Passive words. How to expand your active vocabulary. Sample lesson plan
37. Active and passive vocabulary.
Through vocabulary, the language is directly connected with reality and its awareness in society. Language is directly connected with the production activity of a person, and not only with production activity, but also with any other human activity in all spheres of his work.
Before explaining the ways of changing the vocabulary, we should dwell on some phenomena that allow us to more closely consider the vocabulary itself as a whole and in its individual parts.
First of all, this is the question of active and passive vocabulary.
An active vocabulary is those words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses himself. The words of the main vocabulary fund, of course, form the basis of the active dictionary, but do not exhaust it, since each group of people who speak a given language also has such specific words and expressions that are included in their active dictionary for this group and are used daily by them. , but are not obligatory as the facts of an active dictionary for other groups of people who, in turn, have other words and expressions. Thus, the words of the main vocabulary fund are common for the active vocabulary of any population groups, while the specific words will be different for the active vocabulary of different groups of people.
Passive vocabulary is those words that the speaker of a given language understands, but does not use himself (such, for example, are many special technical or diplomatic terms, as well as various expressive expressions).
The concepts of active and passive vocabulary are very important when learning a foreign (foreign) language, but one should not think that there is an impenetrable wall between the facts of active and passive vocabulary; on the contrary, what is in a liability can, if necessary, easily turn into an asset (preamble, veto, pool, officer, general and similar words) and cash in an asset - go into a liability (nepman, decree, people's commissar etc.).
Active and passive vocabulary are distinguished due to the different usage of words.
An active vocabulary (active dictionary) consists of words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses, actively uses. Depending on the level of language development of the speakers, their active vocabulary averages from 300-400 words to 1500-2000 words. The active composition of the vocabulary includes the most frequent words that are used daily in communication, the meanings of which are known to all speakers: earth, white, go, many, five, on. The active vocabulary also includes socio-political vocabulary (social, progress, competition, economics, etc.), as well as words belonging to special vocabulary, terminology, but denoting actual concepts and therefore known to many non-specialists: atom, gene, genocide, prevention, cost-effective, virtual, atom, anesthesia, verb, ecology.
The passive vocabulary (passive vocabulary) includes words that are rarely used by the speaker in normal speech communication. The meanings are not always clear to the speakers. Passive stock words form three groups:
1) archaisms;
2) historicisms;
3) neologisms.
1. Archaisms (from Greek archaios ‘ancient’) are obsolete words or expressions forced out of active use by synonymous units: vyya - neck , right hand - right hand, in vain- in vain, in vain, since ancient times- out of date, actor- actor this- this, that is to say- i.e .
The following types of archaisms are distinguished:
1) actually lexical - these are words that are completely outdated, as a holistic sound complex: lichba ‘account’, maiden ‘teenage girl’, influenza ‘flu’;
2) semantic - these are words with an outdated meaning: belly (in the meaning of 'life'), shame (in the meaning of 'spectacle'), existing (in the meaning of 'existing'), outrageous (in the meaning of 'calling for indignation, for rebellion') ;
3) phonetic - a word that retained its former meaning, but had a different sound design in the past: historia (history), gladness (hunger), gates (gates), mirror (mirror), piit (poet), eighth (eighth), fire ' Fire';
4) accent - words that in the past had an accent different from the modern one: symbol, music, ghost, shuddered, against;
5) morphological - words with an outdated morphemic structure: ferocity - ferocity, nervous - nervous, collapse - collapse, disaster - disaster, answer - answer.
In speech, archaisms are used: a) to recreate the historical flavor of the era (usually in historical novels, short stories); b) to give speech a shade of solemnity, pathetic excitement (in poetry, in an oratory, in a journalistic speech); c) to create a comic effect, irony, satire, parody (usually in feuilletons, pamphlets); d) for the speech characteristics of a character (for example, a person of a clergy).
2. Historicisms are called obsolete words that have become obsolete due to the disappearance of the realities that they denoted: boyar, clerk, guardsman, baskak, constable, crossbow, shishak, caftan, policeman, lawyer. Words denoting the realities of the Soviet era have also become historicisms: Kombedy, NEPman, revolutionary committee, socialist competition, Komsomol, five-year plan, district committee.
For polysemantic words, one of the meanings can become historicism. For example, the commonly used word people has an obsolete meaning ‘servants, workers in a manor’s house’. The word PIONEER can also be considered obsolete in the sense of ‘a member of a children’s organization in the USSR’.
Historicisms are used as a nominative means in scientific and historical literature, where they serve as the names of the realities of past eras, and as a pictorial means in works of fiction, where they contribute to the reconstruction of a particular historical era.
Sometimes words that have become historicisms return to active use. This happens due to the return (re-actualization) of the phenomenon itself, denoted by this word. Such, for example, are the words gymnasium, lyceum, tutor, Duma, etc.
3. Neologisms (from Greek neos 'new' + logos 'word') are words that have recently appeared in the language and are still unknown to a wide range of native speakers: mortgage, mundial, glamour, inauguration, creativity, extreme, etc. After the word enters into widespread use, it ceases to be a neologism. The emergence of new words is a natural process that reflects the development of science, technology, culture, and social relations.
There are lexical and semantic neologisms. Lexical neologisms are new words, the appearance of which is associated with the formation of new concepts in the life of society. These include words such as autobahn ‘road type’, jacuzzi ‘large heated tub with hydromassage’, label ‘product label’, remake ‘remake of a previously shot film’, bluetooth ‘a kind of wireless communication for data transmission’, as well as a sponsor, hit, show, etc.
Semantic neologisms are words that belong to an active dictionary, but have acquired new, previously unknown meanings. For example, the word anchor in the 70s. received a new meaning ‘special platform for fixing an astronaut, located at the orbital station next to the hatch’; the word CHELNOK in the 80s. acquired the meaning of "a small trader who imports goods from abroad (or exports them abroad) with their subsequent sale in local markets."
A special kind of words of this kind are individual-author's neologisms, which are created by poets, writers, publicists with special stylistic goals. Their distinctive feature is that, as a rule, they do not go into the active dictionary in this way, remaining occasionalisms - singly or rarely used neoplasms: küchelbekerno (A. Pushkin), green-haired (N. Gogol), Moscow soul (V. Belinsky), passenger , masculine (A. Chekhov), machinery (V. Yakhontov), perekkhmur (E. Isaev), six-story (N. Tikhonov), vermouth (V. Vysotsky). overhead (A. Blok), multi-path, mandolin, hammer (V. Mayakovsky). Only a few author's formations become words of an active dictionary over time: industry (N. Karamzin), bungler (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), prosessed (V. Mayakovsky), mediocrity (I. Severyanin), etc.
The creation of new words is a creative process that reflects a person's desire for novelty and completeness in the perception of reality. Native speakers create new words that reflect the nuances of being and its assessment: for example, psychoteka, soul-turner, soul-dance, radomyslie, singularity, self-righteousness, etc. (from the collection of neologisms by M. Epstein).
However, the results of word searches should not always be recognized as successful. So, for example, the new formations encountered in the following statements are unlikely to enrich the national lexicon.
The question was formed and guaranteed.
The store urgently needs vegetables for the vegetable trade.
There are real masterpieces of toy building.
Material values were stolen, although the warehouse was dogged.
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language covers millions of words, if we take into account all the words used and used by its speakers - the urban and rural population, the educated part of it and the undereducated, people of different specialties and various occupations - over the past two centuries at least - from Pushkin to the present day. The total number of words available in the Russian language has not been calculated, and it can hardly be practically calculated due to even the technical difficulties of fixing all the names used on the territory of such a vast country as Russia.
For example, who among the native speakers of the Russian language knows that in one of the microdistricts of the Far North the word is used southerner for naming a purely local phenomenon - a hurricane-force wind, seasonally associated with the geographical features of the territory. Most likely, only those who live in this area or have been there, and even those who read the novel by O. Kuvaev "Territory", in which the author writes:
Every journalist, every visiting writer, and in general anyone who has been to the Village and taken up a pen, has written and will write about "southerner". It's like going to Texas and not writing the word "cowboy" or, being in the Sahara, not mentioning a camel. "Yuzhak" was a purely village phenomenon, similar to the famous Novorossiysk "boroy". On warm days, air accumulated behind the slope of the ridge and then, with hurricane force, fell into the basin of the Village. In time " southern" it was always warm and the sky was cloudless, but this warm, even gentle wind knocked a person off his feet ... southern" tricone boots and ski goggles were the best. IN "yuzhak" shops did not work, institutions were closed, in "yuzhak" roofs moved.
No one just knows how many words there are in Russian, but no one even uses all the familiar words. It has been calculated, for example, that in all texts (both literary and epistolary) written by the hand of A. S. Pushkin, the creator of the modern Russian literary language, who knew the vernacular language well, there are only about 20 thousand words and expressions. Of course, Pushkin knew a much larger number of lexical units (both from the language of the peasants, at least from the village of Mikhailovsky and nearby villages, and from acquaintance with the historical chronicles of the times of Boris Godunov and Emelyan Pugachev), but he used only part of the familiar vocabulary. In addition, some of the words used are found dozens of times, or even hundreds, others - in isolated cases. Consequently, the entire vocabulary can be divided into an active part and a passive part.
Naturally, the active and passive vocabulary of different people is different and depends on their age and educational level, as well as on a number of other circumstances. But still, we can talk about a certain average level of vocabulary among native speakers in a given period of history and dividing it into two parts - active and passive. Active vocabulary includes words that are more or less often used by people in everyday life, in the sphere of ordinary work and in some other speech situations.
The active part of the vocabulary is singled out and studied specifically - both for theoretical and practical purposes. For example, a large study of the frequency vocabulary of the Russian language was undertaken on the basis of machine samples of a million word usages. The result was the "Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language" (1977), compiled under the guidance of L. N. Zasorina, which includes 40 thousand words arranged in descending order of frequency. It was revealed that the most common in the Russian language, which made up the first six dozen words, are mainly function words ( unions, particles, prepositions) and pronouns: in (in), And, not, on the, I, to be, what, is he, from (co), but, how, this, you, you, to (to), we, this, she, they, but, on, the whole, behind, all, at, from (iso), mine, So, about (about, both), same, which the, would, from (oto), be able, one, for, say, such, that, here, only, yet, talk, our, Yes, myself, know, year, his, No, big, before, when, already, if, a business, another, to, or, myself, time, which, go, well.
The theoretical understanding of the specifics of the writer's language can be based, for example, on the materials of Pushkin's Dictionary of Language, which illustrates, in particular, the movement of vocabulary from active to passive and vice versa during the creation of the modern Russian literary language.
Passive vocabulary includes:
- 1) words familiar to native speakers, but rarely used by them;
- 2) words recognizable to one degree or another when used by other native speakers - when reading fiction and special literature, when listening to radio and television programs;
- 3) the words that are in the language are even fixed in dictionaries, but are unfamiliar to most speakers of it.
Let's take as an example words with the letter L from N. G. Komlev's Dictionary of New Foreign Words: laserphone, lamentation, latency, laudation, lebensraum, levitation, leggings, legitimation, lezmazheste, label, liberalization, Levyz, leasing, limerick, limited company, lingua franca, lipoaspiration, listing, Lithuanian studies, licensor, licensing, lobby, lobectomy, logotherapy, logo, lolipop, lot, LSD-25, crafty, amusement park, li donna e mobile, lingue lapse. Of the listed words, there are hardly a dozen that are more or less actively used by people with at least a secondary education. More words that may be familiar, recognizable, but not actively used: levitation, legitimation, liberalization, licensing, logotherapy, amusement park. The remaining words from the above list are either familiar by hearsay, without understanding their meaning ( leasing, listing, lot), or generally unfamiliar to most ( laserphone, lamentation, latency, laudation, lebensraum, lez majeste, Levyz, limerick, limited company, lingua franca, lipoaspiration, Lithuanian studies, licensor, lobectomy, lolipop, LSD-25, crafty, li donna e mobile, lapse lingue).
Let us compare two currently popular explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language: the Ozhegov Dictionary, which includes approximately 70 thousand words, and the Lopatins' Russian Explanatory Dictionary, which includes half as many words - 35 thousand. When selecting words in the Ozhegov Dictionary, the goal was to "include necessary, commonly used vocabulary in the literary language" and not include:
- 1) "special words and meanings that are narrow professional terms of a particular branch of science and technology";
- 2) "dialect words and meanings, if they are not used widely enough in the composition of the literary language as means of expression"; 3) "colloquial words and meanings with a pronounced rough coloring"; 4) "old or obsolete words and meanings that have fallen out of the language."
Unlike the Ozhegov's Dictionary, the "Russian Explanatory Dictionary" is "a dictionary of the most active vocabulary of the Russian language"; it "does not contain regional and obsolete words and meanings are presented in a minimal amount, and from colloquial, colloquial, bookish, special words and meanings of words, only the most commonly used ones are given ... It also does not contain words and meanings of words that have gone into a passive vocabulary" . A comparison of specific dictionaries, for example, with the letter L, shows that there are approximately 950 heading words in the Ozhegov Dictionary, and 500 in the Russian Explanatory Dictionary, and not included: meadowsweet, labile, lava- underground mining lavender, pita, laurel, laurel cherry, lag, camper, lagoon, fret- the structure of a musical instrument, fret, incense, amulet, rook, patties, frets, manhole, laser, lapis lazuli, fawn, lackey, litmus, liquorice, lactation, lacuna, lama, lamaism, lamaist, lampada, lampas, lampion, langet, Landtag, lanita, lanolin, lancet, lapidary, rounders, palmate, stall holder, laryngitis, laryngologist, laryngology, lasso, lafitnik etc. etc. These, like the other 400 names starting with the letter L, did not get into the Russian Explanatory Dictionary from the Ozhegov Dictionary due to their rare use. The examples given give an idea of the passive vocabulary, which includes, in essence, all stylistic groups of words: colloquial ( stall holder, lafitnik), colloquial ( camper, frets), obsolete ( meadowsweet, lanita), book ( labile- movable lamaism, lapidary- short), highly specialized ( lag- a device for determining the speed of the vessel, lactation), exotic ( pita, lama, Landtag), folk poetic ( fret), neutral ( lavender, laurel cherry, lagoon, langet). Apparently, the "Russian Explanatory Dictionary" can theoretically be attributed to the dictionaries of active Russian vocabulary, reflecting the active vocabulary of the average native speaker of the Russian language at the end of the 20th century.
With the help of the selection of active vocabulary, practical problems are solved in the following cases:
■ When compiling various kinds of dictionaries for students. So, when creating the "School Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. F. P. Filina (1999) selected vocabulary: a) reflected in stable textbooks on the Russian language and literature, and b) widely used in everyday life, in labor, social and cultural areas of human activity.
Even more efforts require the selection of active vocabulary for textbooks intended for foreigners. Lexical minima are being created, addressed to students of different levels, the "Concise Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language for Foreigners" has been published many times, ed. V. V. Rozanova.
■ When compiling lexicographic reference books for all native speakers of the Russian language. So, with the expectation of using it in productive speech, lexical units were selected for the "Dictionary of the compatibility of words of the Russian language" ed. P. N. Denisov and V. V. Morkovkin. It includes approximately 2,500 "most common Russian words" with a complete description of their combinational properties. For illustration and comparison, we give a list of such words placed on the letter L: laboratory, camp, Palm, lamp, affectionate, a lion, left, easy, ice, ice, lie, climb, medicine, lecture, lazy, Forest, forest, ladder, fly, fly, summer, summer, pilot, treat, be treated, liquidate, a fox, sheet, literature, literary, pour, face, personality, private, deprive, lose, extra, forehead, catch, dexterous, boat, go to bed, a spoon, false, False, slogan, elbow, break, break, shovel, horse, onion, moon, skiing, Darling, be in love, admire, love, curiosity, curious, curious, curiosity. As you can see, these are the words of everyday communication of people, regardless of their age, education and profession.
Of course, the boundary between active and passive words is very mobile and changeable. For example, the name of the privatization check voucher unexpectedly burst into the life of Russians in the mid-1990s, it can be said that it was on everyone’s lips for several years and just as quickly disappeared from use, leaving behind only unpleasant memories.
Active and passive vocabulary are distinguished due to the different usage of words.
An active vocabulary (active dictionary) consists of words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses, actively uses. Depending on the level of language development of the speakers, their active vocabulary averages from 300-400 words to 1500-2000 words. The active composition of the vocabulary includes the most frequent words that are used daily in communication, the meanings of which are known to all speakers: earth, white, go, many, five, on. The active vocabulary also includes socio-political vocabulary (social, progress, competition, economics, etc.), as well as words belonging to special vocabulary, terminology, but denoting actual concepts and therefore known to many non-specialists: atom, gene, genocide, prevention, cost-effective, virtual, atom, anesthesia, verb, ecology.
The passive vocabulary (passive vocabulary) includes words that are rarely used by the speaker in normal speech communication. The meanings are not always clear to the speakers. Passive stock words form three groups:
1) archaisms;
2) historicisms;
3) neologisms.
1. Archaisms (from Greek archaios ‘ancient’) are obsolete words or expressions forced out of active use by synonymous units: vyya - neck , right hand - right hand, in vain- in vain, in vain, since ancient times- out of date, actor- actor this- this, that is to say- i.e .
The following types of archaisms are distinguished:
1) actually lexical - these are words that are completely outdated, as a holistic sound complex: lichba ‘account’, maiden ‘teenage girl’, influenza ‘flu’;
2) semantic - these are words with an outdated meaning: belly (in the meaning of 'life'), shame (in the meaning of 'spectacle'), existing (in the meaning of 'existing'), outrageous (in the meaning of 'calling for indignation, for rebellion') ;
3) phonetic - a word that retained its former meaning, but had a different sound design in the past: historia (history), gladness (hunger), gates (gates), mirror (mirror), piit (poet), eighth (eighth), fire ' Fire';
4) accent - words that in the past had an accent different from the modern one: symbol, music, ghost, shuddered, against;
5) morphological - words with an outdated morphemic structure: ferocity - ferocity, nervous - nervous, collapse - collapse, disaster - disaster, answer - answer.
In speech, archaisms are used: a) to recreate the historical flavor of the era (usually in historical novels, short stories); b) to give speech a shade of solemnity, pathetic excitement (in poetry, in an oratory, in a journalistic speech); c) to create a comic effect, irony, satire, parody (usually in feuilletons, pamphlets); d) for the speech characteristics of a character (for example, a person of a clergy).
2. Historicisms are called obsolete words that have become obsolete due to the disappearance of the realities that they denoted: boyar, clerk, guardsman, baskak, constable, crossbow, shishak, caftan, policeman, lawyer. Words denoting the realities of the Soviet era have also become historicisms: Kombedy, NEPman, revolutionary committee, socialist competition, Komsomol, five-year plan, district committee.
For polysemantic words, one of the meanings can become historicism. For example, the commonly used word people has an obsolete meaning ‘servants, workers in a manor’s house’. The word PIONEER can also be considered obsolete in the sense of ‘a member of a children’s organization in the USSR’.
Historicisms are used as a nominative means in scientific and historical literature, where they serve as the names of the realities of past eras, and as a pictorial means in works of fiction, where they contribute to the reconstruction of a particular historical era.
Sometimes words that have become historicisms return to active use. This happens due to the return (re-actualization) of the phenomenon itself, denoted by this word. Such, for example, are the words gymnasium, lyceum, tutor, Duma, etc.
3. Neologisms (from Greek neos 'new' + logos 'word') are words that have recently appeared in the language and are still unknown to a wide range of native speakers: mortgage, mundial, glamour, inauguration, creativity, extreme, etc. After the word enters into widespread use, it ceases to be a neologism. The emergence of new words is a natural process that reflects the development of science, technology, culture, and social relations.
There are lexical and semantic neologisms. Lexical neologisms are new words, the appearance of which is associated with the formation of new concepts in the life of society. These include words such as autobahn 'type of highway', jacuzzi 'large heated tub with hydromassage', label 'product label', remake 'remake of an earlier film', bluetooth 'a kind of wireless communication for data transmission', as well as sponsor, hit, show, etc.
Semantic neologisms are words that belong to an active dictionary, but have acquired new, previously unknown meanings. For example, the word anchor in the 70s. received a new meaning ‘special platform for fixing an astronaut, located at the orbital station next to the hatch’; the word CHELNOK in the 80s. acquired the meaning of "a small trader who imports goods from abroad (or exports them abroad) with their subsequent sale in local markets."
A special kind of words of this kind are individual-author's neologisms, which are created by poets, writers, publicists with special stylistic goals. A distinctive feature of them is that, as a rule, they do not go into an active dictionary in this way, remaining occasionalisms - singly or rarely used neoplasms: kyukhelbekerno (A. Pushkin), green-haired (N. Gogol), moskvodushie (V. Belinsky), passenger , masculine (A. Chekhov), machinery (V. Yakhontov), perekkhmur (E. Isaev), six-story (N. Tikhonov), vermouth (V. Vysotsky). overhead (A. Blok), multi-path, mandolin, hammer (V. Mayakovsky). Only a few author's formations become words of an active dictionary over time: industry (N. Karamzin), bungler (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), prosessed (V. Mayakovsky), mediocrity (I. Severyanin), etc.
The creation of new words is a creative process that reflects a person's desire for novelty and completeness in the perception of reality. Native speakers create new words that reflect the nuances of being and its assessment: for example, psychoteka, soul-turner, soul-dance, radomyslie, singularity, self-righteousness, etc. (from the collection of neologisms by M. Epstein).
However, the results of word searches should not always be recognized as successful. So, for example, the new formations encountered in the following statements are unlikely to enrich the national lexicon.
The question was formed and guaranteed.
The store urgently needs vegetables for the vegetable trade.
There are real masterpieces of toy building.
Material values were stolen, although the warehouse was dogged.
17. Speech errors associated with the use
foreign words
Foreign words are words borrowed from other languages. Borrowing from foreign languages is explained by both extralinguistic (extralinguistic) and linguistic reasons. Extralinguistic reasons include:
1) contacts with native speakers of other languages;
2) the development of science, technology and, as a result, the emergence of new concepts, for example, in the field
Economies: advice, holdings, broker, consortium, leasing, option, issuer;
Politicians: run, impeachment, establishment, lobbying, inauguration, speaker;
Sports: diving, kating, street racing, mundial, goalkeeper, halfback;
Information technologies: scanner, printer, hard drive, gamer, hacker;
Culture and life: vernissage, show, origami, jacuzzi, karaoke, blockbuster, thriller, tabloid, capri, pareo.
Linguistic reasons for borrowing from other languages include:
1) language savings, which is expressed in the replacement of a descriptive expression with one word: laptop - portable computer, bonus - additional remuneration;
2) detailing, clarification of the concept: cruise - travel (namely on a boat or steamer), motel - hotel (namely for autotourists), display - screen (namely a computer).
Foreign vocabulary differs in the degree of mastery of the word by the Russian language. Assimilated vocabulary stands out - fully mastered by the Russian language system, that is, subject to the phonetic, grammatical, lexical and syntactic norms of the Russian language. These are words such as legend, student, zodiac, leitmotif, tunic, album, conversion, makeup, file, manager, ecology, etc.
Non-assimilated vocabulary is words that are not fully mastered by the Russian language system and therefore have difficulties in writing, pronunciation, declension or agreement. Among the words of this category, barbarisms and exoticisms stand out. Barbarisms (Greek barbarismos). called foreign words that are not fully mastered by the borrowing language, most often due to the difficulties of grammatical development: dandy, madam, monsieur, mikado, table d'hote, frau, couturier, online, Internet, publicity. Exoticisms (from the Greek exotikos 'alien, foreign') are words borrowed from other, often little-known, languages and used to describe foreign customs, way of life, mores, to create local color: beshmet, gyaur, delibash, zurna, veil, bowl, teahouse, janissary, yuan, selva, sari, bindi.
Words from foreign languages have been borrowed throughout the history of the Russian language, and this should be considered a natural process of intercultural mutual enrichment. Among the donor languages that actively supply vocabulary to the Russian language in different periods are:
- Greek: anathema, monastery, angel, history, philosophy, notebook, lantern, cedar, cypress, crocodile, beet, verse, idea, comedy, analogy, etc.
– Latin: subject, suffix, transformation, feminism, punctuation, etc.
- Turkic languages: chieftain, drum, cap, shoe, cockroach, barrow, stocking, hut, snowstorm, treasury, guard, etc.
- Polish: apartment, suede, jacket, carriage, colonel, draw, rabbit, parsley, chestnut, bun, almonds, jam, etc.
- German: commander, corporal, camp, headquarters, cadet, accountant, package, office, workbench, tie, decanter, hat, potatoes, poodle, etc.
- French: bureau, boudoir, shoe, bracelet, wardrobe, coat, poster, ballet, pistol, assembly, glamour, etc.
– English: barge, yacht, boycott, club, leader, rally, station, elevator, sports, trolley bus, football, cupcake, jacket, etc.
However, foreign borrowings (more precisely, their number) should not threaten the integrity of the native language. Unfortunately, in recent years, foreign words have poured into the Russian language without any measure, especially of Anglo-American origin: image maker, remake, thriller, underground, dealer, distributor, leasing, freestyle, ski stream, arm wrestling, playoffs, interface, file, plotter, etc. Often, foreign words duplicate existing native Russian or words that have long been mastered by the Russian language: limit - limit, ordinary - ordinary, indifferent - indifferent, correction - correction, ignore - not notice, revise - check, constant - stable, exaggerate - exaggerate, punctual - precise, contract - contract, dominant - prevailing, heterogeneous - heterogeneous, homogeneous - homogeneous, local - local, directive - prescription, publicity - advertising, hit - hit, user - user, etc. In many cases, it is better to abandon incomprehensible barbarism by using a familiar Russian word. Inappropriate and unjustified use of foreign vocabulary of words clogs speech, makes it inaccurate, especially when the speaker does not know the meaning of the borrowed word. Speech errors of this kind, associated with the use of a foreign word in a meaning unusual for it, are made in the following statements. All inaccurately used foreign vocabulary can be replaced by Russian words.
1.3 Active and passive vocabulary of the Russian literary language
Vocabulary is the most mobile language level. Changing and improving vocabulary is directly related to the production activity of a person, to the economic, social, political life of the people. The vocabulary reflects all the processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects, phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that call them go out of use or change their sound appearance and meaning. Given all this, the vocabulary of the common language can be divided into two large groups: active vocabulary and passive vocabulary.
The active vocabulary includes those everyday words whose meaning is clear to people who speak this language. The words of this group are devoid of any shades of obsolescence.
The passive vocabulary includes those that are either outdated or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet received wide popularity and are also not used everyday. Thus, the words of the passive stock are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms). Those words that have gone out of active use are among the obsolete. For example, words that have ceased to be used due to the disappearance of the concepts they denoted are clearly obsolete: boyar, clerk, veche, archer, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city duma), burmistr, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms, they are more or less known and understood by native speakers, but not actively used by them. In the modern language, they are referred to only when obsolete objects and phenomena need to be named, for example, in special scientific and historical literature, as well as in the language of works of art in order to recreate a particular historical era.
If the concept of an object, phenomenon, action, quality, etc. is preserved, and the names assigned to it are replaced in the process of language development with new ones that are more acceptable for one reason or another for a new generation of native speakers, then the old names also become the category of passive vocabulary, into the group of so-called archaisms (Greek archaios - ancient). For example: better - because, eyelids - forever, guest - merchant, merchant (predominantly foreign), guest - trade, etc. Some of the words of this type are practically already outside even the passively existing lexical stocks of the modern literary language. For example: thief - thief, robber; stry - paternal uncle, stryina - paternal uncle's wife; uy - maternal uncle; stirrup - down; sling - roof and vault of heaven; vezha - tent, wagon, tower; tuk - fat, lard and many others.
Some of the archaisms are preserved in the modern language as part of phraseological units: to get into a mess, where the slip is a spinning rope machine; you can’t see where the zga (stga) is the road, the path; to beat with a brow, where the brow is the forehead; rage with fat, where fat is wealth; cherish like the apple of an eye, where the apple is the pupil, etc.
The process of transition of words from the group of active use to the passive group is long. It is due to both extralinguistic reasons, for example, social changes, and linguistic ones proper, of which the systemic connections of obsolete words play a very significant role: the larger, more diverse and stronger they are, the more slowly the word passes into the passive layers of the dictionary.
Obsolete include not only those words that have long been out of use, but also those that have arisen and become obsolete quite recently, for example: educational program (elimination of illiteracy), food requisition, tax in kind, combed, etc. Obsolete words can also be primordial words (for example , helmet, good, oboloko, etc.) and borrowed ones, for example, Old Slavonicisms (vezhdy - eyelids, alkati - starve, fast, riza - clothes, hand - palm, etc.).
Depending on whether the word becomes completely obsolete, whether its individual elements are used, whether the phonetic design of the word changes, several are distinguished; types of archaisms: proper lexical, lexical-semantic, lexical-phonetic and lexical-word-building.
Actually lexical ones appear when the whole word becomes obsolete and passes into passive archaic layers, for example: kdmon - horse, silly - perhaps, glebeti - sink, get stuck, zanyo - because, because, etc.
Lexico-semantic words include some polysemantic words that have one or more meanings outdated. For example, the word “guest” has the obsolete meaning “foreign trader, merchant”, while the rest are preserved, although somewhat rethought (2): guest-1) a person who came to visit someone; 2) a stranger (in modern language - an outsider invited or admitted to any meeting, session). One of the meanings of the words belongs to such archaisms: shame is a spectacle; humanity - humanity, humanity; to lie - to tell (see A.S. Pushkin: A friend of mankind sadly notices a destructive shame everywhere ignorance), etc.
Lexico-phonetic archaisms include words in which, in the process of the historical development of the language, their sound form has changed (while maintaining the content): prospekt - prospect, English - English, Svejsky - Swedish, state - state, voksal - station, piit - poet and many others. Lexical and derivational archaisms are those that have been preserved in the modern language as separate elements, cf.: burr and usnie - skin, broadcasting and broadcasting - to speak, r. The gum and the right hand are the right hand, to arouse and flash - anxiety, it is impossible and lie - freedom (hence the benefit, benefit) and many others.
The stylistic functions of obsolete vocabulary (historicisms and archaisms) are very diverse. Both of them are used to reproduce the color of the era, to recreate some historical events. For this purpose, they were widely used by A.S. Pushkin in Boris Godunov, A.N. Tolstoy in "Peter I", A. Chapygin in the novel "Stepan Razin", V. Kostylev in "Ivan the Terrible", L. Nikulin in the novel "Faithful Sons of Russia" and many others.
Both types of obsolete words, especially archaisms, are often introduced into the text by writers, poets, and publicists to give speech a special solemnity, loftiness, and pathos.
Outdated vocabulary can sometimes be used as a means of humor, irony, satire. In this case, archaizing elephants are often used in a semantically alien environment.
New words, or neologisms (Greek pe-os - new logos - concept), are called, first of all, such words that appear in the language to denote new concepts, for example: cybernetics, lavsan, letilan (antimicrobial fiber), interferon (drug ), oceanaut, eveemo (from a computer - an electronic computer), lepovets (from a power line - a power line), etc. Especially a lot of neologisms arise in the field of scientific and technical terminology. In the time of Pushkin, neologisms also arose, but at the moment they are not relevant for us. Such words form a group of proper lexical neologisms.
The emergence of new names for those concepts that already had a name in the language is also one of the ways in which neologisms appeared. In this case, some words are lost due to the activation of others that are synonymous with the first, then the repressed words move into passive layers of vocabulary, i.e., their archaization. Such a path at one time was passed by the words difference (instead of difference and difference; compare with A.S. Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin": At first they were boring to each other ... and also: I am always glad to notice the difference Between Onegin and me), disaster (instead of disaster), steamboat (instead of a pyroscaphe, steamboat and steam ship), steam locomotive (instead of a steamboat, cf. in the poem of the 19th-century poet Puppeteer: A steamboat rushes quickly in an open field), a helicopter (instead of a helicopter and an autogyro ) and etc.
Neologisms are also words newly formed according to certain normative models from words that have long existed. For example: asset - activist, activist, activist, activism, activation; atom - nuclear-powered ship, nuclear scientist, nuclear scientist; moon - lunar, lunar, moon rover; rocket - rocket launcher, rocket carrier, rocket launcher, rocket launcher; cosmos - cosmodrome, cosmonaut, space helmet, cosmic vision and many other simple and complex words that make up the group of so-called lexical-derivative neologisms.
Neologisms also include such words and phrases previously known in the Russian language that have developed a new meaning, cf., for example: pioneer - discoverer and pioneer - member of the children's communist organization; foreman - military rank in the tsarist army and foreman - head of a team of people at an enterprise, plant 1; noble - famous and noble - belonging to the top of the privileged class (noble milkmaid, noble nobleman); dynasty - a series of successively ruling monarchs from the same family and dynasty - representatives of different generations from the same family who have the same profession (working dynasty 2, mining dynasty), etc. Words that arose as a result of rethinking previously known the language of nominations, some researchers call lexico-semantic neologisms.
The semantic renewal of words is one of the most active processes that replenish the lexical system of the modern Russian language. Around the word that begins to live anew, completely new lexemes are grouped, new synonyms, new oppositions arise.
A neologism that arose along with a new object, thing, concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used, publicly available, it ceases to be a neologism.
Such a path was followed, for example, by the words soviet, collectivization, link, tractor driver, Komsomol member, Leninist, pioneer, Michurinist, metro builder, virgin lands, satellite, cosmonaut and many others.
Due to the continuous historical development of the vocabulary of the language, many words, back in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms (freedom, equality, citizen, public, humanity, realism, fiction, liberty, reality, immediacy, idea, and the like 1), in modern Russian are the property of an active stock of the dictionary.
Consequently, the specific language repertoire that characterizes and reveals this concept is changeable and depends on the historical process of the development of society and language.
In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words are distinguished, formed by one or another writer with a specific stylistic goal. The neologisms of this group are called occasional (or individual stylistic) and some of them subsequently enriched the vocabulary of the general literary language. Others remain among the occasional formations, they perform a figurative and expressive role only in a certain context.
If you can get the necessary ideas about obsolete vocabulary (historicisms and archaisms) in explanatory dictionaries, as well as in special historical dictionaries of the Russian language, then a special dictionary of new words did not exist until recently, although interest in neologisms arose a very long time ago. So, in the times of Peter the Great, the “Lexicon of New Vocabularies” was compiled, which in essence was a concise dictionary of foreign words.
In addition to the recently published explanatory dictionaries (Ozhegov's dictionary, BAS, MAC), in 1971 the dictionary sector of the Institute of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences published a dictionary-reference book based on the materials of the press and literature of the 60s "New words and meanings" (ed. N .3 Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokin). This is the first experience of publishing such a dictionary. In the future, such reference books are supposed to be published every 6-8 years.
The dictionary, as compilers and publishers note, is not normative. He explains and illustratively confirms that part of the new words and meanings (about 3500) that have become more or less widespread (this should not be confused with the concept of an active vocabulary).
Thus, the meanings of words form a system within one word (polysemy), within the vocabulary as a whole (synonymy, antonymy), within the entire system of the language (links of vocabulary with other levels of the language). The specifics of the lexical level of the language are the orientation of the lexicon to reality (sociality), the permeability of the system formed by words, its mobility, and the impossibility of an accurate calculation of lexical units associated with this.
Chapter 2. Vocabulary of the Russian literary language in the work of A.S. Pushkin
In the language of Pushkin, the entire previous culture of the Russian artistic word not only reached its highest flowering, but also found a decisive transformation.
Pushkin's language, reflecting directly or indirectly the entire history of the Russian literary language, starting from the 17th century. until the end of the 30s of the 19th century, at the same time, determined in many directions the paths for the subsequent development of Russian literary speech and continues to serve as a living source and unsurpassed model of the artistic word for the modern reader.
In the 20-30s of the XIX century. further enrichment of the lexical composition of the Russian literary language continues. The statement in the literary language of words, to some extent known to the previous period, is being completed. At the same time, words are quickly assimilated into the literary language, which only at the beginning of the 19th century. began to enter the literary circulation.
Before Pushkin, the problem of the literary language was the problem of vocabulary selection. That is how this question was raised by the supporters of the so-called old and new syllables - the Shishkovites and Karamzinists. The syllable was a stylistic type of speech, characterized by a special selection and combination of different layers of vocabulary in different genres. It is interesting to note that both opposing sides proceeded from the same thesis - the need to develop the original principles of Russian vocabulary and their use in Russian speech. But A.S. Shishkov and his followers believed that the original Russian beginnings were laid down in archaic (including Old Slavonic) vocabulary. It was proposed to replace borrowed words with archaic ones. In contrast, N.M. Karamzin and his school believed that the original Russian beginnings were laid down in the generally accepted neutral vocabulary, and these beginnings should be developed in the direction of convergence with the vocabulary of Western European languages. That is popular, which brings the Russian language closer to other languages. Karamzinists rejected vernacular and considered it necessary to preserve the generally accepted borrowed vocabulary, which was established in the Russian language. They widely used tracing.
It has become generally accepted that in the work of A.S. Pushkin, these two elements - book-archaic and salon speech merged into one. It really is. But there is a third element in the language of the great poet - folk speech, which first made itself felt in his poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila". It is from Pushkin that the tendency towards the democratization of the Russian literary language acquires a universal and stable character. The origin of this trend can be traced in the work of G.R. Derzhavin, D.I. Fonvizina, A.S. Griboyedov and especially I.A. Krylov, but it acquires a general literary character in the work of A.S. Pushkin. The special quality of Pushkin's democratization of literary speech was manifested in the fact that the poet considered it possible to include in literary speech only those elements of folk speech that had been processed by folklore. Pushkin's appeals to young writers to read folk tales are not accidental. “The study of old songs, fairy tales, etc.,” the poet wrote, “is necessary for a perfect knowledge of the properties of the Russian language. Later, starting with N.V. Gogol, dialect and vernacular words began to penetrate into literary speech directly from oral speech, bypassing their folklore processing.
For Pushkin, there is no problem of literary and non-literary vocabulary. Any vocabulary - archaic and borrowed, dialectal, slang, colloquial and even abusive (obscene) - acts as literary if its use in speech obeys the principle of "proportionality" and "conformity", that is, it corresponds to the general properties of literacy, type of communication, genre , nationality, realism of the image, motivation, content and individualization of images, first of all, the correspondence of the inner and outer world of a literary hero. Thus, for Pushkin there is no literary and non-literary vocabulary, but there is literary and non-literary speech. Literary can be called speech that satisfies the requirement of proportionality and conformity: non-literary is speech that does not satisfy this requirement. If even now such a formulation of the question is capable of embarrassing the orthodox augur of science, then it was all the more unusual for that time with its zealots and lovers of "truly Russian literature." Nevertheless, Pushkin's most astute contemporaries and civil descendants accepted the poet's new view of the literary quality of the Russian word. So, S.P. Shevyrev wrote: "Pushkin did not neglect a single Russian word and was often able, taking the most common word from the lips of the mob, to correct it in his verse in such a way that it lost its rudeness."
In the 18th century, there were many poets in Russia who dared to collide layers of heterogeneous vocabulary in their creations. The tendency towards multi-style design manifested itself most clearly in the work of G.R. Derzhavin. However, as noted by many critics (including V.G. Belinsky), the combination of this patriarch's heterogeneous Russian literature, the poetic idol of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, gave the impression of something awkward and sometimes even chaotic. And this is with the high poetic technique that G.R. Derzhavin. In order to rise to Pushkin's proportionality and conformity, one thing was missing here - a special understanding of artistic reality, which later became known as realism.
The standard definition of realism as the depiction of typical reality in typical images of reality itself is hardly capable of explaining the specifics of Pushkin's artistic exploration of life. It can equally well be attributed to G.R. Derzhavin, and to N.M. Karamzin, and to V.A. Zhukovsky. But the artistic method of A.S. Pushkin is distinguished by multidimensionality and dynamism of the image with brevity and accuracy of description. "Accuracy and brevity, - wrote A.S. Pushkin, - these are the first advantages of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions do not serve anything"
Before Pushkin, Russian literature suffered from verbosity with poor thought; in Pushkin we see brevity with rich content. Brevity alone does not create rich artistic thinking. Such a peculiar construction of the minimized speech was necessary so that it evoked a rich artistic presupposition (intended content; imagination, called subtext). A special artistic effect was achieved by A.S. Pushkin due to the interconnection of new methods of aesthetic thinking, a special arrangement of literary structures and peculiar methods of using language.
Analyzing the difference between the romantic and realistic perception of the world by the writer, Yu.M. Lotman came to the conclusion that the romantic hero is the bearer of one "mask" - the image of a "strange man", which he wears throughout the story. A realistic hero is constantly changing his literary masks - his worldview, manners, behavior, habits.
Moreover, Pushkin considers his heroes from different angles, from the positions of different participants in the artistic and communicative process, although they themselves continue to wear the old mask put on. The literary hero, as it were, does not notice that the author or his artistic environment has long put on him a different mask and continues to think that he is wearing an old mask that he tried on for himself. So, the behavior of Eugene Onegin at Tatiana's name day is depicted in images: a turkey ("he pouted and indignantly swore to piss off Lensky"), a cat ("Onegin is again driven by boredom, plunged into thought near Olga ..., and Olenka yawned after him ... ") and a rooster (the image of a half-rooster and half-cat in Tatyana's dream). The realistic hero is dynamic, unlike the static romantic hero. The second feature of Pushkin's artistic thinking is the correlation in the description of the external behavior and the inner world of the hero, his consciousness and subconsciousness (it is no coincidence that dreams play a significant role in the work of A.S. Pushkin). A.S. Pushkin carefully traces the relationship of the depicted characters to folk culture, history, place and time of description. A special place in the aesthetic worldview of A.S. Pushkin is concerned with such universal attitudes as dignity, honor and justice. All this created a special artistic and ideological motivation, which A.S. Pushkin followed in his work and in life, which he bequeathed to Russian literature.
A.S. Pushkin was the creator of the realistic artistic method in Russian literature. The consequence of the application of this method was the individualization of artistic types and structures in his own work. "The main principle of Pushkin's work since the late 1920s has become the principle of the correspondence of the speech style to the depicted world of historical reality, the depicted environment, the depicted character." The poet took into account the originality of the genre, the type of communication (poetry, prose, monologue, dialogue), the content, the described situation. The final result was the individualization of the image. At one time, F.E. Korsh wrote: “The common people seemed to Pushkin not an indifferent mass, but the old hussar thinks and speaks differently from him than the vagabond Varlaam, who pretends to be a monk, a monk is not like a peasant, a peasant differs from a Cossack, a Cossack from a courtyard, for example, Savelich; not only that: a sober man does not look like a drunk (in a joke: "Swat Ivan, how we will drink"). In the "Mermaid" itself, the miller and his daughter, in their views and even in language, are different people.
The originality of aesthetic perception and artistic individualization were expressed by various methods of linguistic designation. Among them, the leading place was occupied by the contrast of styles, which in Pushkin did not give the impression of inappropriateness, since the oppositional elements were associated with different aspects of the content. For example: "For a moment the conversations were silent, The lips are chewing." mouth - high style. chew - low. Mouths - the mouths of the nobility, representatives of high society. This is an external, social characteristic. To chew means to eat. But this applies in the literal sense not to people, but to horses. This is an internal, psychological characteristic of the actors. Another example: "... and being baptized, The crowd buzzes, sitting down at the table." People are baptized (external characteristic). Beetles are buzzing (an internal characteristic of these people).
The following language device is occasional semantic polysemy:
"They came together: water and stone,
Poetry and prose, ice and fire
Not so different from each other
Water and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire - in this context, these words are occasional antonyms.
"But soon the guests little by little
Raise a general alarm.
Nobody listens, they scream
Laughing, arguing and squeaking."
Chicks chirp. Against this background, the expression "raise the general alarm" (high style) compares the behavior of distinguished guests with the sudden noise of birds. Here, the high-style expression serves as an occasional, indirect synonym for the low-style word - zagaldeli.
The peculiarity of fiction, in contrast to written monuments of other genres, lies in the fact that it sets out its content in several senses. Realistic literature forms different meanings quite consciously, creating contrasts between the denotative subject and symbolic content of a work of art. Pushkin created the entire basic symbolic artistic fund of modern Russian literature. It was from Pushkin that the thunderstorm became a symbol of freedom, the sea - a symbol of the free, enticing elements, the star - a symbol of the cherished guiding thread, the life goal of man. In the poem "Winter Morning" the symbol is the word shore. It means "the last refuge of man." Pushkin's achievement is the use of semantic and sound correlation to create additional content. Similar content corresponds to a monotonous sound design, while Pushkin’s difference in content corresponds to sound contrasts (rhymes, rhythms, sound combinations). The sound similarity of the expressions "charming friend" - "dear friend" - "sweet coast for me" creates an additional symbolic meaning of the poem "Winter Morning", turning it from a denotative description of the beauties of Russian winter into a love confession. The language design techniques listed here are just a few examples. They do not exhaust the whole variety of stylistic devices used by Pushkin, which create semantic ambiguity and linguistic ambiguity of his creations.
In Pushkin's time, one of the main problems of the formation of the national literary language continued to be relevant - determining the place and role of the vocabulary of different genetic and stylistic layers in it. Of great importance in solving this problem was the work of the most famous writers of the era. In the 1920s and 1930s, the language of fiction was the main area in which the norms of the Russian literary language were defined and created. However, as in the previous period, the volume, or “repertoire”, of words included in literary circulation varied greatly depending on the social affiliation of this or that author, his views on the literary language, and individual preferences.
Pushkin played an exceptionally important role in determining the boundaries of the use of genetically different vocabulary in the literary language. In his artistic practice, mainly the volume and composition of the vocabulary that came from different sources and the principles of its use were formed, which, due to the significance of the poet's work and his authority among his contemporaries and followers, were perceived by subsequent generations as normative.
The essence of Pushkin's language reform was to overcome the disunity of lexical elements of different genetic and stylistic layers, in their free and organic combination. The writer "changed the traditional attitude (author's discharge) to words and forms." Pushkin did not recognize the Lomonosov system of three styles, on which the Shishkovists relied in their concept, and in this he joined forces with the Karamzinists, who strove to establish a single norm of the literary language. But he recognized the Lomonosov principle of “constructive unification of heterogeneous verbal series” as alive and relevant for his time. Adhering to the views of the Karamzinists on a single general literary norm, Pushkin, however, was much freer and broader in his understanding of the boundaries and scope of the lexical material included in the composition of the literary language. He put forward other principles and criteria for the selection and use of words from different genetic strata. A direct polemic with the Karamzinists was Pushkin's assertion that he would not sacrifice "the sincerity and accuracy of expression of provincial stiffness and fear of appearing common people, a Slavophil, and the like." He also made his own adjustments to the concept of “taste”, which Karamzinists so widely operated on: “true taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn, but in a sense of proportionality and conformity.”
Pushkin recognizes that the vocabulary of each genetic and stylistic layer has the right to be one of the constituent parts of the Russian literary language. Seeing in colloquial vocabulary one of the living sources of enrichment of the literary language, the writer considered Slavonicisms, which made up a significant part of book words, as a necessary element of literary speech. Written language, he wrote, "is animated every minute by expressions born in conversation, but should not renounce the acquired nm over the centuries: to write only in spoken language means not to know the language." Based on the combination of folk Russian and book-Slavic lexical elements, he seeks to create a "language of common understanding." Pushkin also comes to a "deeply individual solution to the problem of the synthesis of the Russian national and Western European elements in the literary language."
The literary language continues to be replenished with new formations created on Russian soil. Among them, words of abstract meaning dominate. A special need for such words was caused by the development of science and production, the formation of philosophical and aesthetic teachings, and also by the fact that critical-journalistic prose began to take shape, requiring the improvement of book-abstract language. In parallel, there was a process of formation of new concrete words, in particular, designations of a person. The productivity of neoplasms with colloquial suffixes is somewhat increased (for example, -ka in the circle of nouns, -nichat - in the circle of verbs). The disunity of words of different genetic and stylistic layers is overcome, and words that combine morphemes of different origins freely function as completely “normative” words.
Along with enrichment with new formations, the Russian literary language continued to master new lexemes. The borrowing of foreign vocabulary is somewhat streamlined, acquiring more defined boundaries. The Russian literary language began to absorb from other languages mainly words that penetrate to us along with the borrowing of realia, the subject. However, in connection with the trend towards the development of the language of politics, science, philosophy, words denoting abstract concepts are also borrowed, in particular, the names of various directions, systems, worldviews, etc.
The borrowing of such words, as well as the appearance of Russian neoplasms of abstract meaning, indicates that the main line in the development of the lexical composition of the Russian literary language was its enrichment with abstract words.
At the same time, the period of the formation of national norms of the Russian literary language is characterized by the activation in various spheres of literary use of elements of lively national speech. Among them concrete words predominate.
In the first decades of the XIX century. an influx of colloquial, "simple" words into the literary language is growing. It was during this period that many of those words of living colloquial speech that began to penetrate into literature in the 18th century finally enter the literary language. Replenishment is preserved, but somewhat weakens compared to the previous period, due to colloquial words that do not have expression, which are strengthened in the literary language as ordinary nominative units. In connection with the need of the language to update expressive means, expressively colored colloquial words that enter the language without being neutralized, but retaining their expressive qualities, easily get a place in the literary language. It is indicative that there is some renewal of the composition of expressive-evaluative words included in literary use. "The living sources of the folk language, to which Pushkin and subsequent generations of Russian writers turned, were often untouched even in the 18th century." Colloquial, “simple” words that do not have corresponding one-word equivalents were most easily assimilated by the literary language. These words, continuing to be used in those genres and contexts in which it was allowed by the previous literary tradition, penetrated into the neutral author's speech in such genres as a poem, novel, story, lyrical and "high" poetry, scientific and historical prose, journalism. Their wide inclusion in literary circulation shows that new norms of word usage were taking shape.
To a much lesser extent, dialectal (nominative and expressively colored), as well as professional and slang elements, were poured into the lexical fund of the literary language. The word usage of the writers of this era (and above all Pushkin) contributes to the completion of the process of literary canonization of a number of those dialect words that penetrated into Russian literature in previous eras. It can be thought that their going beyond the narrow local environment contributed to their inclusion in the speech usage of educated people.
One of the main directions in the development of the Russian literary language is the widespread process of democratization. The most important result of this process was the formation of a colloquial variety of the literary language.
Variant forms continue to coexist in the literary vocabulary. However, an essential feature of the literary language of the Pushkin period is the desire to eliminate identical, doublet designations. The 1920s and 1930s is the era that "put an end to this multiplicity of names." This is due to a noticeable strengthening of the previously emerging trend towards semantic and stylistic delimitation of variant means.
Along with the enrichment of the vocabulary fund with new words, the opposite process takes place - the liberation of the literary language from the book-Slavic archaic and from "low" lexical units.
The active implementation of these processes allows the first third of the XIX century. enter the history of the Russian literary language as an era of streamlining linguistic means.
In the 20-30s of the XIX century. the semantic enrichment of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language continues. The predominant part of the changes in semantics is associated with the figurative-metaphorical and figurative use of words of different genetic and stylistic layers. The main feature of these transformations is the expansion of the semantic volume of words that previously had a very narrow, specific meaning. A fairly wide range of concrete-subject, “simple” vocabulary is included in semantic spheres unusual for it, which allows it, according to words. S. Sorokina, to rise to the "upper floors" of the literary language (see dirty, goof off). On the other hand, some words that have developed figurative meanings pass from book speech to colloquial speech, getting emotional coloring (see rant, expose).
Writers, especially Pushkin, had a noticeable influence on the development of the Russian literary language during this period. Pushkin's historical merit lies in the fact that with his work he contributed to an increase in the volume of the vocabulary of the literary language, expanding its boundaries, primarily due to the colloquial vocabulary.
Pushkin recognizes for each layer the right to be one of the constituent parts of the literary language. However, in attracting genetically different vocabulary, he acted deliberately and carefully. So, he does not abuse foreign borrowings, moderately introduces folk colloquial elements into literature, correcting their use with “stylistic assessments of a cultured and educated person from a“ good society ””.
In Pushkin's work, there is a deepening tendency towards organic fusion, combination in the context of elements of different styles. Pushkin "affirms the diversity of styles within the limits of a single national norm of literary expression." Its formation, as noted by A.I. Gorshkov, is connected, first of all, with the new organization of the literary text, which took place along many lines, of which the most important are:
1) the approval of word usage based on the principle of the most accurate designation of the phenomena of reality, the rejection of formal verbal tricks, rhetorical paraphrases, non-objective metaphors, etc., "syntactic condensation of speech",
2) free association of language units, previously divided into different styles and areas of use.
The free interaction of heterogeneous speech elements could be realized due to the fact that during the XVIII century. actively proceeded the processes of interconnections and mutual influences between Russian vocabulary, Slavicisms and borrowings.
Pushkin solves one of the main problems of the era - the problem of the relationship between bookish and colloquial in the literary language. Striving, like N. Karamzin, to create a single general literary norm, Pushkin, unlike his predecessor, "resolutely rebels against the complete merging of bookish and spoken language into one neutral system of expression."
The writer establishes in the literary language (mainly in its bookish variety) that layer of bookish Slavonic words that had already been assimilated in the previous period. At the same time, he determines the fate of a significant part of the Slavicisms, which continued to cause controversy even in the Pushkin period: the writer uses them only for certain stylistic purposes. The limitation of the spheres of application of many Slavonicisms to artistic (mainly poetic) texts indicates their exit from the active fund of the literary language - while at the same time asserting, preserving the positions of the general literary word for the words of Russian origin corresponding to them.
The foregoing indicates that in the Pushkin era there is a redistribution of the lexical composition of the language. And the vocabulary of A.S. Pushkin stood out for its originality and originality.
Pushkin style vocabulary worldview
Chapter 3 Pushkin "Dubrovsky"
The connections of Russian writers with Belarus are varied. Creativity A.S. Pushkin, one way or another, is connected with the history and culture of our people. It is connected not only with trips, accommodation, correspondence, and sometimes friendly relations with local residents, but, perhaps, even more interesting and important - plots, books, literary heroes, the prototypes of which were Belarusians. One of these works is the story "Dubrovsky".
The plot of "Dubrovsky" is based on what was reported to Pushkin by his friend P.V. Nashchokin, an episode from the life of a poor Belarusian nobleman named Ostrovsky (as the novel was called at first), who had a process with a neighbor for land, was forced out of the estate and, left with some peasants, began to rob clerks first, and then others Nashchokin saw this Ostrovsky in prison. (“Pushkin's stories recorded from the words of his friends P.I. Bartenev in 1851-1860”, M. 1925, p. 27.)
In 1832, Pushkin begins to write his work, in which the question of the relationship between the peasantry and the nobility is posed with great acuteness.
The time of action of the novel refers, apparently, to the 10th years. 19th century "Dubrovsky" is remarkable, first of all, for its broad picture of the landowner's provincial life and customs. “The ancient life of the Russian nobility in the person of Troekurov is depicted with terrifying fidelity,” Belinsky points out (vol. VII, p. 577). Historically, Troekurov is a typical product of the feudal-serf reality of Catherine's time. His career began after the coup of 1762, which brought Catherine II to power. Contrasting the noble and wealthy Troekurov with the poor but proud old man Dubrovsky, Pushkin reveals in the novel the fate of that group of well-born, but impoverished nobility, to which he himself belonged by birth.
The new generation of the provincial local aristocracy is represented by the image of the "European" Vereisky.
In satirical colors, the novel depicts the "ink tribe" of corrupt officials, chicane-makers, hated by the serfs no less than the Troyekurovs. Without these police officers and assessors, without the image of a cowardly, indifferent to the needs of the people, the Kistenevsky priest, the picture of the landowner's province of the early 19th century. would be incomplete.
Pushnin's novel achieves particular sharpness in depicting the mood of the serfs. Pushkin does not idealize the peasantry. He shows that feudal mores corrupted some of the courtyards, who became serfs. But Pushkin also shows serfs who are hostile to the landowners and their henchmen. Such is the figure of the blacksmith Arkhip, cracking down on the court of his own free will and against the wishes of Dubrovsky. To the request of the pitiful Yegorovna to have pity on the clerks dying in the fire, he firmly replies: “It’s not like that,” and after the massacre he declares: “Now everything is fine.”
With the rebellious peasants, Pushkin brings together the rebel nobleman, the ruined and lonely Dubrovsky. The romantic image of a protestant rebel against slavery and despotism acquires concrete social content in Pushkin. The hero of the novel is a renegade in the landowner's environment. However, the poet does not make Dubrovsky a like-minded peasant, he emphasizes the personal motives of his rebellion. When Dubrovsky finds out that Masha is married to Vereisky, he leaves his comrades, telling them: "You are all swindlers." He remains alien to the serf mass.
According to genre characteristics, "Dubrovsky" is a historical and everyday novel. But the image of Dubrovsky is depicted by Pushkin to a certain extent in the tradition of an adventure novel of the 18th century. This could not but hinder the development of the anti-serfdom, social peasant theme in the novel.
The theme of peasant uprisings, only touched upon in Dubrovsky, naturally turned Pushkin's thoughts to Pugachev's uprising. The poet plans to write "History of Pugachev". At the same time, while still working on Dubrovsky, Pushkin had an idea for a work of art about the Pugachev uprising.
The history of the formation of the lexical and phraseological system of the Belarusian and Russian languages is closely connected with the history of the formation of the Belarusian and Russian peoples. At one time, Ya.F. Karsky made the following conclusion about the dependence of the development of a language on changes in the life of its speakers: “Already at the first stage of the existence of another tribe, the known physical conditions of the country it occupied gave one way or another to the development of its character, which in turn leaves a certain imprint on language itself. This connection between language and nature continues inextricably throughout the existence of a people. Nature gives a certain imprint of folk art, forcing it to invent the necessary forms to reflect its beauty, its wealth or poverty. Then the external influence of one people on another ( whether it is related or distant), its way of life, worldview and language are also in close connection with the nature of the country "". The above lines fully characterize the features of the formation and development of the Belarusian and Russian languages, both in general and in individual systems, and primarily vocabulary and phraseology.
Let's try on the example of a comparative analysis of the vocabulary of the original and the Belarusian translation, the work of A.S. Pushkin "Dubrovsky", to show what is the difference and similarity of the vocabulary of these two languages. The translation of the work "Dubrovsky" into Belarusian was made by K. Cherny.
It is well known that the nation is preceded by the nationality. Therefore, Belarusians and Russians, as nations, formed directly with the Belarusian and Russian nationalities, which in turn formed into the East Slavic nationality. The common East Slavic nationality was formed as a result of the collapse of the primitive communal system in the East Slavic tribes, during the period of the establishment of their class society and the creation of an early feudal state - Kievan Rus.
Feudal fragmentation led to the fact that in the first half of the XIII century. Kievan Rus collapsed, and its eastern lands were captured by the Tatar-Mongols for almost three centuries, while the western lands became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which in the 15th century. falls under the influence of the Commonwealth. Thus, the formation of the Belarusian and Russian nationalities and their languages from the end of the 13th to the end of the 18th century, when subsequently the division of the Commonwealth in 1772, 1793 and 1795. Belarusians and their lands went to the Russian Empire, it happened in an original way. But the formation of Belarusians and Russians, as nations, took place with direct mutual influence and interaction. All this, of course, influenced the formation of Belarusian and Russian vocabulary and phraseology.
It is indisputable that all changes in society, firstly, have found an imprint in the vocabulary of one or another people, a socially or territorially limited group of people. In general, the vocabulary of any living language is in inextricable movement and development. However, the main vocabulary fund as a lexical base, or the most stable layer of vocabulary, of one or another language, has at its core the original vocabulary fund of the prehistoric, pre-class era and changes very slowly and inconspicuously. In each language, the vocabulary develops mainly due to words that remain outside the main fund.
In modern East Slavic languages, the core of the vocabulary of the Belarusian and Russian languages is created by the so-called native Russian and native Belarusian words (firstly, these are words from the Old Slavonic and Common East Slavic lexical fund). The origin of these words is explained by the origin and development of the East Slavic languages themselves. This includes words-names associated with the designation of the person himself, parts of his body and organism, family relationships, natural phenomena, flora, buildings and their parts, wild and domestic animals, etc. Such vocabulary includes numerous names of various actions and processes : fight, brother, run, istci, breathe, pisat, slack, esci - to be, take, run, go, breathe, write, send, eat; qualities and signs: white, deaf, simple, bold, wide, noisy, clear - white, deaf, simple, bold, wide, noisy, clear. Not only common Slavic, but also Indo-European are some pronouns, numerals, prepositions, conjunctions: you, yon, I, you, two, five, one hundred, on, pad, for, i, a, y, etc. All these words are found and in the Russian original and in the Belarusian translation of the work.
The given and similar words are the most ancient in all Slavic languages, and some of them are also found in almost all Indo-European languages: etc.) Therefore, such vocabulary is naturally and rightfully called Indo-European.
Camparativists are always trying to identify the full number of words that have remained in one or another Slavic language (or in all) from the common Slavic linguistic unity. In the middle of the XIX century. F.S. Shymkevich in his work "The Korneslov of the Russian language, compared with all the main Slavic dialects and with twenty-four foreign ones" (St. Petersburg, 1842), added 1378 words with the Proto-Slavic language ("indigenous"), and a hundred years later T. Ler-Splavinsky added there are more than 17004 such words. M.M. Shansky notes: “The words that come from the common Slavic language (numerous from which already exist at the present time with other meanings) in our vocabulary are no more than two thousand. However, to this day, such words appear in our speech as the most common, frequent and running in everyday relations and add up at least 1/4 of all words. It is these words that are the core of our modern dictionary, the most important and integral part of it. " It seems that in the "Etymological Dictionary of Slavic Languages: Proto-Slavic Lexical Fund" (M., 1974-1984) the number of such words will increase, because it widely uses data not only from all Slavic languages, but also from their dialects.
In addition to the Indo-European and common Slavic vocabulary, in the vocabulary of the Belarusian and Russian languages, Eastern Slavic words stand out as original words, which means that vocabulary is an acquisition only of fraternal peoples during their compatible life. Linguists here include, first of all, such words as: bel. here "I, nephew, vayavoda, pasol, Ganese, service, servant, volost, plow, danina, dzesiatsina, sorak, dzevyanosta ...; Russian family, nephew, governor, ambassador, messenger, service, servant, parish, plow , tribute, tithe, forty, ninety ... In recent decades, the traditional vocabulary common to the Russian and Belarusian languages is also being revised, and it includes words like: experience, adjustment, etc., joker, wag, lark, buzz , chill, chaffinch, benefit, sniff, completely, jackdaw, here, snowfall, talker, bullfinch, bubble, icy, after, etc.
All the so-called lexical and semantic neolagisms, words created directly by Belarusians and Russians from the 14th century, belong to the original vocabulary of the East Slavic languages. to this day, with the help of their word-formation resources and semantic shifts in already known words (both their own and borrowed ones). So, actually Belarusian, since ancient times, the words have been considered: abavyazak (Russian duty), darosly (Russian adult), sound (Russian custom), fly (Russian last summer, last year), tsіkavіtstsa (Russian nnteresovatsya); truly Russian - edge (white. akraets,), local (white. tuteishy), weigh (white. important), juicy (white.), suddenly (white. raptam,); and etc.
The given examples show that the discrepancies between the East Slavic languages in their own lexemes relate mainly to morphemic and word-forming levels. There are much fewer of them in lexical and semantic terms. In general, at the semantic level, discrepancies (differences) between the Belarusian and Russian languages are most often found in the period of formation of these languages as national ones. The Russian language has preserved the common Slavic (Old Slavonic) word face (modern Russian face) with the meanings of the front part of the human head, “appearance”, the grammatical category of the verb and pronoun, and the modern Belarusian language has retained only the single-root word ablіchcha (Russian appearance), which conveys others specified values using the lexemes creature and asoba. The words used by F. Skaryna, person and person with the meanings "person, person" and "creature", remained the property of only the Old Belarusian language. But with the word “mountain”, which is of Indo-European origin, in the modern Belarusian language, not only new meanings have developed: “a room, the space between the ceiling and the roof on the house”, “top, tower”, “a faint ringing chago will not be”, but also new words : garyshcha (Russian attic), garoy (pillows rose on a garoy spoon).
In the course of a comparative analysis of Pushkin's work "Dubrovsky", we came to the conclusion that modern Belarusian and Russian languages do not use the same ancient vocabulary, even widely used in the common Slavic language. The basic vocabulary of the related East Slavic languages differs little, although the Belarusian and Russian languages developed independently for a considerable time. Text in any of these languages has more in common than specific and is generally understandable. Let's give an example: “... Ten minutes later he drove into the manor's yard. He looked around him with indescribable excitement. For twelve years he did not see his homeland. The birch trees that had just been planted near the fence under him have grown and have now become tall, branched trees. The yard, once decorated with three regular flower beds, between which there was a wide road, carefully swept, was turned into an unmowed meadow, on which a entangled horse was grazing. The dogs began to bark, but, recognizing Anton, fell silent and waved their shaggy tails. The servants poured out of the human images and surrounded the young gentleman with noisy expressions of joy...” Yon glyadzeў vakol himself with praise not written. Dvanatstsatsatsya bastards didn’t see his piles of joy. Byarozki, yakіya prіm only that were pasadzhany kala parkan, grew and became tall trees at once. The yard, the kalistsі were added with three correct flowers, between them there was a wide daroga, a crumpled dakladna, a meadow was piled up at a non-mowed field, a horse pastured like a horse. Dogs, it was, zabrahali, ale, daring Anton, closed and waved their kalmaty boasts. The people of Dvara poured out of human images and attacked the young pan with noisy revealed joys ...”.
Half of the material is lexical matches, which consist of a quarter of formal and semantic. Second quarter, approximate, lexical matches with differences in form and semantics, or both. We compared excerpts from the text of Pushkin's work, their Belarusian and Russian vocabulary (13 verbs and 13 nouns are compared in all Slavic literary languages), which show that the coinciding vocabulary in each of the texts is at least half). For example: “... At about seven o'clock in the evening, some guests wanted to go, but the owner, cheered up with punch, ordered the gates to be locked and announced that he would not let anyone out of the yard until the next morning. Soon the music boomed, the doors to the hall opened, and the ball began. The owner and his entourage were sitting in the corner, drinking glass after glass and admiring the cheerfulness of the youth. The old women played cards...”, and “...Kalya gadzinaў in the evening, some guests were eager to go, ale gaspadar, unleashed on punches, guessing to close the gate and abvestsіў, so that the advancing wound would not let go of the dvara. Hutka was splattered with music, the doors near the hall were closed, and the ball began. Gaspadar and Iago jumping syadzeli and kutu, drinking glass after glass and admiring the merriment of youth. Grandmothers walked ў cards ... ". Thus, the vocabulary of the Russian and Belarusian languages is extremely close. But even in such close and related languages as Belarusian and Russian, there are significant lexical differences.
Book-Slavic vocabulary occupied a large place in Pushkin's work. In his works, in comparison with the Karamzinists, the composition of Slavonicisms expanded significantly. Pushkin recognized the book-Slavic vocabulary as "a living structural element of the Russian literary language." However, unlike the "Shishkovists", he saw in this vocabulary not the basis of the Russian literary language, but only one of its constituent parts (along with other genetic and stylistic layers). Pushkin's view of the place of book-Slavic vocabulary in the general composition of the literary language, its volume and, most importantly, its function, far from coincided with the views of the Shishkovites. This is clearly seen from the following statement of his: “How long ago did we begin to write in a language that is generally understood? Have we convinced ourselves that the Slavic language is not the Russian language, and that we cannot confuse them willfully, that if many words, many phrases can happily be borrowed from church books into our literature, then it does not follow from this that we can write : yes kiss me with a kiss, kiss me instead. Of course, even Lomonosov did not think so, he preferred the study of the Slavic language as a necessary means to a thorough knowledge of the Russian language.
Considering Pushkin's views on the role and place of book-Slavonic vocabulary in the Russian literary language, his statements about this vocabulary, the principles of its selection and use in the poet's work, it should be borne in mind that for Pushkin, as well as for his contemporaries and predecessors-Karamzinists, the concept of Slavism had not a genetic, but a purely stylistic meaning. In other words, it was only about that part of the book-Slavonic vocabulary, which by that time still retained the stylistic coloring of loftiness and, in the perception of contemporaries, had not lost its connection with the church language. From the linguistic disputes of the period under consideration, those Slavonicisms were excluded, which by this time were stylistically and semantically assimilated and constituted a significant lexical fund of the literary language. For example: “... Her gaze quickly ran around them and again showed the same insensitivity. The young people got into a carriage together and drove to Arbatovo; Kirill Petrovich has already gone there in order to meet the young people there .... "
Thus, having made a comparative analysis of Pushkin's texts "Dubrovsky" in the Belarusian and Russian languages, having determined the composition of stylistically significant Slavicisms and their artistic functions, we see that Pushkin limited the scope of their functioning as specific means of artistic expression mainly to the limits of poetic speech. This was an important step towards the gradual movement of a significant part of the Book Slavonic vocabulary to the periphery of the literary language, leaving the composition of the living and relevant elements of the Russian literary language.
In Pushkin's time, "a new generation of people begins to feel the charm of their native language and the power to form it in themselves." Both Russian and Belarusian written sources (chronicles, works of fiction, translations, chronicles, etc.) under the influence of a living spoken language penetrate the original names of essential items, as well as phenomena of objective reality, created on the basis of common Slavic words with help of various shifts in semantics, i.e. rethought. The most significant lexical differences between the Belarusian language and Russian manifested themselves during the formation and formation of both languages as national (XVIII - early XX centuries).
In particular, there are many specific words and phrases in the Belarusian literary language, which in the new period was formed exclusively on the basis of folk conversation, therefore the vocabulary and phraseology of the modern Belarusian language has distinctive national features not only in terms of its form (phonemic and morphemic composition), but also content (meaning - direct, figurative, narrowed, expanded, new, updated, etc.). All this can be confirmed by the analysis of lexemes and phrases found in the dictionaries of I.I. Nosovich and V.I. Dahl, in the Russian-Belarusian and Belarusian-Russian dictionaries, in the explanatory dictionaries of modern Russian and Belarusian languages.
In the course of the analysis of Pushkin's work "Dubrovsky", we see that he widely uses colloquial vocabulary in his work. For example: “... At that moment, an old man of tall stature, pale and thin, in a dressing gown and cap entered the hall, moving his legs forcibly.
Hello Volodya! he said in a weak voice, and Vladimir warmly embraced his father. Joy produced too much shock in the patient, he weakened, his legs gave way under him, and he would have fallen if his son had not supported him.
Why did you get out of bed, - Yegorovna told him, - you can’t stand on your feet, but you will give birth to the same place where people go ... ”He sees in her a source of national renewal of the literary language. His attitude towards her was formulated by him in theoretical articles. Considering that the spoken language of the common people is worthy of the deepest research, Pushkin urges “to listen to Moscow mallows. They speak amazingly clear and correct language. For Pushkin, the process of democratization of the literary language is a sign of “mature literature”: “In mature literature, the time comes when minds, bored with monotonous works of art, limited by the circle of the agreed, chosen language, turn to fresh folk fiction and strange vernacular.” Defending the artist's right to freedom in using different language means in his works, Pushkin repeatedly proves that the most poetic thoughts can be expressed in folk speech, "the language of an honest commoner" .
When comparing the vocabulary of the original and the Belarusian translation of Pushkin's story "Dubrovsky", one immediately notices the various specific features of the Belarusian and Russian languages in the field of phonetics and graphics (ў, dz, j, prefixed vowels and consonants, yak, softness [h], etc. ), morphology and spelling (the second and third mitigation of back-lingual [g], [k], [x] and spelling -tstsa, -chy as farmants of infinitives in the Belarusian language, -tsya, -ch in Russian, etc.), different morphological word formation and different morphemic composition with the same root morphemes (for example: St. Bel. protector and St. Russian protector, etc.). It should be noted that many linguist researchers attribute words with the above and similar differences to the proper Belarusian or proper Russian vocabulary, however, in this type of lexemes there will be not lexical, but phonetic, graphic, spelling, morphological and word-formation differences. For example: “... There were fewer cavaliers, as elsewhere, where no uhlan brigade lodged, than ladies, all men fit for that were recruited. The teacher was different from everyone, he danced more than anyone, all the young ladies chose him and found that it was very clever to waltz with him. Several times he circled with Marya Kirilovna, and the young ladies mockingly noticed them. Finally, around midnight, the tired owner stopped dancing, ordered to give supper, and went to bed himself ... "," Cavalier, like here, dze not quatarue like some kind of Uhlan brigade, it was less, chim lady, mustache, were recruited. The nastavnіk mіzh uєmі аdroznіvaўsya, іn tаnchyў more uсіх, moustache abіralі yago and znakhodzіlі, thаt іm velmі vіrtka valsіrovatsya. Several times they circled with Marya Kirilovna, and the young ladies mockingly mumbled after them. Naresh kala midnight languid gaspadar sleepy dances, guessing to give vyacherats, and he himself goes to sleep .... " Another thing is with words with different roots or their relics. In general, M.M. Shansky is inclined to believe that actually Russian words are such words that arose on Russian soil from the 14th century. to this day with the help of common Slavic and East Slavic roots, but actually Russian affixes. First of all, these are words like a mason, dokhlyatina, leaflet, etc. The same can be said about Belarusian words proper, including various kinds of tracing-paper lexemes in their group, compare: avechka and sheep, song and rooster, etc. d.
The independent development of the Belarusian and Russian languages over the course of five centuries led to the fact that significant differences arose even in those lexical-semantic groups that stabilized back in the common Slavic period. A vivid example is the modern Belarusian names of some parts of the human body in comparison with their modern Russian counterparts: creature - face, skroni - temples, vochy - eyes, etc. Other layers of everyday vocabulary in both languages are even more changed.
Despite the originality of the Belarusian and Russian languages, throughout the history of their development there was interlingual contact, which naturally affected, first of all, the lexico-semantic system. Written monuments reflected this phenomenon both in the Old Belarusian and in the Old Russian language.
In the story "Dubrovsky", Pushkin makes a careful selection of vocabulary from the spoken language and uses it in such a way that it serves as a means of realistic reproduction of reality or a means of social characterization of the character. Such use of the lexical means of the national language is determined by the creative method of the writer and his worldview. At the same time, it reflects the beginning of the leading trend in the development of literature and the literary language of the era as a whole.
The range of colloquial words that Pushkin involves in his work is quite wide. However, in itself, the wide access of colloquial lexical elements to fiction is not a new phenomenon. And yet, it was no coincidence that Pushkin was called “a complete reformer of the language” (Belinsky), although it is known that Pushkin “did not create any“ new ”language, he did not invent new words, forms, etc., he did not engage in word creation at all ". An innovative attitude to language lies in changing the conditions for the functioning of linguistic material in a work of art. The principles for selecting "simple" vocabulary in Pushkin's language do not remain unchanged, they evolve.
Penetrating into Pushkin's artistic prose, this vocabulary, finding application in stories, not only when describing peasants, but also in the speech of storytellers created by Pushkin, narrators. Such vocabulary is often used in a neutral author's narrative. For example: Masha was dumbfounded, deathly pallor covered her face. ("Dubrovsky"). Or: “... she shuddered and died, but still hesitated, still expected; the priest, without waiting for her answer, uttered irrevocable words. The rite was smoked. She felt the cold kiss of her unloving spouse, she heard the cheerful congratulations of those present, and still, but could believe that her life was forever chained, that Dubrovsky had not flown to free her ... ".
So, colloquial lexical units, while retaining their expression, are widely involved in Pushkin's artistic narrative. Their functioning as colloquial, but quite literary, normative elements is recognized in modern scientific literature as the essence of the transformation of the literary language in this era. The use of the named category of words in the author's neutral speech clearly indicates that new norms of word usage are being formed, that the boundaries of the literary norm itself are expanding. These norms were adopted by the most advanced cultural figures of the Pushkin era.
However, from the point of view of the traditional understanding of literary canons, Pushkin's language could and indeed did seem unacceptable to a certain part of journalists, since it did not fit into the previously established idea of the literary norm: "Pushkin's vocabulary amazed his contemporaries with perfect diversity and novelty, creating the impression of sharp dissonance against the background of poetic traditions" .
The national Russian poet - Pushkin is not closed in his work by the framework of Russian culture. His creations reflect the cultures of the West and the East: modern, ancient, ancient and medieval. Words of various languages, up to the most exotic ones (Malay Anchar), are found in the language of the poet, and the first place among them belongs to Gallicisms. Pushkin uses words of French origin in Russian spelling, French words and expressions in their French design, as well as expressions and words literally translated from French. Some of the letters were written by Pushkin in French. Brought up in the spirit of the times in French culture, the writer studied English, knew Italian, read the Koran in the original, and studied Hebrew. He worked on Latin, Greek, Ukrainian, Polish, Tatar, Old Bulgarian, German languages. For example: "... Cavaliers, as well as everywhere where no uhlan brigade lodgings, were less than ladies, all men fit for that were recruited ...".
Pushkin pays tribute to the cultures of other languages. It is no coincidence that he characterizes his native language as "a language ... flexible and powerful in its turns and means ..., receptive and sociable in its relations with foreign languages" .
Russians and Belarusians over the long history of their development have accumulated a fairly significant amount of verbal wealth borrowed from other peoples. Thus, in the course of the analysis of the story “Dubrovsky”, we determined that borrowed words in the Belarusian and Russian languages differ from Belarusian and Russian lexemes proper by some of their morphemes, sound combinations and even sounds (letters). For example, in the Old Russian language, almost all words with the sound [f], combinations [gk], [g "e], [k" e], [x" e] were borrowed; in modern Russian, words with sounds [j], [dz | also borrowed, etc.; in the modern Belarusian language, words with initial stressed [o], [u] and without prefixed consonants will always be foreign, the same phenomenon with words with combinations ia(ia), io(ie ), йо (ыё), etc. In general, numerous combinations of sounds (letters) and morphemes in modern Russian and Belarusian languages indicate borrowings from one or another language, for example, the combination la, le, ra (ro) - from Old Church Slavonic: rus. mind, cloud, helmet, etc., white rozum, cloud, helmet (sholam), etc., elements -dl-(-tl-) and shp- - from Polish and German: pawidla, tongue, hairpin, etc.; prefixes a- (an-), ant- (anti-), archi- - from Greek: immoral, anti-government, archbishop, etc.; suffixes -us, -um - from Latin: sail, Sirius, quorum, cansilium, presidium and etc .
When comparing the borrowed vocabulary of the Belarusian and Russian languages, it is immediately revealed that in both languages there is an unequal number of those or other foreign words. Recognizing the role of foreign sources in enriching the vocabulary of the literary language, Pushkin emphasized that this influence is far from always needed. He believed that it could not be too strong with sufficient development of one's own culture.
In Pushkin's work, the central problem of the era is solved - the synthesis of all viable linguistic elements that came into the Russian literary language from different genetic sources. The freedom to combine these elements, speech synthesis, as the results of a number of modern studies show, is the essence of Pushkin's language reform. It is under Pushkin's pen that an organic fusion of elements heterogeneous in source occurs: Church Slavonicisms, Russian words (including colloquial and dialectal), borrowings; Pushkin is characterized by "the free combination and interpenetration of linguistic units, previously disunited and opposed in the historical-genetic, expressive-stylistic and socio-characterological terms."
The most important moment of Pushkin's synthesis was that "the act of crossing the literary and everyday principles" is being completed. Pushkin is characterized by a free combination of Slavonicisms in one context with colloquial and everyday words, sometimes sharply differing from each other in their stylistic coloring. The combination of such words contradicted the concept of a stylistic norm among Karamzinists, violated the principle - "perfect identity or uniformity in words and their flow, without any jumps or irregularities."
Of particular interest in this regard is "Dubrovsky". The novelty of Pushkin's approach to synthesizing two speech elements in the text consisted here, as the researchers admit, in the fact that, by combining literary and colloquial everyday elements, the writer does not destroy the stylistic solidity of the whole. Such, for example, is the combination of lexical units of different styles, the combination of book-Slavic words with words denoting objects and phenomena of everyday life, sometimes peasant.
And in conclusion, I would like to say that in Pushkin, according to Gogol, “as if all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language were contained in the lexicon. He is more than all, he further than all pushed the boundaries for him and more showed all his space. Thus, Pushkin determined the main direction in the development of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language.
Conclusion
1. The Russian national language has been formed over several centuries: in the middle of the 18th century. its morphological system developed, by the beginning of the 19th century. - syntactic system, in the first half of the XIX century. the modern correlation of various lexical layers in the literary language and the language of fiction is established.
2. At the beginning of the XIX century. two types of literary language are formed, characteristic of each national language: bookish and colloquial and, as before, interacting with non-literary colloquial speech, but not coinciding with it in volume.
3. The leading place in the system of the literary language is occupied by the language of fiction; a large number of non-literary means are involved in the texts of fiction, which makes it possible from the middle of the 19th century. (30-40s) to oppose three systems of language - literary language, live colloquial speech and the language of fiction, where literary and non-literary language means are used.
4. A.S. Pushkin.
5. The most complete reflection of the process of democratization of the Russian literary language was found in the work of A.S. Pushkin, in particular in the story "Dubrovsky", since in his work there was a harmonious fusion of all the viable elements of the Russian literary language with elements of living folk speech, such as words, word forms, syntactic constructions, stable phrases selected by the writer from folk speech.
6. In the first half of the XIX century. (30-40s) the process of formation of the Russian literary national language ends; the most complete norms of the modern Russian literary language were first presented in the works of Pushkin, so many researchers call Pushkin the founder of the modern Russian literary language, and his vocabulary is peculiar.
List of used literature
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3. Budagov R.A. Writers about language and the language of writers. M., 1984. - p. 203
4. Birzhakova E.E., Voinova L.A., Kutina L.L. Essays on the historical lexicology of the Russian language of the XVIII century. - L., 1972.-p. 18-19
5. Vinogradov V.V. Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the XVII-XIX centuries. M., Uchpedgiz, 1938, chapters five and six.
6. Vinogradov V.V. Pushkin's language. M., "Asa", 1953. - p. 63
7. Vinogradov V.V. Pushkin's style. M., Goslitizdat, 1941.-p.71
8. Hoffman V.A. Pushkin's language. - In: Style and language of A.S. Pushkin, M., 1987.-p. fourteen
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Independent work
On the topicat:" BUTactive and passive vocabulary of the literary Russian language"
Mastyugina A.
In modern Russian, obsolete words include those that are known from the works of classical literature. They are rarely used in speech.
Reasons for the obsolescence of words:
1) non-linguistic; 2) intralinguistic.
Historicisms are words whose semantic changes are due to extralinguistic factors. These are the names of objects and phenomena of the old way of life, old culture, social, economic and political relations that have gone into the past. Historicisms include the names of social institutions (corvée, dues, zemshchina), household items, clothes (arshin, frock coat, caftan), names of people according to social status (smerd, boyar, prince, count, nobleman, hetman, centurion). the word historicism non-linguistic
Neologisms at one time were words such as budenovka, tachanka, kombed, surplus appraisal, educational program, worker faculty, but in a short time they became historicisms.
The intralinguistic reasons that led to the appearance of obsolete words include synonymous competition, as a result of which one of the synonymous words gives way to another. Such a process occurred at one time with the words eye and eye, forehead and forehead, airplane and plane, helicopter and helicopter, etc.
In addition, intralinguistic factors should include the processes of expanding or narrowing the meaning of words as a result of the elimination of more specialized names. The following example is given in the linguistic literature: in Russian, each finger had a separate name. But the word FINGER was called only big, the word FINGER - index, etc. Over time, the special names of the fingers became irrelevant and the word FINGER acquired a general meaning, spreading to all others, and the word FINGER began to be used as an archaic synonym for it.
Varieties of archaisms
Obsolete words that have fallen out of use as a result of intralinguistic processes are called archaisms. In the process of language development, they are replaced by other words that are more acceptable to the next generations. Old nominations are moving into the category of passive vocabulary.
In linguistics, there are several classifications of archaisms. So, N.M. Shansky divides all archaisms into lexical and semantic ones. M.I. Fomina, A.V. Kalinin and others divide archaisms into the following groups: proper lexical, lexical-phonetic, lexical-derivational, lexical-semantic.
Actually lexical archaisms are completely outdated (eye, forehead, finger, battle).
Lexico-phonetic archaisms include words whose sound form has changed in the process of historical development (bakcha - melon, Busulman - Muslim, stora - curtain, clob - club number - number, calm - style).
Lexical and derivational archaisms are words in which individual word-building elements are outdated (friendship - friendship, nervous - nervous, rest - rest, buyer - buyer).
Lexico-semantic archaisms have retained their sound form, but have changed their meaning (the word warrior is perceived by modern native speakers as a member of a voluntary association, and not a person who was a member of the prince's squad).
Historicisms, archaisms are an important stylistic means in a literary text, by which one can determine the era in a work on a historical theme.
Neologisms and their types
Neologisms are new words or meanings that have recently appeared in the language. These are the names of new objects that have appeared in the process of development of science, culture, technology, production, everyday life, the names of new phenomena, actions, processes.
A neologism remains new until it becomes common and quite frequent (programmer, computer, cybernetics). These words quickly entered the language and became an integral part of the vocabulary.
There are such neologisms in the language that name phenomena that are obviously transient (new materials - krimplen, bologna, styles of clothing and shoes - Romanian, body shirt, hairstyles - gavroche, babeta), etc. Such words from the category of neologisms very quickly fall into the category of obsolete vocabulary.
Linguistics scientists single out lexical neologisms - new derivatives and borrowed words (moon rover, nuclear ship, cruise, broiler), which make up about 90%, and semantic ones that have arisen as a result of the emergence of new meanings for words functioning in the language, for example: dynasty - 1) a series of sequentially reigning monarchs from the same family, and 2) representatives of different generations from the same family with the same profession (working dynasty), etc.
Occasionalisms are individually authored formations. They are characterized by a single use, created "on the occasion", inherent only in a given context. Everyone knows the occasionalisms in the work of V. Mayakovsky (hammered, sickle, chamberlain, etc.), K. Fedin (starry eyes), E. Yevtushenko (beznerony, nesgubinka, teaser, etc.), etc.
Dictionaries of obsolete and new words
There are no special dictionaries of historicisms and archaisms yet. However, many obsolete words entered the dictionary of V.I. Dahl. Their meanings are reflected in the great academic encyclopedia.
For a long time there were no dictionaries of neologisms. However, even in the times of Peter the Great, a "Lexicon of new vocabulary" was compiled, which in essence was a concise dictionary of foreign words. Some words were included in the dictionary of V.I. Dalem. Significant in the composition of neologisms was the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D.N. Ushakov. A large number of them entered the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov.
In 1971, a reference dictionary was published, prepared according to the materials of the press and literature of the 60s, "New Words and Meanings", edited by N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokin. The dictionary explains about 3500 words that are widely used.
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