Russian language in the modern world. What is an encyclopedia: meaning, types Based on information from Internet encyclopedias, prepare

Alexander Khristoforovich Benkendorf is known primarily as the head of the III (security) department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery. His glory as a hero of the Patriotic War of 1812 and an active participant in a foreign campaign was forgotten behind the glory of the chief gendarme and strangler of freedom during the gloomy reactionary reign of Nicholas I.

Alexander Khristoforovich came from an ancient noble Riga family, who received the Swedish nobility in 1660. The future chief gendarme was born in 1782. Thanks to family connections, the start of his career was secured. Alexander graduated from the boarding school of Abbot Nicolas (one of the most aristocratic and prestigious educational institutions in St. Petersburg) and at the age of 17 he was already an aide-de-camp of Emperor Paul I with the rank of ensign of the Semyonovsky Life Guards Regiment.

The young Benckendorff was one of those aristocrats who regarded family connections, wealth, and the like, not so much as a privilege and a means of distinguishing themselves, but as an opportunity to do their duty better. He served in alternating military and civilian missions. So in 1802, he was part of the secret expedition of Georg Magnus Sprengtporten, which was supposed to “go around Asian and European Russia for the purpose of military-strategic inspection” (and got to Yakutsk with a detailed survey of the area), and in 1808-1807 he was at the Russian embassy in Paris. Between these missions, in 1805-1806 he participated in the war against Napoleon I, and in 1809 he volunteered for the Russian-Turkish war, where he received the Order of St. George IV degree for the battle of Ruschuk on June 20, 1811 (this order was usually awarded for personal bravery).

At the beginning of World War II, Benckendorff was an adjutant wing under Emperor Alexander I. This position did not at all involve fiddling with papers: the adjutant carried orders from the command to Bagration's army, that is, he often moved alone, while the lands of the former Commonwealth, on which the war began could not be called friendly.

Immediately after the Battle of Smolensk, the first flying (partisan) detachment of Ferdinand Wintsengerode was created, Alexander Khristoforovich Benkendorf in this detachment commanded the vanguard. After the enemy left Moscow, Benckendorff became its commandant and established life in the devastated city, and then returned to the army again.

In the company of 1813, he again fought in a flying detachment, only now not on Russian, but on German soil, then he led this detachment, participated in the capture of Vorben, Berlin, in the battles of Gross-Veren and Dennewitz. In the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig, he led the left wing of the cavalry of General Winzingerode.

Then independent actions followed again. At the head of a separate detachment, Benckendorff cleared Holland and then Belgium of the French troops. At the same time, his rank rose. In the battle of Craon on March 7, 1814, he already commanded the entire Russian cavalry. He graduated from the foreign campaign as a lieutenant general and adjutant general (the last honorary rank gave the right to a personal report to the emperor).

Thus, before becoming the head of the security department, Alexander Khristoforovich Benkendorf proved himself to be a talented and active military man. He was a real hero of the Patriotic War and a foreign campaign, one of the many heroes of the Russian army.

It can be called the father of Russian science and culture. In every industry in which Mikhail Vasilievich worked, he managed to leave his bright mark and bring many great discoveries to the world.

Speaking of Mikhail Vasilyevich

Distinguished from his peers by an innate craving for knowledge, he learned to read and write at an early age.

At the age of 19, a young man goes to Moscow and, posing as a visiting nobleman, is enrolled as a student at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where he subsequently receives good theoretical training and masters Latin perfectly. Then, in 1736, he was transferred to the Academic University of St. Petersburg, from where, over time, he would be sent to Germany to study mining and metallurgy. M. V. Lomonosov continued his education in Freiburg, where he began to improve his knowledge in practice.

Throughout his scientific career, he boldly defended the interests of the people and demanded that education become accessible not only to the upper class, but also to the peasantry. It was on the initiative of Mikhail Vasilyevich that a university was created in Moscow, which to this day proudly bears the name of the founder.

On linguistic activity in general

Mikhail Vasilyevich made a significant contribution to the development of linguistics. Despite his immersion in specialized knowledge, he also found time for philological work. Upon his return to Russia, in 1757 he published the first Russian grammar, where he revealed the pronunciation and language based on observations of living speech. It is important to note that the first to approach the description of the grammatical features of Russian was Lomonosov. As a linguist, he took up this from a scientific point of view, it was he who also first considered the concepts of morphology, syntax and word formation. On the basis of his "Russian Grammar" textbooks of the Russian language were published for the first time.

Lomonosov also made a huge contribution to the development of rhetoric. His guide to eloquence was the first Russian-language book of its kind. He also established the classification of parts of speech, examined the issues of spelling and punctuation, and translated many scientific terms into Russian.

Philological merits of Lomonosov

A significant contribution to the formation of the Russian language and literature was made as a linguist, he was concerned about the systematization of its grammatical, orthoepic and stylistic features. Thanks to Mikhail Vasilyevich, an important reform was carried out in relation to the Russian literary language, and a system of versification was approved, which has survived to this day.

Being a linguist, he talked about the Russian language as a great asset. Mikhail Vasilyevich was the first who began to read academic lectures in his native language.

He sought to enrich the literary language, to make it accessible, understandable and at the same time unique. We will consider Lomonosov as a linguist. We will briefly talk about the philological merits of this great man now.

"Russian Grammar" by M. V. Lomonosov

The main merit of Lomonosov is the creation of a solid foundation for the formation of a new Russian language. The famous work of Mikhail Vasilyevich called "Russian Grammar", which was published in 1755, is also associated with its development. Its compilation is truly the greatest of the merits that Lomonosov brought. As a linguist, for the first time in Russian Grammar, he tried to distinguish between such concepts as Russian and

To isolate each language, to recognize it as completely independent in relation to another - Lomonosov adhered to such a principle in his work. As a linguist, he relied on certain scientific techniques that helped him accurately distinguish between Russian and Church Slavonic. This served as a worthy start to the further development of domestic literature. As a linguist, Lomonosov based himself on the study of language features: he took a long list of words or phrases, compared and contrasted them with each other. And then, on the basis of the results obtained, he made the appropriate conclusions.

On the research methods of Lomonosov, which have not undergone any significant changes, science continues to this day.

The theory of "three calms" by M. V. Lomonosov

Based on his research methods, the great Russian reformer released the theory of "three calms", which found direct application in the creation of a new literary language. Mikhail Vasilyevich established the general principle of the interaction of various styles and genres in linguistics. Each "calm" was characterized by the immediate area of ​​​​its application. Lomonosov used his theory to describe stylistic processes in language. As a linguist, he followed the path of constant combination and assimilation of the beautiful and valuable that is in both languages.

"High calm"

Thus, words that were used to create all kinds of odes, songs, poems, speeches or solemn speeches were attributed to the “high calm”. This style can rightly be considered majestic. However, the words of such a calm were extremely rarely used by people in everyday speech, but a literate person could understand them.

"Medium Calm"

"Middle Calm" was intended for writing satirical plays, ironic friendly letters or historical writings. It is characterized by the predominance of Russian-language words with a rare addition of Slavic ones.

"Low calm"

"Low calm" is full of Russian words that are not in the Slavic language. With the help of it, comedies, songs, descriptions of "everyday affairs" are created. In this style, preference was given to Russian, common words.

All the pathos of the above theory of Lomonosov was characterized by the need to recognize the rights of the Russian language and literature.

Lomonosov's contribution to literature

Speaking of him as an outstanding philologist, one cannot fail to mention his literary merits. After all, Mikhail Vasilyevich was engaged in the study of all kinds of theories with their further application in practice on a par with other sciences.

While in Germany, he writes an essay on unresolved issues in relation to Russian versification. In this letter, he introduces his own amendments to Trediakovsky's reform, expanding it with new poetic meters, such as anapaest, dactyl and amphibrach. Unlike other poets of that time, he does not neglect the use of various rhymes in his works. The second part of his letter was an ode to the capture of Khotin, which the great reformer dedicated to the heroism of the Russian army. It differed significantly from the works of his predecessors.

Lomonosov's contribution to the formation of the scientific terminological base of the Russian language

Lomonosov made a valuable contribution to Russian science. He spoke of language as a great value of the people, its eternal heritage. Mikhail Vasilyevich was sure that the Russian language is very rich and multifaceted, that it is always possible to find the necessary words to denote certain terms or concepts.

The reformer fought for the purity and perfection of the Russian language, trying to rid it of "foreignness". Therefore, he either literally translated the concept into Russian, or simply selected equivalents suitable for it. Thanks to the scientist, such words as energy, magnitude, particles, experience quickly became entrenched in Russian terminology. Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov was distinguished by exceptional courage, perseverance and endless ingenuity when creating a scientific terminology base. As a linguist, he made a huge contribution by establishing Russian-language terminological concepts.

First of all, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, as a Russian linguist, resented the abuse of foreign words in literature or in everyday life. He was annoyed to the depths of his soul by the nobles, who, having barely learned to understand a couple of words in French, immediately began to insert them wherever they pleased. Lomonosov pointed out that the aimless adoption of words of foreign origin is a danger to the competent education of national culture. In view of this, he urged to honor the beauty, versatility of the native language and oppose those who introduce "these obscenities" into it.

And finally

As a linguist and a famous reformer, to this day they are used in scientific activity. This great man was the first to appreciate the depth, richness, power and uniqueness of the Russian language. In his writings, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov spoke of literature as the art of the word.

He took many steps in the formation of a new literary language and outlined the prospects for its further development.

Mikhail Vasilyevich served for the benefit of the people. It was on his idea that the university in Moscow was founded, which today is world famous. He also managed to create a terminological base, the enrichment of which, following Lomonosov, was carried out by well-known domestic scientists of subsequent decades. That was Lomonosov, the Russian linguist. And to this day we remember this great man and use his works.

encyclopedia article- genre of scientific style. The purpose of an encyclopedic article is to provide reliable information about an object, phenomenon or person to the reader who, referring to the article, wants to get acquainted with this concept. The author of an encyclopedic article must be a specialist in this field of knowledge.

An encyclopedic article is built according to the strict rules of the genre. We will now consider the features of this genre.

The main thing in an encyclopedic article is to provide objective information about a given subject / phenomenon / personality

The author of an encyclopedic article cannot resort to his own assessments, express his opinion, share personal experiences and emotions. Its task is to select the most reliable and important material on the problem, to give an objective and fairly complete description of the analyzed phenomenon.

The encyclopedic article uses literary language in a strict form

The language of an encyclopedic article does not tolerate the inclusion of colloquial, vernacular, jargon, dialect words and clericalisms.

Spoken words are used in informal conversation, in the article they should be replaced by neutral equivalents. For example, the colloquial phrase " jackfruit fruit bad, just smells disgusting, like rotten bow" in the language of an encyclopedic article it would sound like this: "Jackfruit Fruit" emit a strong unpleasant odor reminiscent of the smell of rotten onions ".

colloquial vocabulary- these are words that go beyond the literary language, their use in a scientific style is strictly prohibited.

dialect words limited in their use to a certain territory. Words-dialectisms should not penetrate into the text of an encyclopedic article (unless, of course, it is directly devoted to the concept of dialectism or a related concept). Examples of dialectisms: blueberry instead of blueberry, thin instead of bad, poor quality, kochet instead of rooster etc.

jargon- words, the use of which is limited to a socially closed group. For example, as a vivid example, one can cite the “language of computer scientists” - people whose field of activity lies in the computer field: buggy - stopped working, program - a computer program, keyboard - keyboard, cracked program - a program that requires a license key to be renewed. Jargon cannot be used in the text of an encyclopedic article.

Chancellery are characteristic of the official business style of the language, their use is also limited to one functional area. Avoid them scientifically. For example, the phrase "... with copying, what at this forwarded ... "includes three clear clericalisms (highlighted in bold). It can be converted into a phrase of the literary language: "... with the removal of a copy, which is then sent ...».

If you are in doubt whether a word is general literary or not, check with the explanatory dictionary: the colloquial word will be marked unfold., vernacular to go with the mark is simple, dialectal - dial., slang - slang., clericalism - kants., and the neutral neith. or will not have a litter at all.

The style of an encyclopedic article has other linguistic features that are characteristic of the language of the scientific style:

The use of language features characteristic of the scientific style of presentation

These primarily include the following:

• predominance passive constructions, impersonal and indefinitely personal sentences.

For example, " Of the annual species, the common, or kitchen gourd, is most often cultivated.". (Compare with the active construct: " People most often cultivate the common, or kitchen gourd.»).

• predominance verbs in the present tense.

For instance: " use», « grows», « applies», « are used" etc.

• Nouns in the text dominated over verbs. Otherwise, this feature of the scientific style is called the nominal style of narration. Pay attention to the proportion of verbs and nouns in the following phrases typical of the scientific language:

“Yogurt is a fermented milk product with a high content of non-fat milk solids, produced using a mixture of starter microorganisms – thermophilic lactic streptococci and lactic acid bacillus bulgaris.”

“Gooseberries are native to Western Europe and North Africa. As a wild plant, it is distributed in the Caucasus, Ukraine, Transcaucasia and Central Asia, Central and Southern Europe, North Africa and North America.

• Usage terminological vocabulary. An encyclopedic article always contains basic terms from the field of knowledge related to the subject being described. For example, in an article describing a cat, the terms mammal, feline, order of carnivores, domestication, stereoscopic vision, incisor, canine, premolar, molar, castration, sterilization, etc. At the same time, only the most common terms known to a wide range of educated people are found in the genre of an encyclopedic article. Their number is much lower than in scientific style texts addressed to specialists.

In the encyclopedic article there is no emotional-evaluative coloring of vocabulary and syntax

We will not dwell on this point in detail, since we have already covered it when studying the texts of the official business style, which also do not use emotional and evaluative coloring.

The style of an encyclopedic article is characterized by brevity and simplicity of presentation.

Information in an encyclopedia article is presented in a concise manner: as much content as possible in the most concise format possible. This feature leads to an abundance of abbreviations in the text, the incompleteness of syntactic constructions (if there is one subject in two phrases in a row, then the second time it is omitted, the auxiliary verb in the predicate may be omitted). The use of terms also contributes to the reduction of language means.

Sentences should be built simply, using sentences built on similar models. Such proposals are perceived faster, the main goal of an encyclopedic article - obtaining information - is achieved when this condition is met faster.

The text of an encyclopedic article begins with a definition of the concept

Definition is a logical term denoting an explanation of the content of a concept, giving a fixed meaning to a term that names a concept.

The definition must contain the name of the generic concept to which the object / phenomenon / person described in the article belongs. So, for a pumpkin, tomato, cucumber, the generic concept is a vegetable, for a car, bus, plane - a vehicle, for a cat, cow, sheep - an animal, mammal, etc. Then, in the definition, the distinctive and most significant characteristics of the concept being described are named.

For instance, " Bus (short for omnibus car) is a trackless mechanical vehicle designed to carry 8 or more passengers and driven by energy stored or produced from fuel stored on board, or with any other type of autonomous traction».

« A cow is a female domestic bull (lat. Bos taurus taurus), a domesticated subspecies of a wild bull (Bos taurus), an artiodactyl ruminant animal of the bovid family (Bovidae)».

Further composition encyclopedia article is as follows

1-2 paragraphs, which give a brief general description of the concept.

Further story can go

1. From general to specific;
2. from simple to complex;
3. in order of importance, fame, credibility, size, location;
4. in chronological order - for historical reference;
5. in thematic order - this is convenient in hierarchical lists;
6. in alphabetical order when other orders do not fit.

At the end of an encyclopedic article are always given sources on which the author relied when writing the text of the article.

1. Read. Write out the highlighted phrases that name the various functions of the Russian language in the modern world. Retell (orally) the content of the text, based on the meaning of the written word combinations.

The Russian language is the language of the great Russian people. On it, Russian people communicate in everyday life, develop their culture, science and literature; for a Russian person, he is his native language.

The Russian language is a means of interethnic communication between the peoples of multinational Russia.

According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993), Russian is the state language of the Russian Federation throughout its territory.

In neighboring countries, the Russian language is the main means of interethnic communication. In Belarus and Kyrgyzstan, Russian is the second state language, along with Belarusian and Kyrgyz.

The Russian language is one of the world languages. It is used in various areas of international communication, for example, it acts as a "language of science" - a means of communication between scientists from different countries, is a necessary accessory of world communication systems (radio and television broadcasts, space communications), etc.

Russian is one of the official and working languages ​​of the UN, UNESCO and other international organizations. There are from 2500 to 5000 languages ​​​​in the world (it is impossible to establish the exact figure, because the difference between different languages ​​​​and dialects of one language is conditional). And only six of them are official UN languages: English, Russian, Spanish, Chinese, French, Arabic.

2. Make a basic summary for retelling. Orally retell the text.

The spread of the Russian language in the countries of Europe and Asia has been going on since the 11th century in an ascending line and has gone through several stages. The practical study of spoken Russian in the 14th-17th centuries was determined by the needs of trade and diplomacy. From this period, several practical grammars and mainly dictionaries compiled by the Germans, French, and Scandinavians have been preserved. In the 18th century, this interest intensified - Russia became a European power. Russian classical literature of the 19th century played an important role in the growth of interest in the Russian language. In the 20th century, the influence of the former USSR on the global development process, the successes of Russia related to astronautics, with the accumulation in Russian of large amounts of scientific information and cultural values ​​of world significance, expanded the boundaries of the spread of the Russian language.

(Encyclopedia "Russian language")

The promotion, formation and functioning of any language, including Russian, in interethnic and international communication, its entry into the "club of world languages" depends on linguistic and social factors.

3. Read the text, break it into two paragraphs. Formulate a question for the second paragraph and give an answer to it based on the content of the text.

The Russian language, while retaining its uniqueness* and originality over a vast space and a long time, absorbed the Proto-Slavic and Old Slavonic heritage, as well as the richness of the languages ​​of the West and East (including Greek-Byzantine and Latin). However, the main source of its development, processing and polishing was the creative creativity of the Russian people, primarily generations of Russians and all Russian figures in science, politics, technology, culture and literature. Thanks to them, the Russian language became highly developed, rich, and orderly. Therefore, he is able to serve all needs - not only national, but also universal.

(According to V. Kostomarov)

Complete one of the tasks of increased difficulty (optional).

1. Based on your knowledge of history, information from encyclopedias, the Internet, determine what time the "Proto-Slavic and Old Slavonic heritage" belongs to, as well as Greek-Byzantine and Latin. Prepare reports about these languages.
2. Based on information from encyclopedias, the Internet, prepare a report on the works of M. Lomonosov as a linguist. What is the significance of its linguistic heritage for determining the status of the Russian language?

4. Highlight three paragraphs in the text and read it aloud. Write out sentences from each paragraph that express the main idea. What synonyms can be used when speaking about the Russian language? Which of them does D. Likhachev use?

Russian literature is one of the pinnacles of world culture, the most valuable asset of all mankind. The names of A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov and other great Russian writers are known throughout the cultural world. How did this literature come about? On a thousand-year experience of the culture of the word. The outstanding literary scholar Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev wrote: “The birth of Russian literature was facilitated by the excellent, flexible and concise Russian language, which had reached a high level of development by the time Russian literature arose ... It was a language with an extensive vocabulary, with developed terminology - legal, military, feudal, technical; abundant with synonyms capable of reflecting various emotional shades ... "

Human knowledge is the most valuable achievement of our civilization. From century to century, information was accumulated and transmitted on the most convenient media. Giant libraries, archives, databases, all this is a storehouse of information from various fields of science. Separate knowledge arrays generalized by the topic form encyclopedias. It is about them that our article will be.

We are going to talk about what an encyclopedia is, what it can be and what it can tell us. If this topic is interesting, then we invite you to continue with us.

Encyclopedia: concept

Let's start with the concept of what is a book or electronic publication, scientific or popular science, containing information about one or another direction of scientific research of practical activity. The term comes from the fusion of two Greek words: enkyklios and paideia, which in translation is interpreted as "learning in the circle of knowledge."

Principles of building encyclopedias

Information in encyclopedias is placed in a certain way. Depending on this principle, the types of publications are also distinguished.

So, the basic principles for placing encyclopedic articles are alphabetical, thematic, alphabetical-thematic. As for ease of use, for a reader who is not prepared in a particular issue, it will be more relevant to use encyclopedias with alphabetical placement of articles. For specific scientific encyclopedias, the thematic-alphabetical order of information placement is more convenient.

The most interesting varieties of encyclopedias are thematic. Depending on the aspects covered in them, publications are:

• universal - collection of information about all the realities of life, relating mainly to the country that published the encyclopedia;
• regional - contain facts about any region of the country, the mainland or our planet in general;
• sectoral - provide information exclusively related to a particular branch of human activity;
• narrow-sectoral (problem) - cover a specific issue of one of the branches of human activity that constitutes a separate problem (scientific or practical);
• biographical, dedicated to the life and work of famous luminaries of science, art, politics and other social spheres;
• other encyclopedias, mainly those that represent an array of information for a specific readership (a vivid example is children's encyclopedias that provide a variety of data that are of interest to children of a certain age).

Our research will be the knowledge of what an encyclopedia is, and the main types of the latter.

We distinguish: encyclopedias and reference books-encyclopedias, dictionaries-encyclopedias

There is another criterion by which it is worth distinguishing between these book editions. It concerns the method of presenting information. In accordance with it, encyclopedic literature is divided into encyclopedias, reference books, encyclopedias and dictionaries, encyclopedias.

Dictionaries-encyclopedias differ in that information is presented in them concisely, often in only one interpretation of the term.

Encyclopedias provide more information: in addition to the interpretation of a word or phenomenon, we can learn from them about its history, connections with other concepts. It is the versatility and vastness of the presentation that makes them the most interesting type to read. Such a publication is the well-known universal "Great Soviet Encyclopedia".

Another type that we have not considered is the directory. This type of encyclopedia contains material arranged in thematic groups for easy reference.

Results

Thus, we examined what an encyclopedia is. This is an array of information of a particular industry or general information arranged according to a certain principle. There are many types of encyclopedias, subdivided according to various criteria.

Encyclopedias contain a huge amount of useful and interesting knowledge. We need to more often touch the developments of human development through these publications!