev, O. Baklanov, V. Kryuchkov, V. Pavlov, D. Yazov and others - took advantage of the absence of M.S. Gorbachev, who was on vacation, declared a state of emergency in the country and announced the creation of the State Committee for the State of Emergency, trying to remove the President of the USSR M.S. from power. Gorbachev and thereby prevent, in their opinion, the collapse of the USSR by signing a new union treaty. The resistance to the State Emergency Committee was led by the political leadership of the RSFSR - B.N. Yeltsin, A.V. Rutskoy, R.I. Khasbulatov.
The failure of the putsch accelerated the very process of the collapse of the USSR. In early September, the leadership of the USSR called for the independence of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.
November 1991, by decree of President B.N. Yeltsin, the activities of the CPSU and the Communist Party of the RSFSR were terminated.
December 1991 in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus B.N. Yeltsin, L.M. Kravchuk and S.S. Shushkevich signed the Agreement on the termination of the existence of the USSR (“The USSR as a subject of international law and geopolitical reality ceases to exist”) Agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States / Gazette of the SND and the Armed Forces of the RSFSR. 12/19/1991. No. 51. Art. 1798. and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States. This agreement was ratified by the Supreme Council of the RSFSR on December 12, 1991.
Independent independent states were formed on the basis of the former Soviet republics. December 25, 1991 M.S. Gorbachev resigned as president. The Soviet Union ended its more than 70-year existence. The collapse of the USSR led to the elimination of the balance of power between the two world superpowers - the USSR and the USA.
International aspects of the collapse of the USSR
Most domestic and Western researchers consider the causes and consequences of the collapse of the USSR in the context of the Cold War. Note that this term was first used by B. Baruch, an American financier and adviser to the US President, during debates at the Congress in 1947.
It was the confrontation between the two world superpowers that determined the entire development of the world after 1945.
Here we cannot help but recall that Russia, and then the USSR, suffered colossal human, economic and territorial losses in two world wars. As for the USA, they emerged from the Second, as well as from the First World War, with the least losses of all the participating countries; Moreover, due to the supply of the same weapons they managed to make good money during the Second World War. This caused an unimaginable rise in their economy and helped overcome the consequences of the “Great Depression” of 1929 - 1933 Naumov N.V. International aspects of the collapse of the USSR.
The economic and social consequences caused by the Cold War varied significantly between the USSR and the USA. If during this period the United States spent an average of about 6 percent of its national income on military purposes, and about 30% on maintaining the necessary military potential of NATO, then the USSR's share in the military expenditures of the Warsaw Pact countries - Warsaw Pact - amounted to 80% Ibid.. Thus The USA, a richer power, spent less money on military purposes than the USSR.
The USSR withstood the confrontation with the economically powerful United States for more than 40 years, mainly by militarizing its economy and maintaining a low standard of living for its population (compared to the standards of developed industrial countries). Ultimately, by the end of the seventies, the general economic backwardness of the USSR led to a qualitative deterioration in the Soviet military-technical potential, and this in turn led to a weakening of the USSR’s already international positions.
The economic lag also had a negative impact on the internal socio-economic development of the USSR and its allies.
During “perestroika,” the leadership of the USSR, which attempted to apply methods to increase the efficiency of the economy (“accelerating socio-economic development”), came to the conclusion that reaching the global level was impossible without its integration into the world economy, and this, in turn, required radical changes, not only in economic forms, but also in the entire state-political system of the USSR. The Soviet leadership understood this and in 1987 - 1991 made an attempt to preserve the USSR as a great world power through a policy of new thinking. But this could only become possible with a global restructuring of the entire system of international relations, which, in itself, is practically unrealistic.
The international consequences of the collapse of the USSR are also viewed differently. Most researchers assess these consequences as global. According to some, the collapse of the USSR is a geopolitical catastrophe that goes beyond the concept of “system of international relations”; others believe that the collapse of the USSR can be considered as the end of the system of international relations that developed after the Second World War, as a transition from a bipolar to a multipolar world.
The territory of the former USSR has become an area of instability and local armed conflicts. The collapse of the USSR can be qualified as the collapse of the once existing single international legal space.
As for modern times, the independent states that emerged on the territory of the former Soviet Union have not yet found a form of effective political and economic cooperation, although the CIS exists, there is no certainty that the disintegration will stop. It is for this reason that the former republics of the USSR are faced with the acute question of their place in the new world; they are faced with the task of being able to occupy their niche in the system of new international relations.
Consequences of the collapse of the USSR
In 1987, economic reform was adopted. Its main idea is the transition from administrative methods to economic ones. Ministries and departments were abolished, the independence of enterprises expanded, the shortage of food and goods intensified, planned targets in the national economy were not met, which resulted in a budget deficit and a reduction in oil exports, legislative acts were adopted, the purpose of which was to improve economic management. The policy that was initiated by this congress was called “perestroika”. It meant a transition from above to the democratization of the political system and the admission of market relations in the economy. This was expressed, first of all, in the reduction of the role of the CPSU in public life, in the revival of parliamentarism, openness, in the weakening of centralized management of the economy, in increasing the rights and responsibilities of regional authorities. All these actions of the country's leadership had a positive direction, and this is the undoubted historical merit of M.S. Gorbachev. In essence, this meant that a variant of economic reform was being implemented, when, with the regulatory role of the state, there should have been a gradual denationalization of part of public property and the introduction of market relations into the economy.
In November 1986, the USSR Law “On Individual Labor Activity” was adopted, allowing individual entrepreneurship in the production of consumer goods and consumer services. In 1987, the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a resolution “On the creation of cooperatives for the production of consumer goods,” which allowed the creation of joint ventures with the participation of Soviet organizations and firms from capitalist and developing countries.
Since 1987, the development of a deep economic reform began. Prominent Soviet economists participated in this work.
In the same year, the Law “On State Enterprise (Association)” was adopted, which provided for the transition of enterprises to self-financing and self-financing. Products produced after the government order was completed could be sold at free prices. The number of ministries and departments was reduced, and self-financing was introduced into all sectors of the national economy. However, granting labor collectives of state-owned enterprises the right to elect directors and granting enterprises the power to regulate wages led to the dependence of enterprise directors on the decisions of labor collectives and an increase in wages that was not ensured by the availability of an appropriate volume of goods on the consumer market.
The emerging decentralization of production has yielded certain positive results. In 1986, the indicators of the Soviet economy increased slightly, including in agriculture. This was largely determined by the growth of investments, which, however, was accompanied by an increase in the budget deficit, which in 1985 amounted to 18 billion rubles, and already in 1986 it almost tripled. Ibid. - With. 565. The deficit was partly caused by reduced foreign exchange earnings, the ongoing Afghan War, the Chernobyl tragedy of 1986 and losses from the anti-alcohol campaign. Since the budget deficit was financed by money emission, its growth led to an increase in the deficit in the consumer market. The most necessary things disappeared from the shelves; even soap, sugar and tobacco products did not arrive in stores. Coupons and buyer cards were reintroduced everywhere.
In May 1988, the USSR Law “On Cooperation in the USSR” was adopted, which allowed cooperatives to engage in any types of activities not prohibited by law, including trade, and significantly expanded the possibilities of cooperation.
In 1989 - 1990, the economic situation deteriorated rapidly. The old administrative management system was collapsing, a new, market system was not created due to the indecisiveness of the authorities. The government was forced to resort to foreign loans. Government debt by 1990 was more than double its 1985 level. In the summer of 1990, a resolution “On the concept of transition to a regulated economy” was adopted. Anti-crisis programs were developed. One of them is the “500 Days Program”, developed by S.S. Shatalin and G.A. Yavlinsky, which provided for the transfer of enterprises to lease and privatization. A program developed under the leadership of the director of the Institute of Economics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, L.I., was chosen for implementation. Abalkin, which provided for the preservation of the public sector in the economy for a longer time.
In January 1991, the government exchanged 100 and 50 ruble bills for new banknotes within three days. Exchange amounts were strictly limited. Formally, this measure was directed against shadow businessmen; in practice, only 5% of the amount that was considered excessive was withdrawn from circulation. In April 1991, all government prices were doubled (in trade, transport, consumer services, etc.). A mechanical increase in prices, not accompanied by a pricing reform, also did not improve the economy, but only increased inflation.
On the way to market expansion:
Reorganization of the banking system;
The Law “On the General Principles of Entrepreneurship in the USSR” was adopted;
There have been changes in agricultural production. Agricultural production was divided into farms and peasant farms. In 1990, farming produced 1% of all agricultural output.
The non-state sector was becoming increasingly widespread in the economy.
Economic reform did not improve the situation in the national economy. In 1989-90 The growth rate of industrial production is falling sharply, but the state budget deficit has risen and unemployment has grown. In 1990, there were 6 million unemployed people. The economic components of the Belovezhskaya Act posed no less of a threat. The sudden, without any preliminary preparation, liquidation of the Union led to the disintegration of a single and smoothly functioning economy. This not only served as an impetus for the destruction of the state, but was also the main reason for the sharp decline in production in all former Soviet territories, which almost halved in the 1990s, which in turn contributed to the impoverishment of the population and the spread of social pathologies accompanying poverty, which remained the “main fact” of Russian life at the beginning of the 21st century.
Even more important consequences were the economic motivation underlying the behavior of the elites who supported Yeltsin in 1991. As one of Yeltsin’s former supporters wrote thirteen years later, “almost everything that happened in Russia after 1991 was largely the former USSR.” This phenomenon also had sad historical precedents. Twice in Russian history of the twentieth century, the main wealth of the nation was subject to large-scale confiscation: in 1917-1918, when the land, industrial and other property of the landowners and bourgeoisie was nationalized during the revolution, and in 1929-1933, when Stalin’s collectivization deprived 25 million peasants of their property . And in both cases, the consequences continued to plague the country for many years to come.
The Soviet elites appropriated the country's enormous wealth, which for decades had been defined by law and ideology as the “property of the entire people,” without caring at all about formal procedure or public opinion. In order to maintain a dominant position, as well as for personal enrichment, they needed the most valuable pieces of state property, which would be distributed “from above”, without the participation of legislative bodies or representatives of the public. And they got what they wanted - first on their own, through “spontaneous privatization,” and then, after 1991, “privatization,” and then, after 1991, with the help of Yeltsin’s presidential decrees. As a result, the shadow of double illegitimateness hung over privatization from the very beginning: in the eyes of the law and in the eyes of the population.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the following conclusions can be drawn.
The end of the 20th century was marked by such an event as the fall of the world superpower - the USSR. There were plenty of reasons and prerequisites for this event.
Since the mid-eighties, “perestroika” began not only of the political system, but also of the economic life of Soviet society; some democratic transformations were carried out, which resulted in the elimination of the monopoly of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on power and the transition to a multi-party system.
Everyone understood that it was necessary to move on to expanding market relations.
On the way to market expansion:
Individual labor activity is allowed;
Creation of cooperatives for the production of several types of goods;
Enterprises can independently sell above-plan products;
Reorganization of the banking system.
Today, more than 20 years after the events described above, debates continue about the causes and consequences of the cessation of the existence of this state, about possible ways to solve existing problems and about another possible fate of the USSR. This topic remains relevant to this day, since many materials and acts of the Soviet government were classified and only now, in the last 2-3 years, have become available for familiarization to ordinary citizens, and only now is it possible to answer a number of questions that, it seemed that the answer could no longer be found.
List of used literature
Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic / Gazette of the SND and Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR. 1990. No. 2. Art. 22.
Agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States / Gazette of the SND and the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR. 12/19/1991. No. 51. Art. 1798.
Current problems of modern Russian history. -Armavir, 2010.
Batalov E. Perestroika and the fate of Russia. //HE IS WITH. - 2012. - No. 2.
Isaev I.A. History of state and law of Russia: textbook. -M.: Prospekt, 2010. - 800 p.
Kolubev A.V. Russia, twentieth century. //National history. -1992. - No. 4.
Cohen Stephen. Was it possible to reform the Soviet system // Freedom of Thought. -2012. -No. 1. pp. 136-162.
Cohen Stephen. Why did the USSR collapse? // Free thought. -2011. -No. 9-10. pp. 179-189
Naumov N.V. International aspects of the collapse of the USSR. Elections in Russia. // Science Magazine. Issue 1, 2000.
Sakva R. The end of the era of revolutions of 1989-1991. //Policy. - 2010. - No. 5.
Stelmakh V.G. productive view on the causes of the collapse of the USSR // ONS. -2011. -No. 1. pp. 106-125.
Tikhonov A.I. History of domestic state and law. -M., 2013.
Torutin U.K. Collapse of the Union. Was the collapse of the USSR inevitable? // Free Thought.-2012. -No. 1.P.163-177
Fortunatov V.V. History of the Russian state and law (documents, tables, dictionary). Tutorial. - M., 2010.
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Collapse of the USSR
The collapse of the USSR on December 8, 1991 is one of the most significant events in world history of the 20th century. This is the only assessment that most historians and politicians apply. All other questions are related to the analysis of the causes and significance of the collapse of the USSR remains the subject of heated debate.
Reasons for the collapse
1. The USSR was created in 1922 as a federal state. However, over time, it is increasingly turning into a unitary state, controlled from the center. The problem of inter-republican and inter-ethnic relations was ignored for many years, difficulties were pushed deeper and were not resolved. The accumulated contradictions made the collapse of the USSR inevitable.
2. The USSR was created on the basis of recognition of the right of nations to self-determination; the federation was not built on a territorial principle. The Constitution 24, 36, 77 contains norms on the sovereignty of the republics that are part of the USSR. In the context of a growing crisis, these norms became a catalyst for centrifugal processes.
3. The unified national economic complex that developed in the USSR ensured the economic integration of the republics. However, as economic difficulties grew, economic ties began to break down, the republics showed tendencies towards self-isolation, and the center was not ready for such a development of events.
4. the existing political system was based on close centralized power, the real carrier of which was not so much the state as the communist party. The crisis of the CPSU and the loss of its leadership role led to the collapse of the country.
5. the unity and integrity of the union was largely ensured by its ideological unity. The crisis of the communist system and values created a spiritual vacuum, which was filled with nationalist ideas..
6. The political, economic, and ideological crises that the USSR experienced in the last years of its existence led to the weakening of the center and the strengthening of the republics and their political leaders. The parade of sovereignties of 1990 clearly showed the mood and intention of the party-state elite.
Decay meaning
The collapse of the USSR led to the emergence of independent sovereign states, the geopolitical situation in Europe and throughout the world changed radically, the breakdown of economic ties became one of the main reasons for the deep economic crisis in Russia and other countries. Problems arose related to the fate of Russians remaining outside Russia, and national minorities in general.
Political crisis of 1992 - 1993 in Russia
Confrontation between two political forces: on the one hand - the President of Russia B. N. Yeltsin, and the executive branch of government controlled by him, Yeltsin's supporters, on the other hand - the leadership and most of the deputy Supreme Council and the Congress of People's Deputies.
December 1 1992 -- The Seventh Congress of People's Deputies opened in Moscow
9th December 1992 -- The Congress of People's Deputies did not approve the candidacy of E. T. Gaidar for the post of Chairman of the Government presented by B. N. Yeltsin
December 10 1992 -- President B. N. Yeltsin spoke at the Congress, sharply criticized its work, proposed the idea of an all-Russian referendum for discussion and tried to disrupt its meeting by taking his supporters from among the deputies away from the meeting
December 11th 1992 -- on the initiative of the Chairman of the Constitutional Court, negotiations were held between President B. N. Yeltsin and the Chairman of the Supreme Council
March 12 1993 -- The Congress of People's Deputies repealed the resolution “on stabilization of the constitutional system”
20th of March 1993 -- President B. N. Yeltsin made a televised address to the people, in which he announced the suspension of the Constitution and the introduction of a “special management order”
26 March 1993 -- The Ninth Extraordinary Congress of People's Deputies met in Moscow
April 21 1993 -- The Constitutional Court adopted a ruling on the procedure for counting votes in the referendum
1st of May 1993 -- a demonstration of opponents of the President took place in Moscow
May 20 1993 -- The President announces the convening of the Constitutional Conference in Moscow
September 30th 1993 -- The President forms the Central Election Commission for elections to the State Duma
22 of October -- The President adopts a decree on the basic principles of organizing state power in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation
December 24 -- The President signed a number of decrees aimed at bringing the laws of the Russian Federation into conformity with the new Constitution
February 23 1994 -- The State Duma adopted a resolution on amnesty for participants in the October events 1993. The participants in the events agreed to an amnesty, although they did not admit guilt. All investigative actions regarding the events of September - October were stopped.
The collapse of the USSR, which resulted in the formation of 15 independent republics, is one of the main events of the 20th century.
After all, in a short period of time, one of the two superpowers suddenly ceased to exist. This radically changed the political and economic picture of the world.
In this article we will touch on the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR, and also consider its consequences.
By the way, if you like it at all, then we recommend reading it. Very short and informative.
Date of collapse of the USSR
The official date of the collapse of the USSR is December 26, 1991. It was then that the great empire ended its history.
Brief background
The formation of the Soviet Union as a state occurred in 1922 during the reign of. Then, under , the USSR turned into a superpower.
Moreover, during its existence its borders changed several times. This was due to the fact that the republics that were part of it had the right to secede from the Union.
However, the Soviet government constantly emphasized that the USSR was a friendly family consisting of different nations.
The USSR was led by the Communist Party, which controlled all government bodies.
The final decision about who should lead a particular republic always remained with the central leadership in.
Reasons for the collapse of the USSR
To answer this question, we must consider many factors that led to the collapse of the USSR.
It should be noted that some people accepted the collapse of the Soviet Union with joy and jubilation. This was explained by the fact that many wanted to gain independence and live according to their own laws.
For others, the collapse was a real shock and tragedy. For example, it was especially difficult for communists and people devoted to the ideas of the CPSU to believe what happened.
Let's look at the main reasons why the USSR collapsed:
- Autocracy of government and society in the state, as well as the fight against dissidents;
- Conflicts on ethnic grounds;
- The only correct ideology of the party, strict censorship, absence of political opposition;
- Economic deficit in relation to the production system;
- International collapse in oil prices;
- Many failures regarding the reform of the Soviet system;
- Global centralization of government agencies;
- Criticism about the introduction of Soviet troops in (1989).
It goes without saying that these are not all the reasons that led to the collapse of the USSR, but they can be considered key.
Perestroika of the USSR
In 1985, he became the new Secretary General of the USSR. He set a course for perestroika to change the ideological and political system.
Under his leadership, reforms began to be carried out aimed at achieving comprehensive democratization and abandoning the socialist system.
Under Gorbachev's rule, many KGB documents were declassified, thanks to which many of the crimes of the previous government became known to the public. It was the so-called openness policy.
Glasnost led to the fact that Soviet citizens began to actively criticize the communist system and its leaders.
As a result, new political movements emerged that came up with different programs for the further development of the state.
Mikhail Gorbachev repeatedly came into conflict with, who insisted on the withdrawal of the RSFSR from the USSR.
Collapse of the USSR
The crisis and subsequent collapse of the USSR manifested themselves in different ways. In addition to the economic and political impasse, the state was faced with a sharp drop in the birth rate, as evidenced by statistics for 1989.
Store shelves were literally empty, and people were often unable to buy essential products.
The communist leadership in countries such as Czechoslovakia and Czechoslovakia was replaced by new democratic leaders.
Mass demonstrations and protests begin in one republic after another. In Moscow, people take to the streets demanding the overthrow of the government.
On March 10, 1991, the largest anti-government rally in the history of Soviet power took place on Manezhnaya Square in Moscow. Hundreds of thousands of people demanded Gorbachev's resignation. All this played into the hands of those who called themselves democrats. Their leader was Boris Yeltsin, who was gaining more and more popularity and respect from the people every day.
Parade of sovereignties
In February 1990, members of the CPSU Central Committee publicly announced the weakening of the monopoly on power. Within a month, the first elections were held, as a result of which the nationalists and liberals received the greatest support.
In the period 1990-1991, the so-called “parade of sovereignties” took place throughout the USSR. Ultimately, all the Union republics adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty, as a result of which the USSR ceased to exist.
The last president of the USSR
One of the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR was the reforms carried out by Mikhail Gorbachev in relation to Soviet society and system.
He himself came from a simple family. After graduating from the Faculty of Law of Moscow State University, he headed the Komsomol organization, and later became a member of the CPSU.
Gorbachev confidently moved up the career ladder, gaining authority among his colleagues.
In 1985, after the death of Konstantin Chernenko, he became Secretary General of the USSR. During his reign, Gorbachev introduced many radical reforms, many of which were poorly thought out.
Gorbachev's reform attempts
The so-called prohibition law, which included a complete or partial ban on alcoholic beverages, caused a big stir in the USSR.
In addition, Gorbachev announced the policy of glasnost, which we have already discussed, the introduction of self-financing, and the exchange of money.
In the foreign policy arena, he adhered to the “policy of new thinking,” which contributed to the establishment of international relations and the end of the “arms race.”
For these “achievements” that led to the collapse of the USSR, Mikhail Sergeevich was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, while the country was in a terrible situation.
Mikhail Gorbachev Most Soviet citizens were critical of Gorbachev's actions because they did not see any practical benefit in his reforms.
1991 referendum
In March 1991, an all-Union referendum was held, in which about 80% of citizens surveyed voted to preserve the USSR.
In this regard, attempts were made to sign an agreement on the creation of a Union of Sovereign States. However, in the end, all these ideas remained only in words.
August putsch
In August 1991, a group of politicians close to Gorbachev formed the State Emergency Committee (GKChP).
This self-proclaimed authority, whose leader was Gennady Yanaev, tried to do everything possible to prevent the collapse of the USSR.
After the creation of the State Emergency Committee, Yeltsin acted as the main opposition member of the committee. He stated that the actions of the State Emergency Committee are nothing more than a coup d'etat.
Reasons for the coup
The main reason for the August putsch can be called the negative attitude of people towards Gorbachev’s policies.
His famous restructuring did not bring the expected results. Instead, the state experienced economic and political collapse, and the crime and unemployment rates exceeded all imaginable norms.
Then Mikhail Gorbachev came up with the idea of transforming the USSR into a Union of Sovereign States, which caused indignation among future putschists.
As soon as the president left the capital, activists immediately attempted an armed uprising. Ultimately, this came to nothing, and the putsch was crushed.
The significance of the GKChP putsch
As it turned out later, the putsch served as a catalyst for the collapse of the USSR. Every day the situation became more and more tense.
Soviet army tanks at the Spassky Gate after the coup on August 19, 1991 After the suppression of the putsch, Gorbachev resigned, as a result of which the CPSU collapsed, and all the union republics became independent.
The empire was replaced by 15 independent republics, and the main successor of the USSR was a new state - the Russian Federation.
Bialowieza Accords
On December 8, 1991, the Belovezhskaya Agreements were signed in Belarus. The heads of 3 republics put their signatures on the documents: , and Belarus.
The agreements stated that the USSR would officially cease to exist, and in its place the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) would be formed.
In some republics, separatist sentiments began to emerge, actively supported by local media.
For example, in Ukraine, on December 1, 1991, a referendum was held, at which the question of the independence of the republic was raised.
Soon he publicly spoke out that Ukraine was abandoning the 1922 treaty, which spoke of the creation of the USSR.
In this regard, Boris Yeltsin began to strengthen his power in Russia even more actively.
Creation of the CIS and the final collapse of the USSR
Meanwhile, in Belarus, Stanislav Shushkevich became the new chairman of the Supreme Council. He was the initiator of a meeting of the heads of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, at which key political topics were raised.
In particular, the leaders of the countries tried to discuss the further course of history. The creation of the USSR was denounced, and instead a plan was developed for the formation of the CIS.
It is important to note that the Belovezhskaya Agreements became the will of the peoples of the former Soviet republics, and not the decision of 3 presidents.
The ratification of the agreements was approved by the governments of each of the three countries at the official level.
Conclusion
Thus, within just a few months, a huge superpower disintegrated.
What it was: an accidental collapse, a deliberate collapse or the natural end of an empire - history will show.
B. Yeltsin and M. Gorbachev Despite various criticisms of the USSR, during its existence the Soviet people managed to achieve unprecedented indicators in social and economic terms.
In addition, the state had enormous military potential and also achieved fantastic results in the space industry.
It's fair to say that many people still have fond memories of life in the Soviet Union.
Now you know all the main events associated with the collapse of the USSR. If you liked this article, share it on social networks. If you like it at all, subscribe to the site IinterestingFakty.org.
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