The role of astrology and alchemy in the development of science. Alchemy, astrology, magic. Western and Eastern Medieval Science. Signs and symbols
The Middle Ages chronologically covers the period from the II century. AD until the 14th century AD In the sphere of spiritual culture, the Middle Ages are characterized by the dominance of the religious picture of the world - theocentrism. The center of the universe is declared the highest supernatural power - God.
In Europe, the official religious doctrine was Christianity in the form of Catholicism. All teachings that contradicted Christianity were severely punished, the works of ancient scientists, materialist philosophers, such as Democritus, were destroyed.
Within the framework of the Middle Ages, science, as well as philosophy, acted as servants of theology, i.e. science and philosophy were allowed to the extent that they could confirm the truths of Christianity.
In the science of this era, the scholastic method dominates. The essence of the method is quoting authorities, referring to the authority of the Bible, as well as to the authority of Holy Tradition, i.e. on the works of prominent Christian theologians - the fathers of the church.
In the development of science and philosophy of the Middle Ages, two conceptual approaches can be distinguished: patristics and scholasticism.
Patristics- the teaching of the fathers of the Christian church, characteristic of the early Middle Ages (II-V centuries). The classic of patristics is Tertullian. He put forward the famous slogan: "I believe because it's absurd". In his opinion, pure reason cannot fully explain the divine truths that are described in the Bible. These truths are comprehended by faith.
Another prominent representative of patristics, A. Augustin, developed the doctrine of theodicy is God's justification for the evil that exists in the world. According to Augustine, the source of evil in the world is not God, but man himself. God endowed man with free will, and man is free to choose between good and evil.
Scholasticism, characteristic of the late Middle Ages (XII - XV centuries), sought to update religious dogmas. The scholastics adapt ancient scientific and philosophical texts, primarily the works of Aristotle, to the needs of Christian theology. Scholastics develop the skills of intellectual thinking, believing that the comprehension of God is possible with the help of logic and logical reasoning.
The pinnacle of scholasticism is the teaching of Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas believed that faith should not be contrary to reason. However, some religious tenets cannot be rationally proven, such as the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary. He believed that these dogmas are not anti-rational, but super-rational. They are accessible only to the supermind, that is, the divine mind. It was Aquinas who formulated the position "Philosophy is the servant of Theology". Philosophy must prove by reasonable means the existence of God.
F. Aquinas substantiated five proofs of the existence of God:
1. Everything in the world moves. The first mover is God.
2. Everything in the world has its own reason. There is a cause of all causes - that is God.
3. Everything in the world happens out of necessity. The main need is God.
4. All beings in the world differ in the degree of perfection. The source of perfection, the most perfect beginning, is God.
5. The world is arranged expediently, and God is the ultimate source of expediency.
In the Middle Ages, philosophical disciplines and science are seen as an aid to confirming the truths of theology. A specific understanding of the criterion of truth is being formulated, which is understood as a reference to the authority of God and sacred texts.
During the Middle Ages, specific forms of knowledge were formed: 1. natural magic; 2. alchemy; 3. astrology.
natural magic understood as knowledge of the hidden forces and laws of nature. Magic assumes that it is possible to influence natural phenomena, the material state of nature with the help of a word in the form of prayers and spells. Therefore, operations on natural bodies, experiments on natural substances were accompanied by verbal incantations. Thus, the magicians believed, one could call on supernatural forces to help them explore nature. Magic as a form of medieval knowledge is most developed in the Arab world. The largest representative of natural magic in the Arab East is considered Ibn Rushd (in Latin transcription Averroes) - XII century. AD, who was a prominent scientist, philosopher and physician. Subsequently, his ideas migrated to Western European science.
Alchemy. Alchemy is often defined as pre-chemistry. The image of an alchemist is a person who works in laboratories, conducts various experiments and experiments. The task of such experiments is transformation, that is, the transformation of metals with the help of a philosopher's stone into gold. The super task of the alchemist is to create the elixir of life in order to ensure the immortality of man. Artificial gold was considered the basis of the elixir of life. This is the gold that the alchemists sought to obtain.
Alchemists believed that any substance is unrealized gold. Therefore, they conduct numerous experiments on substances, primarily on lead and mercury (they subject them to crushing, mixing, heating, cooling, etc.). At the same time, the experiments of alchemists could harm people's health (the drugs they recommended included toxic substances - arsenic, mercury). The positive results of alchemical experiments contributed to the development of pharmacology and medicine.
Astrology- the doctrine of the stars, this is a prediction of the fate of a person based on the position of the stars, according to the signs of the zodiac.
Thus, medieval forms of knowledge combined, on the one hand, religious ideas, since they relied on the help of supernatural forces, and on the other hand, these forms of knowledge contained rational scientific ideas.
The alchemists, engaged in doing in their gloomy laboratories, showed truly amazing perseverance, constancy and diligence. During certain phases of work, for many hours on end, they could not lose sight of the athanor for a single moment, otherwise they had to start all over again or there was a threat of dangerous phenomena.
Thus, the alchemist had to have a trusted assistant who could replace him during long vigils at the athanor - the ability of a person to constantly stay awake is still limited. It was easier for a married alchemist, but only on the condition that his life partner fully shared his work and hopes and was ready to overcome all hardships with him.
In the era of the Middle Ages, obviously, there was still no equipment that was as convenient to use as that used in modern laboratories - the current dressing gowns (alchemists were content with old clothes) and protective equipment (although medieval craftsmen had some kind of handicraft devices, for example , ceramic, metal or glass protective masks used when it was necessary to protect the eyes).
The desire to see in alchemy only a kind of “prehistory of experimental chemistry” leads to likening it to the experimental searches of practical craftsmen, based solely on patient and painstaking observations. At the same time, many treatises amaze with the accuracy with which alchemists describe the observed phenomena during the successive metamorphoses that primary matter underwent in the philosophical egg, if we recall in this connection only the most frequently used method - the wet path of the Great Work. The successive alternation of phases and the appearance of different colors have been carefully observed and described.
Alchemy and astrology
Alchemical experiments have a number of features that distinguish them from experimental research in the field of modern chemistry. First of all, the presence of a close connection between alchemy and astrology. Adepts not only believed in the validity of astrological predictions, which were then in principle not questioned, but also closely connected these two occult arts with each other. More precisely, a knowledge of astrology was considered absolutely necessary in order to succeed in the successive operations of the Great Work. This important circumstance should not be overlooked if you want to have a historically correct idea of the laboratory vigils of medieval alchemists without falling victim to such deceptive anachronisms.
It was not only highly desirable for the alchemists to follow the cycle of earthly renewal, and accordingly to begin the operations of the Great Work directly, as far as possible, at the vernal equinox, but it was also required to be constantly awake in order to begin their undertaking at the moment of the most favorable positions of the stars on the planet. vault of heaven, and for this very careful preliminary observation of the exact position - at the moment when the Great Work was to begin - of the Sun, Moon, planets and certain constellations, on the very day when the workers began a series of experiments destined to become milestones of a triumphant transmutation, was absolutely necessary. . The earth is by no means in an isolated position, it is influenced by the stars, and without the knowledge of astrology, it was believed, the alchemist would be completely unarmed, in an obviously unprofitable state. This intrusion of astrological determinism into the determination of the most favorable day for the subsequent success of alchemical operations alone would be enough for us to understand the fundamental difference between the work of the alchemist and modern scientific experimentation - the modern scientist decides at his own discretion when to start the experiment. Besides this, the spirit of rationalism cannot admit (to the alchemists it was taken for granted) that the motion of the stars would have affected the operations of the Great Work in the same way that it affected the slow natural maturation of metals in the bowels of the earth. This kind of correlation and parallelism between the laws of motion of stars in the vault of heaven and the life cycles of minerals in the earth's interior was the fundamental idea of the ancient alchemists, which, of course, the rationalistic spirit of modern science cannot allow. Alchemy, on the one hand, and modern chemistry, on the other, are two universes, two visions of the world, radically different from each other and completely incompatible with each other.
"Secret Fire"
However, it is especially difficult to give an exact interpretation of the nature of the secret fire of the wise, which the alchemists believed was absolutely necessary for the ultimate success of their undertaking. Some modern writers seem to accept the idea, though fascinating but difficult to substantiate sufficiently, that medieval alchemists were able—and this was precisely what enabled them to succeed in the Great Work—to manipulate the colossal energy lurking in the very structure of the material they used. In reality, however, there is not a single convincing confirmation that this kind of anticipation of the triumphant successes of nuclear physics really took place. Historians, accustomed to relying on facts, are distrustful of such fantastic hypotheses, projecting into the distant past the hopes and closely related anxieties of the people of our century, before which promising, but at the same time frightening pictures are opened associated with discoveries in the field of nuclear physics. .
Could medieval alchemists - another fantastic hypothesis - capture energy directly from space, separating and then connecting two complementary parts (positive and negative, male and female) phenomena? And there is no scientific evidence whatsoever.
earth cycle
And yet there was one analogy of paramount importance, a truly operational key, a source of joy and inspiration for the adepts: the parallel they saw between what happened at the beginning of the earth cycle (six days of Creation) and what the alchemist, as he believed, was able to reproduce in a philosophical egg. The use of it (or, if they chose the dry path, the crucible) supposedly allowed - let's resort to a fashionable technical neologism - to reproduce in miniature the phenomena that took place in the process of Creation. Thus, the adept, as it were, had a genuine and animated model of our Earth in a reduced form. Phenomena that successively replaced each other as various operations were carried out with the source material contained in the philosophical egg, as if allowed the doer to observe in miniature what happened in the initial phase of the existence of the globe. This perfect parallelism, this complete analogy seems to have been going on since the days of Creation.
For example, the sudden appearance of rainbow colors in the primary matter of the Great Work corresponded to the biblical episode of the appearance of a rainbow over the boundless waters - a magnificent symbol of the unity of heaven and earth - as a harbinger of the end of the flood. This parallelism developed, according to the alchemist, as he continued and diversified his operations, constantly maintaining a similar connection with celestial phenomena. He also saw the formation of the Sun and Moon in miniature, with accurate reproduction on a reduced scale of the phases of the eclipse.
This parallelism continued until the complete completion of the earthly cycle, as it is described in the Apocalypse of St. John - until the end of this world, after which, by virtue of this very fact, the glorious birth of the new heavens and the new earth begins, the renewal of the earthly cycle.
Three kingdoms of nature
Perhaps it would be impossible for us to understand the medieval alchemist if we did not pay special attention to how he throughout his work tried to establish an exact correspondence between different worlds, between different levels of reality, between the creations of the three kingdoms of nature. Everything, in his opinion, is in unity, connected by a ladder connecting heaven with earth. It was a kind of magical realm of correspondences, in which, according to the alchemists, all kinds of phenomena were possible, which seemed very strange to our contemporaries, although modern science (unlike the followers of Lavoisier) does not in principle deny the possibility of obtaining positive results where the ancient alchemists miraculously appear as predecessors. One of the traditional names for alchemy was the following: the art of music. What would that mean? The alchemists claimed to know sounds which, if duly reproduced, would produce precisely certain material results in the process of performing the operations of the Great Work. Thus, there was alchemical music, which was performed in order to obtain one or another result in the process of carrying out certain operations. This is how the presence, by no means just for the sake of decoration, finds its explanation for the presence of musical instruments depicted in alchemical engravings and drawings.
Alchemical musical scores known to date date from the Renaissance and the 17th century, but there is reason to believe that such scores were by no means an innovation, but rather a tradition widespread in the 14th and 15th centuries, but secretly passed from mouth to mouth. A very remarkable observation can be made by visiting the house of Jacques Coeur in Bourges, a well-known rich man in his time, a fan of alchemy. One of the walls of the extremely spacious granary of his house communicates with the vast dovecote adjoining it. The location of the cells of the dwelling of graceful birds amazes the observer: their very alternation immediately suggests a melody recorded in this way; the holes are shaped like notes that can be seen on the scores of that time. It would be very interesting to test this assumption with the help of musical instruments.
On the contrary, medieval alchemists occasionally used magic formulas in order to cause this or that supernatural phenomenon. Then a certain connection was established between alchemy in the proper sense of the word and the attempts at incantations relating to what is called ceremonial magic.
Signs and symbols
It is possible to compile a list of numerous signs (some reminiscent of simplified Egyptian hieroglyphs) used by medieval alchemists to indicate the substances used, as well as to communicate information to each other about the operations being carried out.
If medieval alchemists used a whole arsenal of traditional signs, then we could suggest (given their inevitable semantic ambiguity, including the deliberate placement of traps for the uninitiated) that in this case these signs acted as distant predecessors of the formulas that would be used much later chemists.
However, in addition to these traditional signs, alchemists also used another way to convey secret information: they systematically used various symbolic images. And here, attempts at deciphering often lead modern historians in the wrong direction.
Here are a few illustrative examples of this kind, although their number could be multiplied. The snake in the crown symbolized a catalyst agent, thanks to which the combination of sulfur and mercury could be achieved. The crucified snake represented the fixation of the volatile principle. The lion symbolized Sulfur of the Wise, the masculine principle, a constant part of the Great Work, but it could denote different stages of the transformation of primary matter. The green lion could also mean iron vitriol.
The eagle could symbolize the sublimation of the material used, as well as the transition from a fixed state to a volatile one. The wolf represented antimony. The raven corresponded to the black stage of doing, and the swan to the white. The snake or dragon biting its own tail, the traditional symbols of the Greek alchemists of Alexandria, personified the fundamental unity of matter closed in on itself. This motif also symbolized the process of generation of matter by matter.
The Milky Way, also called the way of St. James, corresponded to the mineral phase of work, and the Pole Star, or star of magicians, was associated with the phenomenon that arose in primary matter at the decisive moment of work.
Symbols were not used by alchemists in isolation. Adepts willingly combined this repertoire of symbolic images into stories or stories, usually dressed in the form of symbolic dreams. This is true, for example, of one of the most famous alchemical stories that appeared at the end of the medieval period of alchemy - "The Green Dream", the author of which is considered to be the adept Bernard, Margrave of Trevisan. Even if deliberately ciphered passages are ignored,5 the interpretation of such symbolic texts, as well as hermetic images and drawings that give graphic transcription, poses an important problem for the historian: is it correct to systematically interpret in the literal sense the reports of certain operations carried out during doing? Or was it a symbolic game, which, being more complex, referred to a different kind of reality? Was it not so that the alchemist, by the very fact of manipulating the source material of the Great Work, tried to influence himself as well? But how? He was trying to project his own living spirit into the athanor or crucible. Such was at least one of the secret keys of the Great Work. Plunging into the depths of himself, the alchemist received as a subject of study an introspective discovery: the inner divine core. It is precisely when faced with this circumstance that the historian must be aware of the following most important fact: the texts and documents reflect not only the work actually done in the laboratory, but also the spiritual exercises in the chapel corresponding to this work.
According to the adept Isaac Holland, the work of the alchemist was the work of the woman and the play of the child.
How can we approach the interpretation of this formula or others that are variations of it (for example, the work of a woman and a child)? This could mean that it was about manipulations, actions, operations that did not require the application of great physical effort. True, there is another explanation, which comes down to a play on words: in the Middle Ages, almost exclusively women and children were engaged in dyeing fabrics, while alchemists were sometimes called dyers of the moon, and transmutation operations were called “dyeing” metals.
The third and most important interpretation would be that the mental faculty most developed in women and children is imagination. It is in this that one should look for the main principle necessary for understanding one of the two fundamental aspects of the work carried out by alchemists in the Middle Ages.
None of the medieval sciences, of course, could compete with fame or be revered on a par with alchemy. The Arabs under this name hid sacred, or priestly, an art which they inherited from the Egyptians and which the medieval West subsequently embraced with such enthusiasm.
Regarding the etymology of the word alchemy various points of view were expressed. Pierre-Jean Fabre in his Summary of Chemical Secrets declares that it goes back to the name of the son of Noah Ham, its creator, and writes alchemy. The anonymous author of a curious manuscript believes that "the word alchemy derived from als (Greek salt) And chemistry, otherwise melting; the name is very apt, since the name of such a remarkable substance as salt is used here. Salt in Greek is really άλς, but χειμεία, taken instead of χυμεία, alchemy has only one meaning: juice or liquid. Some produce the word "alchemy" from the first name of the Egyptian land, the birthplace of sacred art - Kimi (Kymie) or Kemi. Napoleon Lande does not detect any difference between the words chemistry And alchemy; he only adds that the prefix al not to be confused with the Arabic article, it means nothing more than wonderful property. Those who hold the opposite point of view and believe that it is the article al and the noun "chemistry", identify alchemy with true chemistry (chimie par excellence), or hyperchemistry (hyperchimie) modern occultists. We, for our part, note that phonetic bondage implies a close connection between the Greek words Χειμεία, Χυμεία and Χεύμα (flowing, pouring, flowing), denoting, in particular, molten metal, melting itself, as well as any molten metal product. We see here a brief definition of alchemy as a metallurgical method. In addition, we know that both the name and the very essence of alchemy are based on shape transformation with light, fire or spirit. Such, in any case, is its true meaning, which is indicated by bird language.
Born in the East, the birthplace of everything mysterious and supernatural, alchemical knowledge penetrated the West in three main ways: through Byzantium, the Mediterranean Sea and Spain. The decisive factor was the Arab conquests. The inquisitive, industrious Arab people, eagerly drawn to philosophy and culture, a civilizing people in the highest sense of the word, served as an intermediary connecting the Ancient East with the medieval West. In the history of the development of mankind, he played approximately the same role as the Phoenician merchants played in the relationship between Egypt and Assyria. The Arabs, teachers of the Greeks and Persians, passed on to Europe the knowledge of Egypt and Babylon, adding their own achievements. This knowledge spread across the European continent (Byzantine way) by the 8th century. AD In addition, the Arab influence also affected at the end of the campaigns to Palestine (the path through the Mediterranean Sea), because most of the ancient knowledge was brought to Europe by the crusaders of the 12th century. And finally, at the dawn of the XIII century. new elements of Eastern civilization, science and art, introduced in the VIII century. from North Africa, penetrate to us through Spain, increasing the amount of knowledge we received from the Greek-Byzantine source.
IV. Beauvais. Cathedral of St. Peter. Archivolt of the northern portico
Man pushing a cart
The first steps of alchemy were timid and uncertain, but gradually it realizes its importance and strengthens its position. Alchemy - that exotic flower - seeks to take root in our soil, and acclimatization is successful; alchemy gains strength and soon flourishes. Its rapid expansion borders on a miracle. Even in the XII century. they are hardly engaged in it - and then only in the twilight of the monastic cells - and in the XIV century. it is already everywhere, its influence extends to all classes of society, everywhere its bright reflection falls. In all countries, among the various classes, ardent adherents of this mysterious science are multiplying. The nobility, the big bourgeoisie, join alchemy. Scientists, priests, princes, prelates devote themselves to it. Even simple artisans, gold and silver craftsmen, glass artists, enamellers, pharmacists have an irresistible desire to work with a retort. This is not advertised - the royal authorities are persecuting alchemists, and the popes are throwing thunder and lightning against them - alchemy is practiced behind closed doors. People persistently seek communion with philosophers - real or imaginary. The same ones undertake long journeys in order to increase their knowledge base or correspond with colleagues from other countries using a cipher. The manuscripts of the great Adepts - Zosimas of Panopolitan, Ostanes, Synesius, copies of the works of Geber, Rhazes, Artephius are torn from each other's hands. The books of Morien, Mary the Prophetess, fragments of the books of Hermes are sold for their weight in gold. A real fever seizes the intellectual workers, and as brotherhoods, lodges, centers of initiation spread, so does the number of prompters. Few families escape the deadly attraction of the golden mirage, and few of them do not have a practicing alchemist, chimera hunter in their ranks. Imagination knows no hold. Auri sacra fame* ruins the aristocrat, drives the commoner to despair, starves anyone who becomes its victim and benefits only charlatans. “The abbots, bishops, doctors, hermits,” writes Lenglet-Dufrenoy, “took up her (alchemy), she became a true madness of her time. Of course, each century has its own disease, the trouble, however, is that this disease lasted longer than others, and it continues to this day.
With what passion, what spirit, what hopes this accursed science infects the gothic cities slumbering under the starry sky! As night falls, an underlying secret fermentation fills the deep cellars with strange vibrations; from time to time, shimmering vapors escape from the cellar windows, rising like sulfuric smoke to the peaked roofs.
The glory of the Masters, who came after the most famous Artephius (c. 1130), sanctifies the reality of hermetic truths and warms up the ardor of potential Adepts. In the XIII century. it is called by the disciples Doctor admirabilis* the famous English monk Roger Bacon (1214-1292), whose name thundered around the world. Then came the turn of France, which gave Alan of Lille, doctor of the University of Paris and a Cistercian monk (d. 1298), Christophe of Paris (c. 1260) and master Arnold of Villanova (1245-1310). In Italy at this time Thomas Aquinas shine, doctor angelicus* (1225) and Friar Ferrari (1280).
A whole galaxy of Masters appears in the XIV century: Raymond Lully - Doctor illuminatus* - Spanish Franciscan monk (1235-1315); English philosopher John Dustin; Abbot of Westminster John Kremer; Richard, nicknamed Robert the English, author of Correctum alchymiœ* (c. 1330); Italian Pierre Bon from Lombardy; French Pope John XXII (1244-1317); Guillaume of Paris, inspirer of the hermetic bas-reliefs on the portico of Notre-Dame de Paris; Jehan de Mehun, nicknamed Clopinel, one of the authors Romance of the Rose(1280-1364); Grasseus, aka Hortulanus, commentator Emerald tablets(1358); and finally, the most famous, most popular Philosopher of our country, the alchemist Nicholas Flamel (1330-1417).
The 15th century marks a brilliant period for our science, surpassing in this respect all previous ones both in significance and in the number of masters who glorified it. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to mention the Benedictine monk from the abbey of St. Peter in Erfurt (Elector of Mantz) Basil Valentine, probably the most prominent representative of Hermetic science, his compatriot Abbot Trithemius, Isaac the Dutchman (1408), two Englishmen Thomas Norton and Joseph Ripley, Lambsprink II, George Aurach of Strasbourg (1415 ), Calabrian monk Lachini (1459), Count Bernard of Trevisan (1406-1490), who spent fifty-six years of his life on the Great Work - the name of Bernard will remain in the history of alchemy as a symbol of perseverance, constancy, unshakable firmness.
Since that time, however, the sealant has fallen into disfavor. Even her former adherents, irritated by their failures, turn away from her. Alchemy is attacked from all sides, its prestige is falling, the general enthusiasm is fading, the attitude towards it is changing dramatically. Disclosing the totality of alchemical knowledge, teaching them allows apostates to declare the insignificance of alchemy - Hermetic philosophy is smashed to smithereens, while at the same time the foundations of modern chemistry are being laid. Seton, Wenceslas Lavinius from Moravia, Zachary and Paracelsus - in essence, the only ones in the 16th century. heirs of Egyptian esotericism, which the Renaissance distorted and then renounced. Here is the place to pay tribute to the ardent defender of the ancient teachings, which was Paracelsus. The ardent Hermetic apologist deserves our eternal gratitude for his late but bold intercession. While not bearing the expected fruit, it nevertheless served to his greater glory.
The agony of hermetic art stretches until the 17th century, after which it completely fades away, finally giving three powerful escapes - this is Laskaris, president of the Parliament d "Espagnier, and the mysterious Eugene Filalet, a living mystery - who was hiding under this name never existed installed.
Alchemy and astrology
Alchemical experiments have a number of features that distinguish them from experimental research in the field of modern chemistry. First of all, the presence of a close connection between alchemy and astrology. Adepts not only believed in the validity of astrological predictions, which were then in principle not questioned, but also closely connected these two occult arts with each other. More precisely, a knowledge of astrology was considered absolutely necessary in order to succeed in the successive operations of the Great Work. This important circumstance should not be overlooked if you want to have a historically correct idea of the laboratory vigils of medieval alchemists without falling victim to such deceptive anachronisms.
It was not only highly desirable for the alchemists to follow the cycle of earthly renewal, and accordingly to begin the operations of the Great Work directly, as far as possible, at the vernal equinox, but it was also required to be constantly awake in order to begin their undertaking at the moment of the most favorable positions of the stars on the planet. vault of heaven, and for this very careful preliminary observation of the exact position - at the moment when the Great Work was to begin - of the Sun, the Moon, the planets and certain constellations, on the very day when the workers began a series of experiments destined to become milestones of a triumphant transmutation, was absolutely necessary. . The earth is by no means in an isolated position, it is influenced by the stars, and without the knowledge of astrology, it was believed, the alchemist would be completely unarmed, in an obviously unprofitable state. This intrusion of astrological determinism into the determination of the most favorable day for the subsequent success of alchemical operations alone would be enough for us to understand the fundamental difference between the work of an alchemist and modern scientific experimentation - the modern scientist decides at his own discretion when to start the experiment. Besides this, the spirit of rationalism cannot admit (to the alchemists it was taken for granted) that the motion of the stars would have affected the operations of the Great Work in the same way that it affected the slow natural maturation of metals in the bowels of the earth. This kind of correlation and parallelism between the laws of motion of stars in the vault of heaven and the life cycles of minerals in the earth's interior was the fundamental idea of the ancient alchemists, which, of course, the rationalistic spirit of modern science cannot allow. Alchemy, on the one hand, and modern chemistry, on the other, are two universes, two visions of the world, radically different from each other and completely incompatible with each other.
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3.3 Development of logical norms of scientific thinking in the Middle Ages. Special forms of medieval knowledge: alchemy, astrology, magic. Western and Eastern Medieval Science
The Middle Ages chronologically covers the period from the II century. AD until the 14th century AD In the sphere of spiritual culture, the Middle Ages are characterized by the dominance of the religious picture of the world - theocentrism. The center of the universe is declared the highest supernatural power - God.
In Europe, the official religious doctrine was Christianity in the form of Catholicism. All teachings that contradicted Christianity were severely punished, the works of ancient scientists, materialist philosophers, such as Democritus, were destroyed.
Within the framework of the Middle Ages, science, as well as philosophy, acted as servants of theology, i.e. science and philosophy were allowed to the extent that they could confirm the truths of Christianity.
In the science of this era, the scholastic method dominates. The essence of the method is quoting authorities, referring to the authority of the Bible, as well as to the authority of Holy Tradition, i.e. on the works of prominent Christian theologians - the fathers of the church.
In the development of science and philosophy of the Middle Ages, two conceptual approaches can be distinguished: patristics and scholasticism.
Patristics- the teaching of the fathers of the Christian church, characteristic of the early Middle Ages (II-V centuries). The classic of patristics is Tertullian. He put forward the famous slogan: "I believe because it's absurd". In his opinion, pure reason cannot fully explain the divine truths that are described in the Bible. These truths are comprehended by faith.
Another prominent representative of patristics, A. Augustin, developed the doctrine of theodicy is God's justification for the evil that exists in the world. According to Augustine, the source of evil in the world is not God, but man himself. God endowed man with free will, and man is free to choose between good and evil.
Scholasticism, characteristic of the late Middle Ages (XII - XV centuries), sought to update religious dogmas. The scholastics adapt ancient scientific and philosophical texts, primarily the works of Aristotle, to the needs of Christian theology. Scholastics develop the skills of intellectual thinking, believing that the comprehension of God is possible with the help of logic and logical reasoning.
The pinnacle of scholasticism is the teaching of Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas believed that faith should not be contrary to reason. However, some religious tenets cannot be rationally proven, such as the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary. He believed that these dogmas are not anti-rational, but super-rational. They are accessible only to the supermind, that is, the divine mind. It was Aquinas who formulated the position "Philosophy is the servant of Theology". Philosophy must prove by reasonable means the existence of God.
F. Aquinas substantiated five proofs of the existence of God:
Everything in the world is moving. The first mover is God.
Everything in the world has a reason. There is a cause of all causes - that is God.
Everything in the world happens out of necessity. The main need is God.
All beings in the world vary in degree of perfection. The source of perfection, the most perfect beginning, is God.
5. The world is arranged expediently, and God is the ultimate source of expediency.
In the Middle Ages, philosophical disciplines and science are seen as an aid to confirming the truths of theology. A specific understanding of the criterion of truth is being formulated, which is understood as a reference to the authority of God and sacred texts.
During the Middle Ages, specific forms of knowledge were formed: 1. natural magic; 2. alchemy; 3. astrology.
natural magic understood as knowledge of the hidden forces and laws of nature. Magic assumes that it is possible to influence natural phenomena, the material state of nature with the help of a word in the form of prayers and spells. Therefore, operations on natural bodies, experiments on natural substances were accompanied by verbal incantations. Thus, the magicians believed, one could call on supernatural forces to help them explore nature. Magic as a form of medieval knowledge is most developed in the Arab world. The largest representative of natural magic in the Arab East is considered Ibn Rushd (in Latin transcription Averroes) - XII century. AD, who was a prominent scientist, philosopher and physician. Subsequently, his ideas migrated to Western European science.
Alchemy. Alchemy is often defined as pre-chemistry. The image of an alchemist is a person who works in laboratories, conducts various experiments and experiments. The task of such experiments is transformation, that is, the transformation of metals with the help of a philosopher's stone into gold. The super task of the alchemist is to create the elixir of life in order to ensure the immortality of man. Artificial gold was considered the basis of the elixir of life. This is the gold that the alchemists sought to obtain.
Alchemists believed that any substance is unrealized gold. Therefore, they conduct numerous experiments on substances, primarily on lead and mercury (they subject them to crushing, mixing, heating, cooling, etc.). At the same time, the experiments of alchemists could harm people's health (the drugs they recommended included toxic substances - arsenic, mercury). The positive results of alchemical experiments contributed to the development of pharmacology and medicine.
Astrology- the doctrine of the stars, this is a prediction of the fate of a person based on the position of the stars, according to the signs of the zodiac.
Thus, medieval forms of knowledge combined, on the one hand, religious ideas, since they relied on the help of supernatural forces, and on the other hand, these forms of knowledge contained rational scientific ideas.
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