Results of the reforms of the 60s and 70s. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the 19th century). Reforms in public education and the press
Carrying out the peasant reform required an urgent restructuring of the local government system. During this reform, the government sought to create the necessary conditions for maintaining power in the hands of the noble landowners, and all discussions related to the transformation of local government revolved around this problem. If the most conservative representatives of the nobility insisted on creating open and significant privileges for their class in the projected zemstvo bodies, then groups of liberals, oriented towards the capitalist path of development of Russia, proposed creating all-class zemstvo organizations.
On January 1, 1864, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were approved. They were entrusted with: management of capital, property and money of the zemstvo; measures to ensure “people's food”, charity events, mutual zemstvo property insurance; care for the development of local trade and industry; sanitary measures, participation in economic relations in the field of health and education.
The law provided for the creation of three electoral curiae:
1) the curia of county landowners, which consisted primarily of noble landowners, and participation in which required a high property qualification. County landowners with lower qualifications participated in elections through representatives;
2) the city curia, whose participants were required to have a merchant’s certificate or an enterprise of a certain size;
3) rural curia, in which a property qualification was not established, but a system of three-stage elections was introduced: peasants who gathered at the volost assembly sent their electors to the meeting, which elected zemstvo councilors.
If we touch on this issue in more detail, then the first curia included all landowners who had at least 200 acres of land; persons who owned real estate worth more than 15 thousand rubles. or those who received an annual income of over 6 thousand rubles, as well as those authorized by the clergy and landowners who had less than 200 acres of land. This curia was represented mainly by landowners-nobles and partly by the large commercial and industrial bourgeoisie.
The second curia consisted of merchants of three guilds, owners of trade and industrial establishments in cities with an annual income of over 6 thousand rubles, as well as owners of urban real estate worth at least 500 rubles, in small towns and 2 thousand rubles. – in large ones. This curia was represented mainly by the large urban bourgeoisie, as well as nobles - owners of urban real estate.
The third curia consisted of representatives of rural societies, mainly peasants. However, local nobles and clergy could also run for this curia – also as representatives of rural societies. If for the first two curias the elections were direct, then for the third they were multi-stage: first, the village assembly elected representatives to the volost assembly, at which electors were chosen, and then the district congress of electors elected vowels to the district zemstvo assembly. It is important to note that the same number of vowels were elected for the first agricultural curia as for the other two, which ensured the nobility a dominant position in the zemstvos.
The Zemstvo Assembly and the Zemstvo Council (an executive body consisting of a chairman and two members) were elected for three years. The provincial zemstvo assembly was elected by members of the district assemblies.
The chairmen of the district and provincial zemstvo assemblies were the district and provincial marshal of the nobility. The chairmen of the councils were elected at zemstvo meetings, while the chairman of the district zemstvo government was approved by the governor, and the chairman of the provincial government was approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs.
The councils of zemstvo assemblies were convened annually at sessions to consider the annual reports of executive bodies - councils, to approve the zemstvo management plan, estimates of income and expenses. The members of the zemstvo assemblies did not receive any remuneration for their service. Zemstvo councils operated constantly; board members received a certain salary. In addition, zemstvos had the right to maintain on their salary (for hire) zemstvo doctors, teachers, statisticians and other zemstvo employees, who constituted the so-called third element in the zemstvo. Zemstvo taxes were collected from the population for the maintenance of zemstvo institutions. The zemstvo received the right to impose a special tax on the income of commercial and industrial establishments and from movable and immovable property. The main expenses of zemstvos (80-85%) were spent on the maintenance of zemstvo institutions and the police, 8% was spent on medicine and 5% on public education.
It should be noted that the zemstvo reform did not create a coherent and centralized system. During its implementation, no body was created to lead and coordinate the work of all zemstvos. When in 1865 the St. Petersburg Provincial Zemstvo Assembly raised the question of forming such a body, it was simply closed by the government.
The reform also did not create a lower level that could close the system of zemstvo institutions - the volost zemstvo. Attempts by many zemstvo assemblies to raise this issue at their first sessions were suppressed by the government.
Nevertheless, the zemstvos managed to contribute to the development of the local economy, industry, communications, healthcare system and public education. Zemstvos became a kind of political school through which many representatives of liberal and democratic social trends passed. In this regard, the zemstvo reform can be assessed as bourgeois in nature.
Urban reform.
On July 16, 1870, the “City Regulations” were approved, which established the system of city public administration bodies: the city electoral assembly and the city duma with the city government - the executive body. The Duma and the council were headed by one person - the mayor.
Participating in the elections were persons who had reached the age of 25, owned real estate, industrial or commercial enterprises, were engaged in handicrafts or small trade, representing any class. Persons who were on trial, removed from office, under investigation, or deprived of clergy were not allowed to participate in the elections. Legal entities and women participated in elections through representatives. The voting was secret.
A maximum number of persons of non-Christian religion allowed into the council was established - it could not exceed one third. The mayor of the city could not be a person of Jewish nationality.
The Duma could set fees for the benefit of the city.
The City Duma reported directly to the Senate, and not to the local administration, but the governor supervised the activities of the Duma and the legality of its resolutions. The mayor in large cities was confirmed in his position by the Minister of Internal Affairs, and in small cities - by the governor. The competence of city self-government, as well as zemstvo, included purely economic issues: improvement of cities, organization of markets and bazaars, care of local trade and industry, health care and public education, adoption of sanitary and fire safety measures. Although the city duma was given the right to tax the property and income of private individuals in the city, it was limited by law: the duma could tax houses and other city real estate no more than 1% of their value. Urban trade and industry were taxed at the same rate. But of the funds collected, the lion's share was directed not to city needs, but to government needs: maintaining the police and civil administration (up to 50-60% of city fees). Expenditures on improvement amounted to 15% of the city budget, on education - 13% and on medicine - only about 1%.
The “city regulations” of 1870 were initially introduced in Russian cities. In 1875-1877 it spread to the national outskirts, with the exception of Central Asia, as well as Poland and Finland, where the previous urban structure was in effect. The new bodies of city government played a significant role in the economic and cultural development of the post-reform city.
Military reform.
The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, which revealed the military-technical backwardness of the tsarist army, the further growth of armaments and the development of military equipment in Europe required a radical reorganization of military affairs in Russia. January 1, 1874 The “Charter on Military Service” was approved, which was introduced for the entire male population “without distinction of status.” Persons who had reached the age of 21 were called up for service by lot.
Deferments from active service were given for 2 years due to property status. The length of active service was significantly reduced depending on the educational qualification: up to 4 years for those who graduated from primary school, up to 3 years for a city school, up to 1.5 years for a gymnasium, and up to six months for those with a higher education. If a person who received an education entered active service voluntarily (as a volunteer), then the indicated service periods were halved. Soldiers in service were taught to read and write.
According to the law of 1874, the clergy, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, the peoples of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, and some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North were exempted from military service. In relation to the Russian population, military service actually extended to the tax-paying classes, and the privileged classes, due to their higher educational level and other class benefits, were essentially exempt from military service.
Until 1880, the leadership of the political police was in the hands of the Third Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery. In 1880, the state police department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs was created, combining the previously existing executive police department and the III department. This completed the centralization of the entire police apparatus. The police department was entrusted with responsibilities “for the prevention and suppression of crimes and for the protection of public safety and order”; on handling cases of state crimes; on the organization of police institutions and on monitoring their activities.
Concentration of the leadership of the general and political police in the hands of a single body made it possible for the tsarist government to widely use the huge apparatus of the general police in the fight against the revolutionary movement. After 1880, the system of political police bodies was significantly expanded. In a number of areas (especially dangerous ones), in addition to provincial ones, district gendarmerie departments were created. Some provincial administrations had border checkpoints.
The staff of the gendarmerie and the number of a separate corps of gendarmes increased significantly. Special search departments were created within the gendarmerie departments. The leadership of the political police was concentrated in a special secret office of the police department. The latter was in charge of the Foreign Agents of the Police Department, a special body that acted against emigrants from Russia abroad.
In 1898, a Special Section of the department was created, which led political investigation (in particular, it maintained a special card index of revolutionary and public figures in Russia). The development of the revolutionary movement in the country forced the tsarism, in addition to the existing bodies, to create new special secret bodies of political investigation - departments for the protection of order and public safety (the so-called security departments or secret police), which operated using the methods of covert investigative activities. The responsibilities of the security department, as stated in the instructions approved by the Ministry of Internal Affairs for the St. Petersburg secret police, included: preventing strikes in factories and factories and finding out the reasons that caused them; taking measures to prevent and investigate the causes of demonstrations, gatherings, and meetings not permitted by the authorities; monitoring those who come to the capital, the capital’s educational institutions, clubs, and societies; “taking covert measures to prevent and investigate riots, gatherings and demonstrations occurring in educational institutions,” etc.
The main task of the secret agents was to penetrate into the revolutionary environment, and, first of all, into organized unions and societies, and then into the workers' Social Democratic Party.
In 1879, the Main Prison Directorate was formed within the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The prison system was reformed. Previously existing correctional and workhouses and debtor's prisons were liquidated. The situation of the prisoners was somewhat improved. In 1895, the prisons were transferred to the Ministry of Justice.
Conclusions on the issue. After the peasant reform, a series of reforms followed in the main areas of Russian society. Trying to “extinguish” the brewing bourgeois revolution, the tsarist government granted the population some democratic rights. In particular, as a result of zemstvo and city reforms, local government bodies appear that have fairly broad powers for their time. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War necessitated the restructuring of the country's armed forces.
Conclusion
The second half of the 19th century is marked by significant changes in the social and government system. The reform of 1861, having freed and robbed the peasants, opened the way for the development of capitalism in the city, although it put certain obstacles in its way. A new class structure of society, where contradictions between workers and capitalists became increasingly important, took shape within the framework of the old class system.
Russia is taking a major step towards transforming a feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one. This is manifested mainly in the middle and lower levels of the state mechanism, where zemstvo and city reforms allow the bourgeoisie to govern, or rather, to self-government.
LITERATURE:
Main:
- History of State and Law of Russia: Textbook / Ed. Yu.P. Titova.-M.: Publishing house: Prospekt, 2011.
- History of State and Law of Russia: Textbook / Ed. I.A. Isaeva. - M.: Prospekt, 2011.
- History of the Russian state and law: Textbook. In 2 hours/Ed. O.I. Chistyakova. M.: Yurayt, 2011.
- Shamba T.M., Steshenko L.A. History of state and law of Russia: Textbook in 2 parts. M.: Norma, 2010.
- Russian legislation of the X-XX centuries. T.1-9/ Under general. Ed. O.I. Chistyakova.- M.: Legal. lit., 1984-1994.
- Kuritsyn V.M. History of state and law of Russia IX-XIX centuries. Textbook - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2009.
Additional:
- Meyer D.I. Russian civil law. [At 2 hours]. Ed. 2nd, rev. - M.: Statute, 2000.
- Steshenko L.A. Multinational Russia: state and legal development of the X-XXI centuries: [research]. - M.: NORM, 2002.
- Taranovsky F.V. History of Russian law / Taranovsky F.V., ed. and with a preface. Tomsinova V.A. - M.: Mirror, 2004.
- Yushkov S.V. History of state and law of Russia (IX-XIX centuries): Textbook. - Additional edition and lane - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2003.
- Reader on the history of state and law of Russia: Textbook / Comp. Yu.P. Titov. – M., 2008.
Political system
During the post-reform period, Russia maintained an absolute monarchy, the emperor
enjoys unlimited power.
The State Council remained the highest advisory body,
carried out the consideration of bills and codification of laws. With him
Various commissions and committees operated.
The Senate remained the highest body of judicial oversight. On the eve of the reforms there was
a supreme state body was established - the Council of Ministers, consisting of a chairman
State Council, members of the Committee of Ministers, chief administrators.
Its chairman is the emperor.
During this period, serious changes occurred in the structure of ministries and departments.
changes, some ministries formed their own local bodies, new ones were created
ministries. During the period of increasing development of capitalism in Russia, the
the role and importance of such government bodies as the Ministry of State
properties, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Railways.
The work of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of its local bodies has been improved
Provincial boards, provincial presences, district police departments, etc.
Subsequently, the repressive functions of the state apparatus are strengthened, in
in relation primarily to political opponents of the regime. According to the law of 1871
political cases began to be removed from the jurisdiction of judicial investigators and transferred
gendarmerie. In 1882, a special law on police supervision was adopted.
In 1866-1867 in order to strengthen autocratic power, power sharply increased
governors. All local institutions and officials were now subordinate to them,
the right to close zemstvo assemblies was introduced if they violated the rules, and
Zemstvos were forbidden to maintain contacts with each other and publish without
the governor authorizes his regulations and reports.
The Ministry of Justice exercised control over the country's judicial system,
the Minister of Justice was in charge of the selection of judicial personnel and performed supervisory functions.
Russia, aggravated as a result of defeat in the Crimean War, could be overcome
only by carrying out fundamental reforms, the main of which is the abolition of serfdom
law, which served as the main brake on the development of market relations in the country. 52
Alexander II, spoke in 1856 to the Moscow nobility, convinced them of
the need to abolish serfdom, indicating that it is better to destroy it from above,
rather than wait until it begins to be destroyed from below.
In 1857, the Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs was created, which
was subsequently transformed into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, based on
in his work on the provincial noble committees, from which proposals and
reform projects.
During the preparation of the reform, there was a sharp struggle between various
groupings of the nobility, which were divided into liberals and conservatives.
Conservatives advocated maintaining all land ownership in the hands of landowners
and the landless liberation of peasants, and liberals - for the liberation of peasants with land
and giving them civil rights.
As a result, the prepared reform was of a compromise nature and was
aimed, on the one hand, at preserving landownership, and on the other -
generally ensured that the peasants retained their pre-reform plots of land for
approved the “General Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom.” IN
compliance with the new laws, the serfdom of landowners against peasants was abolished
forever, and the peasants were declared free rural residents with the endowment of
civil rights and freedoms - freedom to marry, independent
conclusion of contracts, the right to go to court, engage in business and
trade, change of residence, transition to another class, etc.
At the same time, the reform did not equalize peasants with landowners in their civil
rights The peasants of each village who emerged from serfdom united in
rural society. Several rural societies formed a volost. In villages and
In the volosts, peasants were granted self-government. Self-government body
rural society there was a gathering at which the peasants elected for 3 years a rural
headman and tax collector. The self-government body of the volost was also a gathering, at
which elected a volost board headed by a volost elder and a volost
a judge to resolve cases of minor offenses and lawsuits of peasants.
The peasant was secured by the community and mutual guarantee in the community. Leave
community could only be paid off half of the remaining debt and provided that
the other half will be paid by the community.
position, titles, ranks of class organizations - provincial and district nobles
meetings, Political power even after the reform of 1861 remained in the hands of the nobility.
The abolition of serfdom required a radical renovation
state apparatus of Russia in the direction of gradual reform
absolute monarchy into a constitutional one. This has led to the adoption of a number
government reforms, including:
Financial reform 1862-1868 Financial reform was previously
all in the centralization of the financial economy of Russia in the hands of the Minister of Finance and
financing of all government expenditures through the Ministry of Finance.
The state budget was compiled by the Ministry of Finance, and was reviewed by
approved by the State Council.
The old taxes - capitation and wine farming - were replaced by land tax
and excise taxes (they were levied on wine, tobacco, salt, sugar), which led to an increase in revenue
state budget. At the same time, government spending also increased.
In 1860, the State Bank was created, as well as a network of commercial
banks. Redemption operations were carried out by peasants established for these purposes53
and noble banks. The State Bank was also entrusted with the function of
financing of commercial and industrial enterprises. Accounting has been centralized
and control of state budget funds.
Military reform 1864-1874 The defeat in the Crimean War showed all
backwardness of the Russian military machine. The question arose about conducting radical
transformations in the military sphere. In 1874, the "Charter on Military
conscription", which introduced universal military service for the entire male population.
Males who had reached the age of 20 were conscripted for military service by
by lot. Those who were not included in the service were enlisted in the militia. Duration of military service -
six years followed by enlistment in the reserves for 9 years and in the navy, respectively, seven
years of service, 3 years in reserve.
For persons who graduated from higher educational institutions, the service life was reduced to 6
months, gymnasiums - up to one and a half years, city schools - up to 3 years and primary schools -
Officer cadres were trained in cadet schools, military gymnasiums and
military academies, preference for admission to them was given to the nobility.
Military reform had a progressive significance. She saved the population from
recruitment, accelerated the breakdown of the class system, contributed to the development
railway network, since without railways it was not possible to carry out
widespread mobilization of those transferred to the reserve.
Judicial reform of 1864. The pre-reform legal system was
archaic and confusing. Historically, class courts were established for nobles, townspeople,
peasants, there were military, spiritual, commercial, and boundary courts. Consideration
cases in the courts took place behind closed doors. Judicial functions were often performed
administrative bodies. In serf Russia, trials and reprisals against serfs were often
was done by the landowner himself. With the fall of serfdom, judicial reform became
inevitable.
In 1864, the main acts of judicial reform were approved: Establishment
judicial rulings, Charter of criminal proceedings, Charter of civil
legal proceedings, Charter on punishments imposed by justices of the peace. In accordance with
These acts created two systems of courts - local and general. To the locals
included:
1. Justices of the peace;
2. Congresses of justices of the peace.
General courts included:
1. District courts for several counties;
2. Trial chambers for civil and criminal cases established in each
a district consisting of several provinces or regions;
3. Cassation departments of the Senate.
The new judicial bodies were all-class, i.e. they considered criminal and
civil affairs of all subjects of the empire, no matter what class they belonged to.
The reform of the judicial system was based on new principles: equality of all
before the law and the court, separation of the court from the administration and the administration of justice
only by the court, the creation of an all-estate court, the transparency of the trial,
adversarial nature of the parties, irremovability of judges and investigators, prosecutorial supervision,
election of justices of the peace and jurors.
During the judicial reform, new institutions were created, such as an elected
magistrate's court, institutions of forensic investigators, jurors, the bar,
Prosecutors with one or more comrades (deputies) were established at the courts.
The judicial reform was the most radical of all carried out in the country
bourgeois reforms. Thanks to her, Russian justice has become on a par with the justice of the most54
advanced countries. As a result, there was a separation of the judiciary from other authorities,
preliminary investigation from the police and the court, the most democratic court was created
jurors.
The disadvantages of judicial reform include: limiting the role of the court
jury, lack of unity of the judicial system, non-admission of defense at the stage
preliminary investigation, etc.
During the police reform of 1862, city and county police were
united into a single police system, including a police officer in the volost and
a bailiff in the city, and at the county level - a police officer. In the provincial cities at the head
police there was a police chief, who was subordinate to the governor, and was in charge of the entire
the country's police system is the Minister of the Interior. In 1880 into the police system
provincial gendarmerie departments were included. Detective and
security departments.
Prison reform. In 1879, the management of prison institutions was
entrusted to the Main Prison Directorate. The situation of prisoners in some
relations improved, a medical care system was created. However, to
prisoners could also be subject to special punishments: corporal punishment,
placement in a punishment cell. Only in 1863 was corporal punishment for women abolished and
branding, but rods were used in places of deprivation of liberty until the February
revolution of 1917. Various types of imprisonment were used - in a fortress, in
house of correction, arrest, punishment in the form of exile to Sakhalin. Those who served hard labor
were transferred to the exile settlers.
Zemstvo reform. Zemstvos were created to manage the local economy,
trade, public education, medical care, public
Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions, according to which they were created
bodies of all-class self-government - zemstvo assemblies. Elections of deputies to the zemstvo
the assembly was carried out in 3 curiae, were unequal and indirect:
1. Curia of district landowners with at least 200-800 acres of land (in
it was mainly a curia of landowners);
2. City curia, whose participants had to have high
property qualification, which cut off the poor. Workers and
artisans were also excluded from elections.
3. The rural curia had a system of three-stage elections: peasants,
nominated to the volost assembly, sent their electors to the meeting,
which elected the deputies (vocals) of the zemstvo.
District and provincial zemstvo assemblies met annually for 2-3 weeks to
solving the tasks assigned to them - and this is the approval of cost and income estimates, elections
executive bodies.
Unlike zemstvo assemblies, zemstvo councils were permanent
bodies that were in charge of all zemstvo affairs. The establishment of zemstvos was large
a step forward in the democratization of the entire management system of Russia, historically
short period of their existence, a huge amount of work has been done to improve
welfare of the people, development of entrepreneurship, trade, education,
healthcare. Zemstvos raised a whole galaxy of liberal and
democratic direction, which played a big role in all spheres of life
society.
The disadvantages of the reforms include its incompleteness - there were no lower
(volost) and higher (all-Russian) levels of the zemstvo system. Management and control of
zemstvos were carried out by the nobility. Zemstvos were limited in material
funds, although they had the right to impose taxes and duties on the population for zemstvo55
needs, and also did not have their own executive apparatus, which reduced their
efficiency and increased dependence on government agencies.
Urban reform. In 1870, the “City Regulations” were approved, which
the system of all-estate self-government was extended to cities. Any
the urban inhabitant, regardless of class, had the right to vote in
election of deputies (vocals) under the following conditions:
1) Russian citizenship;
2) Age at least 25 years;
3) Compliance with property qualifications;
4) No arrears in city taxes.
Women participated in elections through representatives. Voting was
secret. All voters, in accordance with property qualifications, elected a third
deputies to the city duma. Thanks to this, the majority of vowels were elected from
wealthy segments of the population.
The Duma and the council were elected for 4 years. Half of the council had to be renewed
every two years. The Duma and the council were headed by the same person - the mayor,
which was approved by the governor or the Minister of the Interior. Activity
city authorities was aimed at solving city affairs, primarily in the field
city property and various fees, development of culture, education,
healthcare, etc.
Thus, the establishment of city government gave impetus to the development
Russian cities, contributed to the formation of political social and
cultural organizations, the development of entrepreneurship and trade. Disadvantage
reform was that city government bodies were controlled and
were subordinate to the tsarist administration, their independence was strictly limited,
the material base is insufficient.
The liberal reforms that were carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century were a logical continuation of the abolition of serfdom. The new social structure required changes in administration and government.
The course of modernization of the state was supported by urban, zemstvo, military and judicial reforms. Thanks to such transformations, the Russian autocracy adapted to the rapid development of capitalism in the state.
Judicial reform
In 1864, a new judicial system was introduced in the Russian Empire, which was regulated by the law “On New Judicial Statutes.” The court became a democratic body; its composition included representatives of all classes of society, the process became transparent, and the procedure of mandatory judicial competition was maintained.
The competence of the courts was strictly delimited; civil claims were considered in the magistrate's court, and criminal offenses in the district court. The highest court was the Senate.
To consider political crimes, including those directed against the autocracy, special courts were organized, during the proceedings of which the principle of openness was excluded.
Military reform
The crushing defeat of Russian troops in the Crimean War showed that an army based on recruitment is ineffective and in many ways loses to the European armed forces. Emperor Alexander II initiated the creation of a new army with a reserve of personnel.
Since 1874, all men over 20 years of age were required to undergo general military training, which lasted 6 years. Citizens of the Russian Empire who had higher education were often exempt from military service. By the end of the 70s, the material and technical base of the army was completely updated - smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, a steel artillery system was introduced, and horse reserves were increased.
Also during this period, the steam fleet was actively developing. Educational institutions were opened in the state in which military specialists were trained. Thanks to the fact that the Russian Empire did not participate in military confrontations, the imperial army was significantly strengthened and its combat effectiveness increased.
Zemstvo reform
After the adoption of the Peasant Reform, there was a need to transform local government bodies. In 1864, zemstvo reform began to be introduced in the Russian Empire. In districts and provinces, zemstvo institutions were formed, which were elected bodies.
Zemstvos did not have political functions; their competence primarily included solving local problems, regulating the work of schools and hospitals, building roads, and controlling trade and small industrial facilities.
Zemstvos were controlled by local and central authorities, who had the right to refute the decisions of these bodies or suspend their activities. In cities, city councils were created, which had the same powers as zemstvos. The dominant role in zemstvos and city dumas belonged to representatives of the bourgeois class.
Despite the fact that the reforms had a very narrow structure and did not actually solve the problems of socio-economic life, they became the first step towards the introduction of liberal democracy in the Russian Empire. Further introduction of reforms was completely stopped by the death of the emperor. His son Alexander II saw a completely different path of development for Russia.
Emperor Alexander II (nicknamed the Liberator) carried out a number of liberal reforms in Russia. The reason for holding them became the backwardness of the state system, its inflexibility and injustice. The Russian economy and the authority of the state suffered from it. Orders and instructions from the authorities practically did not reach their destinations.
The purpose of the reforms there was also a relief of tension in society, the indignation that was caused by the too strict policies of the state and those in power. So, here is a table with a list of reforms.
Abolition of serfdom
1. Landowners are deprived of property rights over peasants. Now it is impossible to sell or buy peasants, separate their families, prevent them from leaving the village, and so on.
2. Peasants were obliged to buy back their land plots from landowners (at high prices) or rent it.
3. For renting land from the landowner, the peasant was obliged to serve corvee or pay quitrent, but this corvee was now limited.
4. A peasant who used a leased plot of land from a landowner did not have the right to leave the village for 9 years.
The importance of peasant reform did not appear immediately. Although formally people became free, the landowners continued to treat them as serfs for a long time, punishing them with rods and so on. The peasants did not receive any land. However, the reform was the first step in overcoming slavery and violence against the individual.
Judicial reform
An elective position of justice of the peace is being introduced. From now on, he is elected by representatives of the population, rather than appointed “from above.”
The court becomes legally independent from administrative authorities.
The court becomes transparent, that is, it is obliged to give the population access to its decisions and processes.
A district jury court was established.
The importance of judicial reform became the protection of the judicial system from the arbitrariness of the authorities and the wealthy, the protection of the integrity of justice.
Zemstvo reform
The establishment of the zemstvo as a government body to which the local population elected representatives.
Peasants could also participate in zemstvo elections.
The significance of the zemstvo reform there was a strengthening of local self-government and the participation of citizens of all classes in the life of society.
Urban reform
City government bodies have been established, the members of which are elected by city residents.
They are called city councils and city councils.
Local taxes have been reduced.
The police were transferred under the subordination of the central government.
The importance of urban reform strengthening of local self-government and at the same time limiting the arbitrariness of local authorities.
Education reform
1. It is allowed to choose deans and rectors at universities.
2. The first university for women was opened.
3. Real schools were founded, where the emphasis was on teaching technical and natural sciences.
The Importance of Education Reform there was an improvement in technical and women's education in the country.
Military reform
1. Service life has been reduced from 25 years to 7 years.
2. Limitation of military service to 7 years.
3. Now not only recruits are called up for military service (previously these were the poorest segments of the population, forcibly driven), but also representatives of all classes. Including nobles.
4. The previously bloated, ineffective army has been reduced by almost half.
5. A number of military schools have been created to train officers.
6. Corporal punishment has been abolished, except for caning in special cases.
The importance of military reform very large. A modern, combat-ready army has been created that does not consume many resources. The military became motivated to serve (previously, conscription was considered a curse; it completely ruined the conscript’s life).
The oldest time on the territory of Russia- The place and role of history in the system of human knowledge. Subject and objectives of the course on the history of the Fatherland
- The most ancient peoples on the territory of Russia. Population of ancient Bashkiria
- Formation of early feudal states. Economic and political relations between them
- The role of religion in the formation of statehood and culture
- The struggle for the independence of early feudal states against aggression from the West and East
- The unification of Russian lands around Moscow. Relations with the Golden Horde and the Principality of Lithuania
- Formation of statehood. Political system and social relations
- Reforms of Ivan the Terrible. Strengthening the regime of personal power
- Change of the ruling dynasty. Evolution of the government system
- The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century. Bashkiria in the 17th century
- Reforms of Peter I. Completion of the formalization of absolutism in Russia
- Russian foreign policy during the proclamation of the empire
- "Enlightened absolutism" in Russia. Domestic policy of Catherine II
- Government circles and public thought on ways of further development of the country
- Socio-economic development of the country. Bashkiria in the first half of the 19th century
- Socio-economic development of the country and its features
- Economic policy of Witte. Stolypin's agrarian reform
- Socio-political forces in Russia. Revolution 1905 - 1907
- Formation of political parties: social composition, program and tactics
- The State Duma is the first experience of Russian parliamentarism
- Changes in the balance of political forces from February to October 1917. Alternatives for the development of events
- The Soviet state and the world in the 20-30s. The Great Patriotic War (1941-1945): results and lessons
- Objective need for change. Reforms of the political system
- Finding ways to transition to a market economy: problems and solutions
Reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century
On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed a manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the “Regulations” on the new structure of the peasants. According to the “Regulations”, serf peasants (22.6 million people) received personal freedom and a number of civil rights: to conclude transactions, open trade and industrial establishments, move to other classes, etc. The law was based on the principle of recognizing the property rights of the landowner for all the land on the estate, including the peasant allotment. Peasants were considered only users of allotment land, obliged to serve established duties for it - quitrent or corvee. To become the owner of his allotment land, the peasant had to buy it from the landowner. The state took over the redemption operation: the treasury paid the landowners 75-80% of the redemption amount at once, the rest was paid by the peasants.
The reform of 1861 not only preserved, but further increased landownership by reducing peasant ownership. 1.3 million peasants were actually left landless. The allotment of the remaining peasants averaged 3-4 dessiatines, while for the normal standard of living of a peasant, due to agriculture with existing agricultural technology, 6 to 8 dessiatines of land were required.
In 1863, the reform was extended to appanage and palace peasants, and in 1866 - to state peasants.
The lack of almost half of the land needed by the peasants, the persistence in the countryside of bonded, semi-serf forms of exploitation of the peasants, the artificial increase in prices for the sale and rental of land were the source of poverty and backwardness of the post-reform countryside and ultimately led to a sharp aggravation of the agrarian question at the turn of the 19th century. XX centuries
The abolition of serfdom necessitated other reforms in the country - in the field of administration, court, education, finance, and military affairs. They, too, were of a half-hearted nature, retained dominant positions for the nobility and higher officials, and did not provide real scope for the independent manifestation of social forces.
In 1864, zemstvos were created in the districts and provinces of Russia. Landowners, merchants, factory owners, homeowners and rural communities received the right to elect zemstvo councilors from among themselves. The district councilors gathered once a year for zemstvo meetings, at which they elected an executive body - the zemstvo council and vowels for the provincial assembly. The zemstvos were in charge of: the construction of local roads, public education, healthcare, fire insurance, veterinary services, local trade and industry. Zemstvos were under the control of local and central authorities - the governor and the Minister of Internal Affairs, who had the right to suspend any decisions of zemstvos.
In 1870, city self-government was introduced. City councils elected for 4 years appeared in 509 Russian cities. The competence of city elected bodies was in many ways similar to the functions of county zemstvos. They paid main attention to the financial and economic condition of the cities. A significant part of the city budget was spent on maintaining the police, city government, military posts, etc.
Along with local government reform, the government began to address the problem of transforming judicial institutions.
In 1864, judicial statutes were approved, introducing bourgeois principles of judicial system and legal proceedings in Russia. A court independent of the administration, the irremovability of judges, publicity of the court, the liquidation of class courts (with the exception of religious and military courts) were proclaimed; the institutions of jurors, the legal profession and the recognition of equal rights before the court were introduced. An adversarial process was introduced: the prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, the defense by the lawyer (attorney). Several judicial instances were established - the magistrate's and district courts. Judicial chambers were created as courts of appeal (the Ural provinces were under the jurisdiction of the Kazan Judicial Chamber).
The needs of the developing market have necessitated streamlining financial affairs. By decree of 1860, the State Bank was established, which replaced the previous credit institutions - zemstvo and commercial banks, the treasury and public charity orders. The state budget was streamlined. The Minister of Finance became the sole responsible manager of all income and expenses. From that time on, a list of income and expenses began to be published for public information.
In 1862-1864. reforms were carried out in the field of education: seven-year gymnasiums for girls were established, in men's gymnasiums the principle of equality for all classes and religions was proclaimed. The university charter of 1863 provided universities with broad autonomy: the university council received the right to decide all scientific, financial and educational issues, and the election of rectors, vice-rectors and deans was introduced.
The consequence of glasnost was the “Temporary Rules” of 1865 on censorship, which abolished preliminary censorship for publications published in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Government and scientific publications were completely freed from censorship.
The military reform of 1874, in the preparation and implementation of which Minister of War D. A. Milyutin played a large role, legislated the transformations in military affairs that began in the 60s. Corporal punishment was abolished, and instead of conscription, universal conscription was introduced. The 25-year military service period was gradually reduced to 6-7 years. When serving military service, a number of benefits were provided based on marital status and education. Soldiers in service were taught to read and write, measures were taken to technically re-equip the army, and to increase the level of officer training.
Reforms of the 60-70s The 19th century, which began with the abolition of serfdom, despite their half-heartedness and inconsistency, contributed to the development of capitalism in the country and the acceleration of the socio-economic development of Russia.