Message in Russian explanatory dictionary. What are the dictionaries? A Brief Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language: Grammatical Forms, Stress

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Introduction

1. Types of dictionaries

Spelling

Dictionaries of neologisms

Grammar

anthroponymic

Dialect

Morphemic and derivational

Reverse

Orthoepic

Homonym dictionaries

Explanatory dictionaries

Abbreviations Dictionaries

Dictionaries of epithets, metaphors, comparisons

Dictionaries of the language of writers and dictionaries of individual works

Dictionaries of names of inhabitants

toponymic

Frequency

Etymological dictionaries

Dictionaries-reference books of the difficulties of the Russian language

Historical dictionaries

2. Description of some dictionaries

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language S.I. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova

Dictionary of the language A.S. Pushkin

Dictionary of synonyms from expressions similar in meaning Abramov N.

Spelling Dictionary Lopatin V.V.

Dahl Dictionary edited by Baudouin de Courtenay

Dictionary of Russian Argo V.S. Elistratova

Semantic dictionary under the general editorship of N.Yu. Shvedova

List of references and sources

INTRODUCTION

The daily flow of information contained in radio and television programs, in the press, in works of art, gives rise to a lot of linguistic questions in schoolchildren. For example, what do the words consensus, summit, manager, investment, etc. mean, how the 1st person forms are formed from the verbs win, convince, etc., how the plural genitive form is formed from the nouns dream, window, blanket , little body, etc., how the form of the genitive plural is formed from some names of peoples - Balkars, Karelians, Turkmens, Uighurs, etc., which vowel is stressed in words differently, spinning, cottage cheese, etc. ., in short adjectives wet, wet; stormy, stormy; violent, violent, etc., is the imperative form used from verbs to hear, see, want, rot, cost, mean, etc., how are the words small things or small things, ginseng or ginseng, player, player or player, as it should be written pronounce the words bulo (ch) th or bulo (shn) th, young (ch) th or young (sn) th.

There are many such questions. In the presence of dictionaries and reference books, anyone can easily find each native speaker of the Russian language on their own. With the help of them, children learn on their own. The dictionary is the key to the Russian Language House of Knowledge. A modern student should have dictionaries on his desk all the time and refer to them as questions arise. Thus, the study of the language should be permanent, systematic. In the home library of students, there must be spelling, grammar, word-formation, morphemic, explanatory, phraseological and other dictionaries and reference books. Dictionaries play an important role in modern culture, they reflect the knowledge accumulated by society over the centuries. They serve the purposes of describing and normalizing the language, helping to improve the correctness and expressiveness of the speech of its speakers. Dictionaries are usually divided into two types: encyclopedic and linguistic. Encyclopedic (from the Greek enkyklios paideia - training in the entire range of knowledge) dictionaries contain extralinguistic information about the described language units; these dictionaries contain information about scientific concepts, terms, historical events, personalities, geography, etc. In the encyclopedic dictionary there is no grammatical information about the word, but information is given about the subject denoted by the word. vocabulary language speech culture

The object of description of linguistic (language) dictionaries is language units (words, word forms, morphemes). In such a dictionary, a word (word form, morpheme) can be characterized from different angles, depending on the goals, volume and tasks of the dictionary: from the side of semantic content, word formation, spelling, orthoepy, correct use. Depending on how many features of a word are described in the dictionary, one-aspect and multi-aspect dictionaries are distinguished.

Any dictionary consists of dictionary entries. A dictionary entry is the basic structural unit of a dictionary; text explaining the heading unit in the dictionary and describing its main characteristics. The structure of a dictionary entry is determined by the tasks of the dictionary. But the dictionary entry of any dictionary begins with a headword [in a different way: headword, lemma, black word (from the bold type that usually marks the headword)]. The set of title entries form a dictionary, or the left side of the dictionary. The right side of the dictionary is the one that explains the heading unit. The right part of the explanatory dictionary, as a rule, includes the zones: grammatical characteristics of the word, interpretation, type of meaning (direct, figurative); illustrations (quotes, sayings); derivational nest; the so-called “behind the rhombus” part (phraseological units), etc. The zones of the right part are developed for each dictionary. The totality of all dictionary entries forms a dictionary corpus. In addition to the corpus, any dictionary has a preface, a section “How to use the dictionary” (which for some reason is not read by anyone); a list of conditional abbreviations, etc. A dictionary entry in an explanatory dictionary is a portrait of a word. In order to perceive this portrait correctly, one must be able to read a dictionary entry, extracting from it all the information contained in it. Every teacher must have a good personal vocabulary library. Dictionary circulation should meet the needs of schools. These are the main requirements of the state approach to the use of vocabulary and reference literature in the modern school. The literary norm, the high culture of speech, must be defended more resolutely, otherwise the literary language will not be able to fulfill the social functions assigned to it.

INIDES OF DICTIONARIES

Spelling dictionaries

Spelling dictionaries are dictionaries containing an alphabetical list of words in their standard spelling. Spelling dictionaries are divided into four types according to their focus: general, sectoral (for example, "Spelling Marine Dictionary" M., 1974), reference dictionaries for press workers, school. Recall also that the spelling of words should be checked according to authoritative dictionaries.

The new academic normative "Russian Spelling Dictionary" (M., 1999) refers to the general type of spelling dictionaries. This dictionary reflects the vocabulary of the Russian literary language in its current state by the end of the 20th century. Compared with the previous "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language", published in 1956-1998. (editions 1-33), the volume of the dictionary has been increased by more than one and a half times (now it contains about 160,000 words and phrases). An innovation that distinguishes the dictionary from the previous edition is the inclusion of words written with an uppercase letter and combinations with such words, including words written in their different meanings and uses, both with an uppercase and lowercase letter.

Reference dictionaries are devoted to any spelling difficulties. The dictionary of such a dictionary includes only words in which there is a given orthogram. For example, the dictionary B.Z. Bukchina "Spelling Dictionary: Jointly? Apart? Through a hyphen? (M., 1999), devoted to the problem of continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of words; dictionary D.E. Rosenthal “Uppercase or lowercase?: An experience of a reference dictionary” (M., 1986). There are dictionaries dedicated to the use of one letter: the dictionary of K.I. Bylinsky The use of the letter Yo: A Handbook (M., 1945).

In connection with the need to optimize the educational process, the task arose of creating various minimums, including spelling and punctuation. See A.V. Tekuchev "On the spelling and punctuation minimum for secondary school" (M., 1976).

* Dictionary of Russian spelling or spelling. M., 1813. (One of the first small dictionaries.)

* Genning V.P. Reference book and index of Russian spelling. SPb., 1879.

* Romashkevich P. Russian spelling dictionary. SPb., 1881.

* Spelling dictionary with the addition of a refresher course in Russian spelling / Comp. A. Spitsyn. M., 1883. (The first school spelling dictionary.)

* Gan I.K. Complete dictionary of the letter yat. A collection of all the words of the Russian language, indigenous and derivative, which are written through yat. With preliminary rules and explanations regarding the use of this letter. With the addition of a complete list of cities, villages, towns and postal stations, the name of which includes the letter yat. 6th ed., revised again. correct Vlna, 1896.

* Seslavin D.N. Pocket spelling dictionary containing more than 30,000 words / Comp. Seslavin D.N. St. Petersburg, 1897.

* Ruch S.G. Spelling dictionary with the designation of stresses and the indication of the roots of words of Russian origin. Comp. according to the latest sources S.G. Manual SPb., 1900.

* Chudinov A.N. Reference dictionary. Spelling, etymological and explanatory of the Russian literary language. SPb., 1901.

* Razygraev V. Reference index of Russian spelling, with the application of all spelling rules and root words, comp. according to Reif, Shimkevich and others. St. Petersburg, 1884.

* Vladimirsky I. Spelling Dictionary. With spelling rules. A guide to learning Russian spelling. M., 1903.

* Abramenko F. A dictionary containing about ten thousand words that are difficult to spell, spelling rules, word wrapping rules and punctuation rules. Compiled according to Grot and supplemented by F. Abramenko according to academic dictionaries and other sources. 8th ed. Kyiv, 1909.

* Zachinyaev A. Spelling Dictionary / Ed. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. SPb., 1910.

* New spelling dictionary. Comp. a group of proofreaders according to Ya.K. Grot and others, under the general editorship of V. Grechaninov. 100,000 words. M., 1911.

* Large spelling dictionary: With grammar appendix. OK. 70000 words. M., 1999.

* Bookchina B.Z. Russian spelling dictionary. M., 1999.

* Tikhonov A.N., Tikhonova E.N., Tikhonov S.A. Dictionary-reference book on the Russian language: Ok. 26,000 words / Ed. A.N. Tikhonov. 4th ed., stereotype. M., 1999.

* Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language: Handbook for schoolchildren and applicants. M., 1999.

* Tikhonov A.N. Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language: Ok. 70000 words. 2nd ed., stereotype. M., 1999.

Dictionaries of neologisms

Dictionaries of neologisms describe words, meanings of words or combinations of words that appeared in a certain period of time or were used only once (occasionalisms). In developed languages, the number of neologisms recorded in newspapers and magazines during one year is tens of thousands.

Even in ancient times, neologisms attracted the attention of scientists. Let's refer to the "Lexicon of vocabularies new in alphabetical order." The dictionary was published 200 years after its creation and is recognized by us as the first edition of this type. (We are talking about one of the active ways to replenish the dictionary through borrowings from other languages.) This handwritten dictionary of the first quarter of the 18th century, compiled at the direction of Peter I, contains 503 borrowed words denoting new realities and concepts of the Petrine (partly pre-Petrine) era, among which are such words that have firmly entered the Russian language, such as decree, problem, tool, map, etc.

Dictionaries of neologisms were created sporadically. Only since the early 1970s. In the 20th century, when dictionaries of new words (neological) of the Russian, English and French languages, close in character and volume, were published almost simultaneously, it became possible to speak of the emergence of a new lexicographic specialization with its own theoretical base.

Neologism (Greek neos - new and logos - word) - literally "new word". Neologisms include single words, compound words (stargazer, launch vehicle); stable phrases with signs of terminology (commercial network, household service, spacecraft, put into orbit); speech turns (new thinking, human factor). Neologisms, perceived by the general literary language, for the most part are not stylistically colored words, they directly and directly designate new objects, phenomena, concepts.

There are lexical and semantic neologisms. Lexical neologisms are words that are newly formed or borrowed. This category recently included, for example, such as extraterrestrial, spaceport, designer. Semantic neologisms are well-known words that have acquired new meanings (satellite - in the meaning of "artificial satellite of the Earth", scorer - "a member of a sports team who plays well in attack"). These names in a certain period passed the stage of an unusual, qualitatively new use, and then quite soon they were assimilated by speakers and writers.

Indispensable signs of neologisms are their freshness and novelty. However, these signs are temporary, since usually neologisms are quickly absorbed by the language, become familiar to its speakers and lose these initial signs (cf., for example, the rapid entry into speech of such initially new words as astronaut, cosmic vision, laser, rotaprint, transistor). Such words "in the rank" of neologisms fall only in the historical sense, and, therefore, in the synchronic plan, they are usually neutral.

New words are formed, first of all, according to the laws of word creation that have long been established in the language, using existing words and a developed system of prefix-suffix means. The vocabulary is also replenished due to borrowings from other languages, for the most part these are vocational, sports terms and other special designations. A noticeable part of neologisms is represented by lexico-semantic neoplasms that arise as a result of a change in the meaning of long-known words. Another source of enrichment of the vocabulary of the language is the inclusion of dialect and vernacular words in it. Such, for example, are the words partner, loaf, study, earflaps that have become familiar. This also includes the jargons included in the dictionary - social and professional.

* New words and meanings: A dictionary-reference book (based on the materials of the press and literature of the 60s) / Ed. N.Z. Kotelova, Yu.S. Sorokin. M., 1971; 2nd ed., stereotype. M., 1973.

* New words and dictionaries of new words / Otv. ed. N.Z. Kotelova. L., 1978.

* New in Russian vocabulary. Dictionary Materials-78 / Ed. N.Z. Kotelova. M., 1981.

* New in Russian vocabulary. Dictionary Materials-85 / Ed. N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.F. Denisenko SPb., 1996.

* New words and meanings: Dictionary-reference book on the materials of the press and literature of the 70s / Ed. N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokin. M., 1984.

* Dictionary of new words of the Russian language (mid-50s - mid-80s). SPb., 1995.

* New words and meanings: Dictionary-reference book on the materials of the press and literature of the 80s / Ed. E.A. Levashova. SPb., 1997.

* Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language of the late twentieth century. Language changes / Ed. G.N. Sklyarevskaya. SPb., 1998; 2nd ed. SPb., 2000.

grammar dictionaries,compatibility dictionaries

Grammar dictionaries are dictionaries that contain information about the morphological and syntactic properties of a word. Grammar dictionaries include words in direct or reverse alphabetical order. The principles of selection and the amount of information about a word are different depending on the purpose and addressee of each grammar dictionary.

One of the best grammar dictionaries is the “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Inflection” by A.A. Zaliznyak (M., 1977). It contains about 100,000 words in reverse alphabetical order, for which a unique system of indices has been developed that relates words to a specific category, type within it, type of stress, etc.

Educational "Grammar and spelling dictionary of the Russian language" B.T. Panova and A.V. Tekuchev was published in Moscow in 1976. In 1985, the second (revised and supplemented) edition of the dictionary was published with the new name “School Grammar and Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language”. The authors of this dictionary give various information about the word: its composition (division), spelling, pronunciation, grammatical forms, meaning (information on the morphology and semantics of the word is given in difficult cases).

In 1978, N.P. Kolesnikov, which contains 1800 indeclinable nouns and other invariable words of predominantly foreign origin. In addition to information about the origin of words, an interpretation of their meanings is given, features of pronunciation are indicated, and grammatical marks are given.

Dictionary-reference book for press workers D.E. Rosenthal "Management in the Russian language" (M., 1981) contains 2100 dictionary entries that give an idea of the possible choice of design options that differ in semantic or stylistic shades. In 1986, the 2nd, significantly supplemented, was published (about 2500 dictionary entries, edition of this dictionary). “The Russian verb and its participial forms: Explanatory and grammatical dictionary” - under this title, a reference dictionary by I.K. was published in 1989. Sazonova.

Educational dictionary of the Russian language V.V. Repkina describes 14100 words, including 3100 main (capital) and over 2700 synonyms and anonyms to them in 8300 words derived from the main ones. The dictionary is part of a set of teaching aids for students in grades 2-5 who study the Russian language under developmental education programs.

* Prokopovich N.N., Deribas A.A., Prokopovich E.N. Nominal and verbal administration in modern Russian. M., 1975.

* Panov B.T., Tekuchev A.V. Grammar and spelling dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1976.

* Kolesnikov N.P. Dictionary of indeclinable words. M., 1978.

* Russian Semantic Dictionary: An Experience of Automatic Thesaurus Construction: From Concept to Word / Compiled by Yu.N. Karaulov, V.I. Molchanov, V.A. Afanasiev, N.V. Mikhalev; Rep. ed. S.G. Barkhudarov. M., 1982.

* Panov B.T., Tekuchev A.V. School grammar and spelling dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1985.

* Rosenthal D.E. Management in Russian: Dictionary-reference book for press workers. M., 1981; 2nd ed. M., 1986.

anthroponymicdictionaries

Anthroponymy (from the Greek antropos - person and onima - name) is a section of onomastics that studies anthroponyms, i.e. people's own names.

In addition to the three-term naming of people - first name, patronymic, surname - the anthroponymic system of the Russian language also includes a nickname and a pseudonym. In different social strata, surnames appeared at different times. The first in the XIV-XV centuries. acquired the names of princes and boyars. Usually they were given by the names of their patrimonial estates: Tver, Zvenigorod, Vyazemsky: In the XVI-XVIII centuries. surnames of nobles are formed. Among them, there are many surnames of eastern origin, since many nobles arrived to serve the king from foreign lands. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. surnames of servicemen and merchants began to appear. They often reflected geographical concepts on the fact of birth. In the 19th century the names of the clergy began to take shape. The peasants did not have surnames until the end of the 19th century, and for some they appeared only in the 30s of the 20th century.

Surnames were usually formed with the help of suffixes from proper and common nouns, most of them from possessive adjectives with suffixes -ov (-ev), -in (Ivan - Ivanov, Sergey - Sergeev, Kuzma - Kuzmin, etc.).

Along with the canonical names (the so-called calendar ones, available in the church calendar), such as Vera, Vladimir, Peter, etc., as well as some new ones (Helium, Karina - from the name "Kara Sea", etc.), old Slavic (pagan) names: Dobromysl (from the bases of words with the meanings "good", "thought"), Dobroslav (from the bases of words with the meaning "good", "glory"), etc. Traces of these Slavic pagan names are also found in surnames (Nezhdan - Nezhdanov, Nekras - Nekrasov, etc.).

In the book of A.V. Superanskaya "Name - through centuries and countries" (M., 1990) considers over 1000 names, patronymics and surnames known to us, their origin is explained. A separate part of the book is devoted to geographical. It turns out that many names, not recognizing borders, “travel” around our planet, passing from one language to another, although they change somewhat, they sound differently, but they are quite recognizable. The author indicates from which language this or that name came to us, and gives an interpretation to which common noun of the source language the personal name goes back. For example: Tatyana - from Greek. “establish”, “prescribe”, which is interpreted as a manager, manager. Peter - from Greek. "petros" (stone), cf .: petrography, petrology - the science of rocks, their mineralogical and chemical composition.

The cited variants of the names of various peoples and countries are interesting. For example: Ivan (John - tsrk. - slav.) from other Heb. "God have mercy": Giovanni (Italian), Hans (German), Jan (pol.), Hovhannes (Armenian), Vano (Georgian), Juan (Spanish), John (English), Jean (Fr. .).

The correctness of the declension of names, patronymics and surnames is regulated by L.P. Kalakutskaya (M., 1995). The spelling rules and types of declension of proper names given in the handbook are based on reliable and extensive material of the last two centuries.

In the last, 6th, stereotypical edition of the Dictionary of Russian Personal Names, N.A. Petrovsky (M., 2000) contains more than 3000 names, both old and new. The dictionary entry includes diminutive names, patronymics, explains their origin. The dictionary contains two indexes: an index of diminutive names and an index of days of celebration for the corresponding saint. As additional information, the edition of the dictionary includes an appendix containing popular name stories written by T.S. Alexandrova.

* Tupikov N.M. Dictionary of Old Russian proper names. St. Petersburg, 1903.

* Moroshkin M. Slavic name book or a collection of Slavic personal names in alphabetical order. SPb., 1867.

* Acharyan R.Ya. Dictionary of proper names in Armenian. T. 1-4. Yerevan, 1942-1948.

* Dzyatkovskaya N.P. Ukrainian-Russian and Russian-Ukrainian Dictionary of Proper Names of People / Ed. I.N. Kirichenko. Kyiv, 1954.

* Chichagov V.K. From the history of Russian names, patronymics and surnames. M., 1959.

* Glonti A.A. Kartvelian proper names. Dictionary of anthroponyms. Tbilisi, 1967.

* Eremia A.I., Kosniceanu M. Personal names: A short anthroponymic reference book. Chisinau, 1968.

Dialect dictionaries

Dialect (Greek dialektos - conversation, dialect, dialect) is a variety of this language used as a means of communication by persons connected by a close territorial, social or professional community.

Dialect (or regional) dictionaries are a kind of explanatory dictionaries that describe the vocabulary of one or a group of dialects (dialects).

According to the principle of vocabulary selection, differential and complete dictionaries are distinguished.

Differential dictionaries include specific dialect words and so-called semantic dialectisms, which differ in meaning from common Russian words.

The complete dialect dictionaries contain the entire vocabulary of the dialect, as well as words common to the dialect and the literary language.

According to the coverage of the territories chosen for description, one-dialect dictionaries (reflect the lexical system of one dialect) and multi-dialect (generalizing) dictionaries (reflect the vocabulary of a group of dialects) are distinguished.

Based on the temporal approach to the description of vocabulary, dialect dictionaries are divided into synchronous (fixing the vocabulary of a dialect in its current state) and diachronic (describe dialect vocabulary in its historical development).

* Collection of special words used (in) Vladimir province in Pokrovsky district between peasants / Collected by P.F. Gorenkin // Proceedings of the OLRS (Society of Lovers of Russian Literature). 1817. Part 8.

* Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary / Ed. OH. Vostokova, A.M. Korkunov. SPb., 1852; Same: Supplement. SPb., 1858.

* Navrotsky M. Regional words used in the Tsarevokash district. Kazan, 1852.

* Danilevsky N.Ya. Additions to the experience of the regional Great Russian dictionary. SPb., 1869.

* Podvysotsky A. Dictionary of the regional Arkhangelsk dialect in its everyday and ethnographic application. SPb., 1885.

* Yakushkin E.I. Materials for the dictionary of the folk language in the Yaroslavl province. Yaroslavl, 1896.

Morphemic andword-building dictionaries

Derivational dictionaries (derivational dictionaries) are dictionaries that show the division of words into their constituent morphemes, the word-formation structure of a word, as well as a set of words (word-formation nest) with a given morpheme - root or affix. Words in word-building dictionaries are given with division into morphemes and with stress.

Morpheme (Greek morphe - form) - the smallest meaningful part of a word.

There are four main types of morphemic word-formation dictionaries: root dictionaries (the units of such dictionaries are root morphemes, words are given in alphabetical order without indicating the word-formation relations of single-root words); dictionaries of morphemic segmentation of words (the task of such dictionaries is to show not only the morphemic composition of each word, but also to reveal its word-formation structure); explanatory dictionaries of affixal morphemes (such dictionaries reveal the meaning of affixes and features of their functioning); frequency word-building dictionaries (morphemes are arranged according to their decreasing frequency).

* Kalaidovich I.F. The experience of the rules for compiling a Russian derivative dictionary ... "Works in prose and verse" // Proceedings of the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature at the imp. Moscow University. M., 1824. Prince. 15. Ch. 5. S. 330-390.

* Shimkevich F.S. Korneslov of the Russian language, compared with all the main Slavic dialects and twenty-four foreign languages: At 2 hours SPb., 1842.

* Potikha Z.A. School word-formation dictionary. M., 1961; 2nd ed. M., 1964.

* Dean S. Worthp, Andrew S. Kozak, Donald B. Johnson. Russian word-building dictionary. New York, 1970. (In the dictionary, the words are placed in the usual order (alphabetically), but by roots. That is, suffix-prefix formations and words with alternation at the root are combined in one dictionary row. The dictionary is based on the Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by S.I. Ozhegova and A.B. Shapiro, 4th ed., Moscow, 1959.)

* Shklyarov V.T., Künert H. A Brief Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language. Potsdam, 1973.

* Potikha Z. The structure of the Russian word: Educational dictionary for foreign schools. M., 1981.

Reverse Dictionaries

In reverse dictionaries, words are arranged alphabetically not by initial, but by final letters, and are aligned not on the left, but on the right.

For example: coat of arms serb damage hump oak

Dictionaries of this type are a valuable tool in the study of suffixal word formation, features of the phonetic structure and morphological composition of the end of words, in deciphering texts and compiling programs for their machine processing.

Medieval Arabic classical dictionaries of the 13th-14th centuries are considered to be the founders of reverse dictionaries. in Europe in the 18th century. the reverse alphabetical word order was used in the compilation of rhyming dictionaries (rhyme books). At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. linguistic reverse dictionaries appeared. These were reverse dictionaries of the ancient Indo-European languages: Latin, Ancient Greek, Sanskrit, Tocharian, Old Persian and Old Slavonic.

The first reverse dictionaries of the Russian language appeared abroad: in 1958 - in Berlin (under the editorship of G. Bielfeldt), in 1958-1959. - in Wiesbaden (dictionary by R. Greve, G. Krösche, edited by M. Fasmer).

Domestic reverse dictionaries began to be published in the 70s. The first in this series is the Reverse Dictionary of the Russian Language (scientific consultants A.A. Zaliznyak, R.V. Bakhturina, E.M. Smorgunova) (M., 1974), containing about 125,000 words. Machine processing of the material and computational work were carried out at the Computing Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

* Bielfeldt G. Reverse Dictionary of the Russian Language. Berlin, 1958.

* Greve R., Kröshe G. Reverse Dictionary of the Russian Language / Ed. M. Fasmer. Wiesbaden, 1958 -1959.

* Reverse dictionary of the Russian language / Scientific. cons. A.A. Zaliznyak, R.V. Bakhturina, E.M. Smorgunov. M., 1974.

* Kudryavtseva L.A. Reverse derivational dictionary of Russian neoplasms. Kyiv, 1993.

* Tikhonov A.N. School word-formation dictionary. M., 1978.

* Potikha Z.A. The structure of the Russian word: Educational dictionary for foreign schools. M., 1981.

* Zaliznyak A.A. Grammatical dictionary of the Russian language. Inflection. M., 1977; 3rd ed. M., 1987.

Orthoepic dictionaries

Orthoepic dictionaries are dictionaries that reflect the rules of literary pronunciation.

Orthoepy (Greek orthoepia, from orthos - correct, epos - speech) - a set of norms of the literary language associated with the sound design of significant units: morphemes, words, sentences.

* Ogienko I.I. Russian literary accent. 2nd ed. 1914.

* Avanesov R.I. Russian literary pronunciation. M., 1950; 5th ed. M., 1972

* Russian literary pronunciation and stress / Ed. R.I. Avanesova, S.I. Ozhegov. M., 1955; 2nd ed. M., 1960.

* Ageenko F.L., Zarva M.V. Stress Dictionary for Radio and Television Workers / Ed. K.I. Bylinsky. M., 1960; 6th ed. correct and additional Ed. D.E. Rosenthal. M., 1985.

* Vorontsova V.L. Russian literary stress of the 18th - 20th centuries. Forms of inflection. M., 1979

Homonym dictionaries

Homonym dictionaries are a type of dictionaries that describe homonyms, those words that are the same in their design (sound and/or spelling; in some or all forms) and differ in meaning.

The term "homonyms" is usually used in relation to words, although it is possible to speak, for example, of homonyms-morphemes.

Along with homonyms, homographs are also usually distinguished (words that are the same in spelling, but differ in emphasis: flour "- mu" ka), homophones (words that are pronounced the same, but differ in spelling: bone - inert) and homoforms (words, randomly coinciding in some of their forms: dam - the form of the generic plural of the noun "lady" and the imperative verb "give").

The most consistent, complete and detailed classification of Russian homonyms and the most complete information about them is given in the Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language by O. S. Akhmanova.

The system of labels in the dictionary takes into account the belonging of words to the general literary language or to special terminology, to the language of the same locality or different ones, to the same or different styles.

In order to further show the semantic incompatibility, their absolute content incompatibility, they are provided with translations into English, French, German (in which, of course, they appear as words that do not coincide with each other in any way).

In the "Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language" N.P. Kolesnikov, the material is given in a “continuous array” (as mentioned in the preface), without stylistic marks. This reference manual contains extensive material that introduces homonyms as elements of a speech flow.

* Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language. M., 1974; 3rd ed. M., 1986.

* Kolesnikov N.P. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language / Ed. N.M. Shansky. M., 1976; 2nd ed., rev. M., 1978.

* Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language. M., 1986.

Explanatory dictionaries

Explanatory dictionaries are linguistic dictionaries that explain the meanings of words and phraseological units of any language by means of this language itself.

* Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes / Ed. D.N. Ushakov. T. 1. M., 1935; T. 2. M., 1938; T. 3.M., 1939; T. 4, M., 1940. (Reprinted in 1947-1948); Reprint edition: M., 1995; M., 2000.

* Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language: In 17 volumes / Ed. A.M. Babkina, S.G. Barkhudarova, F.P. Filina and others. M.; L., 1948-1965. Vol. 1 (A-B), 1948; T. 2 (V-Vyashchy), 1951; T. 3 (Г-Е), 1954; T. 4 (Zh-Z), 1955; V. 5 (I-K), 1956; T. 6 (L-M), 1957; T. 7 (N), 1958; T. 8 (O), 1959; Vol. 9 (P-Kick), 1959; T. 10 (Polyasochek), 1960; T. 11. (Great-five), 1961; T. 12. (R), 1961; T. 13. (S-Withdraw), 1962; T. 14 (So-Syam), 1963; T. 15. (T), 1963; T. 16 (U-F), 1964; T. 17 (X-Y), 1965 (accepted abbreviation ALS)

* Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language: In 20 volumes, 2nd ed., Revised. and additional: In 20 vols. T. 1 (A-B), 1991; Vol. 2 (B), 1991; T. 3 (G), 1992; T. 4 (D), 1993; V. 5-6 (E-3), 1994 (Edition not completed).

* Educational dictionary of the Russian language (For non-Russians). M., 1962.

* Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language / Ed. S.P. Obnorsky. M., 1949; Stereotype: 2nd ed., corrected. and additional M., 1952; 3rd ed. M., 1953; 4th ed., rev. and additional M., 1960; Stereotype: 5th ed. 1963; 6th ed. M., 1964; 7th ed. M., 1968; 8th ed., M., 1970; 9th ed., rev. and add., 1972, ed. N. Yu. Shvedova; Stereotype: 10th ed., M., 1973; 11th ed. M., 1975; 12th ed. M., 1978; 13th ed., rev. and additional M., 1981; Stereotype: 14th ed. M., 1982; 15th ed. M., 1984; 16th ed., rev. M., 1984; Stereotype: 17th ed. M., 1985; 18th ed. M., 1986; 19th ed., rev. M., 1987; Stereotype: 20th ed. M., 1988; 21st ed., revised. and add., M., 1989; Stereotype: 22nd ed. M., 1990; 23rd ed., rev. M., 1991;

* Dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes / Ed. A.P. Evgenieva. M., 1957-1961. T. 1 (A-J); Vol. 2 (K-O); T. 3. (P-R); T. 4. (S-Z);. 2nd ed., rev. and additional M., 1981-1984; 3rd ed., stereotype. M., 1985-1988; 4th ed., St.: M., 1999 (MAS - “Small Academic Dictionary”).

Abbreviations Dictionaries

An abbreviation (from Latin abbrevio - I cut) is a noun consisting of truncated or truncated components of the original compound word. The formation of abbreviations (abbreviation) as a special way of word formation became widespread in European languages in the 20th century. In Russian, abbreviations, along with other abbreviations, were especially actively distributed after the October Revolution of 1917.

The emergence of a large number of complex abbreviated words of various types made it necessary to create special dictionaries of abbreviations.

The beginning of the publication of such dictionaries dates back to the 1920s. 20th century One of these dictionaries was a small (58 p.) "Dictionary of abbreviated names that came into use" (Vladivostok: Publisher N.N. Serokuzov, 1924).

The most famous collection of abbreviations is the Dictionary of Abbreviations of the Russian Language (compiled by D.I. Alekseev, I.G. Gozman, G.V. Sakharov). In the first edition of 1963 (under the editorship of B.F. Koritsky) there were 12,500 abbreviations, in the third (1983) and fourth (1984 - both under the editorship of D.I. Alekseev), the number of abbreviations was significantly replenished and amounted to 17 700. The dictionary deciphers the abbreviated names of states, parties, organizations, institutions, educational institutions, manufacturing enterprises, brands of machines, instruments, designations of units of measurement. The dictionary provides information about the types of abbreviations, pronunciation, stress in abbreviated words and their spelling. The most complete dictionary of Russian abbreviations ever published today is the dictionary edited by E.G. Kovalenko (M., 1995). It gives a transcript of about 32,000 abbreviations and other abbreviations. The dictionary contains abbreviations of various types: initial abbreviations (abbreviations), graphic abbreviations and complexly abbreviated words. The dictionary has a practical focus, so the system of marks and explanations in it is reduced to a minimum: abbreviations are given without stress, without grammatical marks and without indicating pronunciation. The most recent dictionary of abbreviations, ed. I.V. Fagradyants (M., 2000) is an addition to the New Dictionary of Abbreviations of the Russian Language, ed. E.G. Kovalenko (see above). The edition contains about 10,000 new abbreviations and consists of two parts. The first part includes abbreviations that were not included in the 1995 dictionary, as well as those that appeared in Russian in the period 1996-1999. The second part contains abbreviated and full names of federal executive authorities and bodies under the Government of the Russian Federation as of 04/01/1999 and the rules for their spelling. In "Russian Spelling Dictionary" ed. V.V. Lopatina (M., 1999) includes many new abbreviations, their interpretation is given, grammatical characteristics, pronunciation and spelling features are indicated. For example: OB [ove/], non-consecutive, p. (abbreviation: poisonous substance). In addition, this dictionary contains the Appendix "Main common graphic abbreviations" (for example: years, i.e., e.l.s.), at the end of which are given the traditional abbreviations of names as nononic books of the Bible (for example: Hab. Book of the prophet Habakkuk, Ps. Psalter, 2 Thess. Second Epistle to the Thessalonians).

In connection with the widespread use of abbreviated words and their structural originality, it is necessary to mention two differently directed tendencies of linguistic interaction.

Abbreviations are often criticized for their incomprehensibility, especially when it comes to special terms, local abbreviations that are not included in the standard language. Therefore, excessive enthusiasm, abuse of intricate abbreviations can make it difficult to understand them. On the other hand, abbreviations and abbreviations help to avoid long, wordy constructions, save speech effort and achieve brevity in communication.

* Dictionary of commonly used abbreviated names. Vladivostok, 1924.

* Dictionary of Russian and Lithuanian abbreviations / Comp. G.F. Feigelsonas, V. Petrauskas, E. Rozauskas, V. Vanagas. Vilnius, 1960.

* Alekseev D.I., Gozman I.G., Sakharov G.V. Dictionary of abbreviations of the Russian language / Ed. B.F. Koritsky. M., 1963; 2nd ed. M., 1977; 3rd ed. / Ed. DI. Alekseev. M., 1983; 4th ed., stereotype. M., 1984.

epithet dictionaries,comparisons, metaphors

Epithet (Greek epitheon - attached, added) - a figurative artistic definition of an object, concept, phenomenon. A word (or a combination of words) performs the syntactic function of a definition or circumstance and is usually used in a figurative sense. Metaphor (Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope or figure of speech, the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects, phenomena, actions or signs, to characterize or nominate another class of objects or an individual similar to this one. Comparison is a stylistic device based on the figurative transformation of a grammatically structured comparison.

* Kvyatkovsky A.P. Poetic dictionary. M., 1966.

* Vedernikov N.V. Brief dictionary of epithets of the Russian language. L., 1975. (The dictionary contains 730 definable nouns and 13,270 epithets for them).

* Gorbachevich K.S., Khablo E.P. Dictionary of epithets of the Russian literary language. L., 1979. (The dictionary is compiled on the basis of works of Russian literature from Pushkin to the present day, journalism, periodicals. The dictionary considers three types of epithets: general language, folk poetic, individual author's, as well as the most commonly used terminological definitions. In a number of cases, stylistic marks are given to epithets, sometimes a grammatical description is given.).

* Baranov A.N., Karaulov Yu.N. Russian political metaphor (materials for the dictionary). M., 1991. (Part I).

* Baranov A.N., Karaulov Yu.N. Dictionary of Russian political metaphors. M., 1994. (The dictionary contains the contexts of the use of metaphors, characteristic of the modern Russian political language. Metaphors are classified according to semantic models and the realities of political life.).

* Self-made word: Dictionary of Russian poetry of the XX century. M., 1998.

Dictionaries of the language of writers anddictionaries of individual works

The dictionary of the writer's language contains a description of the words used in his writings. In this case, a complete selection of words is made from all literary works, including texts of variants, as well as from letters, notes and official papers of the writer.

The most complete theoretically developed explanatory dictionary of the writer is the four-volume Dictionary of Pushkin's Language, edited by V.V. Vinogradov (M., 1956-1961, 2nd ed. T. 1-2, M., 2000), which was created at the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences under the program of G.O. Vinokur. The dictionary contains and explains 21191 words. In 1982, an additional volume “New Materials for the Dictionary of A.S. Pushkin (1642 words), which included new vocabulary materials extracted from all the original versions of A.S. Pushkin.

The first dictionary of the writer's language is “Dictionary for Derzhavin's Poems. Works of Derzhavin with explanatory notes by Y. Grot ”(St. Petersburg, 1883. Vol. 1).

The dictionaries of individual works include words from certain works of a particular writer. This includes (in contrast to the actual linguistic work, which is the dictionary of the writer's language) various kinds of reference books on the work of writers, provided with explanations and comments. Such publications include: “The experience of the historical dictionary about Russian writers” N.I. Novikov (M., 1772), which provides information about 250 writers; seven-volume Dictionary of Literary Types, edited by N.D. Noskov (Pg., 1908-1914); "Shchedrinskiy Dictionary" M.S. Olminsky (M., 1937); “Dictionary of the comedy“ Woe from Wit ”A.S. Griboyedov" V.F. Chistyakov (Smolensk, 1939); "Dictionary-reference book" Words about Igor's Campaign "" V.L. Vinogradova (Issue 1-6. M., 1965-1982); "Lexical composition, The Tale of Bygone Years": Indexes and frequency vocabulary" O.V. Tvorogova (Kyiv, 1984).

In 1989, the book "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" in literature, art, science: A Concise Encyclopedic Dictionary was published in Minsk. Its author is a well-known scientist in the field of East Slavic philology M.G. Bulakhov - notes that this is “the first attempt to create a reference book only about the most important achievements in the study and creative development of the work since the 90s. 18th century up to our time." This richly illustrated edition contains information about Musin-Pushkin, the discoverer of The Lay, translators of the unique monument of antiquity into modern Russian and other languages, statements of researchers and writers about the Lay. Artists who created their works based on the Tale of Igor's Campaign are presented.

An interesting and unique description of the neologisms of a single author was undertaken by N.P. Kolesnikov in the Dictionary of Neologisms V.V. Mayakovsky" edited by N.M. Shansky (Tbilisi, 1991). It contains about 2,000 “words specially made by the poet.

The original “Dictionary for the plays of A.N. Ostrovsky, N.S. Ashukina, S.I. Ozhegova, V.A. Filippov was published in Moscow by the Vesta publishing house in 1993 (reprint edition). This is a dictionary of a peculiar ethno-cultural type, which is emotionally and accurately stated in the preface: “The dictionary turned out to be amazing. It's hard to even call it in a dictionary. This is a whole encyclopedia of Russian life, which has now gone into the distant past. What did the tavern look like? What were Maryina Grove and Kuznetsky Most famous for? Who is the boyar Pleshcheev? What does “handshake”, “Take on a zugunder” mean - each page is full of surprises. The dictionary reads like a fascinating story.

This dictionary contains three types of commentary: historical and everyday, historical and theatrical and philological. Historical-everyday and historical-theatrical comments contain subtle life observations, valuable information and picturesque sketches of a historical, cultural and everyday nature. As for philological commentary, the dictionary contains many words of ancient, regional, obsolete, obscure or completely incomprehensible to the modern reader, as well as a large layer of vocabulary and phraseology of a colloquial nature (everyday speech of representatives of the merchant, philistine, petty bureaucratic environment). Words and expressions characteristic of the individual style of the playwright are also placed. Let us give a typical example of Ostrovsky's introduction into the language of the old word "bogey" with a different (wider) meaning. In Church Slavonic, it originally meant the concept of "burning sulfur". For Ostrovsky (the comedy "Hard Days") in the speech of a merchant's wife, it means something completely different, namely: something that incomprehensibly inspires fear, horror, disgust; scarecrow ("As soon as I hear the word" bogey ", so my arms and legs will tremble"). From Ostrovsky's comedy, this word came into common use in a new meaning.

* Novikov N.I. Experience of the historical dictionary about Russian writers. M., 1772.

* Grotto Ya.K. Dictionary for Derzhavin's poems // Works by G.R. Derzhavin with explanatory notes by Y. Grot. T. IX. SPb., 1883.

* Kunitsky V.N. Language and log of the comedy "Woe from Wit". To the 100th anniversary of the birth of A.S. Griboyedov.; Jan. 1795 - Jan. 4 1895 (With an appendix of a dictionary of comedy). Kyiv, 1894.

* "Materials for the dictionary of the Pushkin prose language" V.A. Vodarsky // Philological Notes. Voronezh, 1901-1905.

* Dictionary for the writings and translations of D.I. Fonvizina / Comp. K.P. Petrov. SPb., 1904.

* Dictionary of literary types: In 7 volumes / Ed. N.D. Noskov. Pg., 1908-1914.

* Olminsky M.S. Shchedrinskiy Dictionary. M., 1937.

* Chistyakov V.F. Dictionary of comedy "Woe from Wit" A.S. Griboyedov. Smolensk, 1939.

Dictionaries of names of inhabitants

When forming the names of residents from the names of settlements, difficulties often arise, which special dictionaries help to resolve.

In 1964, the “Dictionary of the names of the inhabitants of the RSFSR” was published, edited by A.M. Babkin. It includes about 6,000 names of residents of 2,000 settlements of the Russian Federation. The names of the inhabitants are given with stress, stylistic notes, and illustrations.

In 1975, the Dictionary of the Names of the Inhabitants of the USSR was published, edited by A.M. Babkina and E.A. Levashova. It contains about 10,000 names of persons by place of residence (by the names of cities, villages, rivers, lakes, islands, etc.), many illustrations are given from works of fiction and periodicals. The appendix to the dictionary contains a large list of names of residents of cities in foreign countries.

The latest edition regulating the naming of people according to their place of residence is the reference dictionary by E.A. Levashova (St. Petersburg, 2000). The subject of the dictionary is geographical names in general, the names of inhabitants, thus, constitute one of its aspects. (For more details about the dictionary, see the section on geographical names.) The idea of including “domestic” names in the general dictionary of the literary language arose at the end of the 19th century, when the first academic dictionary of the Russian language was being prepared, and objections were raised at the same time against the inclusion of such words in it. Refusing to include in the names of persons by location in explanatory dictionaries of a general type, Russian lexicographic science put forward the idea of an independent reference dictionary, in which the interpretation of words is replaced by their simple correlation with the corresponding geographical names.

The issue of naming residents is described in detail in the historical and linguistic work of R.A. Ageeva "Countries and peoples: the origin of names" (M., 1990), and in 2000 the ethnolinguistic dictionary-reference book by R.A. Ageeva "What kind of tribe are we?" (M., 2000) This reference dictionary provides historical or linguistic information.

* Dictionary of the names of the inhabitants of the RSFSR / Ed. A.M. Babkin. M., 1964.

* Dictionary of the names of the inhabitants of the USSR / Ed. A.M. Babkina, E.A. Levashova. M., 1975.

* Peoples of the world. M., 1988 (encyclopedia).

* Peoples of Russia. M., 1994 (encyclopedia).

* Levashov E.A. Place names: Adjectives derived from them. Names of residents:

Dictionary reference. SPb., 2000.

Toponymic dictionaries

Toponym - the proper name of a particular geographical place. Toponymy (from the Greek. topos - place) - a set of toponyms of some area, as well as a section of linguistics that studies toponyms. By the nature of the objects, the main types of toponymy are distinguished: oikonymy (Greek oikos - house, dwelling) - names of settlements; hydronymy (from the Greek hydor - water) - the names of water bodies; oronymy (Greek oros - mountain) - names of relief features; cosmonymy - the names of unearthly objects. Toponymic dictionaries (or dictionaries of geographical names) provide information about the proper names of geographical objects - rivers, lakes, seas, islands, mountains, cities, etc. For the declension of toponyms, see: Graudina L.K., Itskovich V.A., Katlinskaya L.P. Grammatical correctness of Russian speech. M., 1976 (p. 138-150); "Russian Spelling Dictionary" also contains information about the declension of toponyms. The following is a list of toponymic dictionaries and essays, including information on toponymy.

* Miller P.V., Sytin P.N. The origin of the names of streets, lanes, squares in Moscow. M., 1931.

* Semenov P.P. Geographical and statistical dictionary of the Russian Empire. SPb., 1853-1875.

* Sytin P.V. Moscow's past in street names. M., 1958.

* Sytin P.V. Where did the names of the streets of Moscow come from. M., 1959.

* Barsov N. Materials for the historical and geographical dictionary of Ancient Russia up to the XIV century. inclusive. Vilna, 1865.

* Murzaev E., Murzaeva V. Dictionary of local geographical terms. M., 1959.

Frequency Dictionaries

Frequency dictionaries give numerical characteristics of the frequency of words (word forms, phrases) of any language. Usually, the frequency of occurrence of a word in a text of a certain volume is used as a characteristic of usage. Frequency dictionaries make it possible to compare numerical patterns in the structure of a dictionary and text. These dictionaries are useful in many ways and are of great value to teachers, methodologists and lexicographers. Information about the most frequent and communicatively important words of a particular language greatly expands the possibilities of both successful teaching of a foreign language and a deeper mastery of the native language.

The first frequency dictionary of the Russian language is the Dictionary of the Russian Language by G. Josselson (Josselson N.N. The Russian word count ... Detroit, 1953). The volume of the dictionary is 1700 words.

In 1963, the "Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" by E.A. Steinfeldt, in which 2,500 most common words are given.

In 1977, the "Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language" was published, edited by L.N. Zasorina. It was compiled on the basis of computer processing of 1 million words of usage (40,000 words). In 1980, the Nauka publishing house published Yu.N. Karaulova. In 1978, an educational dictionary for foreign schools appeared under the editorship of N.M. Shansky "4000 most common words of the Russian language."

* Iosselson G. Dictionary of the Russian language. Detroit, 1953.

* Steinfeldt E.A. Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language. Tallinn, 1963.

* Polyakova G.P. Isolganik G.Ya. Frequency dictionary of newspaper language. M., 1971.

* Frequency dictionary of general scientific vocabulary / Under the general. ed. EAT. Stepanova. M., 1970.

* Gruzberg A.A. Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language in the Second Half of the 16th - Early 17th Centuries. Perm, 1974.

* Oliverus Zdenek F. Morphemes of the Russian language: Frequency Dictionary. Prague, 1976.

* Frequency dictionary of the Russian language: About 40,000 words / Ed. L.N. Zasorina. M., 1977.

Etymological dictionaries

Etymological dictionaries are special reference dictionaries containing information about the etymology of words in a particular language or group of related languages.

Etymology (Greek etymologia, establishing the true meaning of a word, from the grammatical term etymon - the true meaning of the word and logos - definition, teaching) - the origin of the word, as well as a section of linguistics that studies the origin of the word.

Dictionaries in Russian Completed by: student

group ZI-123, Faculty of IRT

Murtazina L. F.

Checked by: assistant

Idrisova A. V.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………….3

Dictionaries……………………………………………………………………...4

Linguistic and non-linguistic dictionaries…………………………4

Explanatory dictionaries…………………………………………………………..5

Translation Dictionaries………………………………………………………..6

Multilingual special dictionaries……………………………………..7

Derivative dictionaries…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Etymological dictionaries………………………………………………….7

Historical dictionaries……………………………………………………...8

Text dictionaries……………………………………………………...9

Dictionaries of writers………………………………………………………….9

Dialectological dictionaries………………………………………………9

Frequency dictionaries……………………………………………………………10

Spelling Dictionaries…………………………………………………10

Orthoepic dictionaries……………………………………………………10

Phraseological dictionaries…………………………………………………10

Linguistic reference dictionaries………………………………………11

Reverse Dictionaries…………………………………………………………..11

Dictionaries of foreign words………………………………………………… 11

Dictionaries of neologisms……………………………………………………….12

Universal Dictionaries…………………………………………………….13

Compilation of dictionaries………………………………………………………………………………14

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..15

List of used literature…………………………………………16

The dictionary is the whole universe in alphabetical order!

When you think about it, a dictionary is a book of books.

It includes all other books. Necessary

just take them out of it.

A. France.

Introduction

The work of collecting and systematizing words and phraseological units is called lexicography(from Greek. lexis - word and grapho - writing).

Lexicography is one of the applied (having practical purpose and application) sciences included in modern linguistics. Its main content - compilation of various language dictionaries. This is the science of dictionaries, how to make them most intelligently, this is the very practice of compiling dictionaries.

It is clear that one cannot compile dictionaries without understanding what a word is, how it lives and how it “works” in our speech. It's a task lexicology. At the same time, the compilers of dictionaries, thinking about words, their meanings, their "behavior" in speech, enrich the science of the word with new observations and generalizations. Hence - lexicology and lexicography are closely related.

Thus, lexicography is a scientific technique and the art of compiling dictionaries, the practical application of lexicological science, which is extremely important both for the practice of reading foreign literature and learning a foreign language, and for understanding one's own language in its present and past.

In order to more fully and correctly understand what lexicographers (compilers of dictionaries) do, you need to get acquainted with the results of their work, that is, dictionaries. Let's consider different types of dictionaries used in Russian.

I think that every person, at least once in his life, opened a dictionary. Let's find out what they are.

A dictionary is a collection of words with explanations and interpretations. The words that are given in the collection are located in alphabetical order, so it is much easier for those who know the alphabet to use the dictionary.

Many people know that there are many dictionaries. There are dictionaries for specialists, for a wide range of readers, for schoolchildren. Depending on the tasks of the dictionary, the composition of words will be different, they will be located and explained differently.

If you are interested in what this or that word means, in what cases it is appropriate to use it, please contact explanatory dictionary. One can guess that since it is named INTELLIGENT, means, explain everything about the word that interests you, including information about the stress in the word, its spelling, the most typical phrases.

The most famous "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegov.

If you have difficulty with stress and pronunciation, contact orthoepic dictionary.

The most famous orthoepic dictionary "Russian literary pronunciation and stress" ed. R. I. Avanesova and S. I. Ozhegov.

To understand the meaning of a particular phraseological expression will help phrasebook.

The most famous "School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by V.P. Zhukov in collaboration with A.V. Zhukov (under the editorship of G.V. Karpyuk).

An explanation of proverbs and sayings, winged words and figurative expressions will give dictionaries of proverbs, sayings and winged words.

Known dictionaries:

1) V. P. Zhukov. Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings.

2)C. N. Zigunenko, A. F. Istomin. "A unique illustrated explanatory dictionary of aphorisms and winged words for children".

The choice of a suitable synonym from the synonymic series will prompt synonym dictionary.

The most famous "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" 3. E. Alexandrova.

You can learn how to spell words correctly from spelling dictionary.

The most famous "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language" by D.N. Ushakov, S.E. Kryuchkov.

Information about the structure and origin of words from ancient times can be found in etymological dictionary.

The famous School Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language. Origin of words. N. M. Shansky, T. A. Bobrova.

Choosing the right antonym will tell antonym dictionary.

The famous M. R. Lvov "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language."

The dictionary is the whole universe in alphabetical order!

A. France

The mighty Russian language is great and diverse, and its dictionaries are just as diverse. The vocabulary of any living language is in continuous change and addition. New words appear, reflecting the development of modern science, culture, art, unused words are marked obsolete.

Dictionaries are an element of national culture. After all, many aspects of people's life are captured in the word.

All the richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the language is collected in dictionaries.

It is hard to imagine what would be in our life without dictionaries and reference books. Where and how would we find the meaning of a new word for us, an explanation of some event? Many people use dictionaries and reference books: translators, pupils and students, specialists working in various fields of activity.

What is a dictionary?

A dictionary is a book containing a list of words arranged in a certain order (usually alphabetically), with interpretations in the same language or with translation into another language.

Dictionaries perform many functions . The common function of all dictionaries is the fixation, systematization, accumulation and storage of knowledge about the world and the national language, the transfer of this knowledge from generation to generation. Human memory also stores knowledge, but it is limited, it cannot accumulate and store knowledge for centuries. Only a record of accumulated knowledge can save it for posterity. In this sense, the dictionary is the most convenient form of communication of our knowledge.

The science of compiling dictionaries, as well as the work of collecting and systematizing words and phraseological phrases, is called lexicography.

Lexicography is one of the applied (having practical purpose and application) sciences included in modern linguistics. Its main content, as mentioned above, is the compilation of various language dictionaries. This is the science of dictionaries, how to make them most intelligently.

It is clear that one cannot compile dictionaries without understanding what a word is, how it lives and how it “works” in our speech. This is the task of lexicology. At the same time, the compilers of dictionaries, thinking about words and their meanings, enrich the science of the word with new observations and generalizations. Hence - lexicology and lexicography are closely related.

In order to more fully and correctly understand what compilers of dictionaries (lexicographers) do, one needs to get acquainted with the results of their work, that is, dictionaries. Let's consider different types of dictionaries used in Russian.

There are a lot of dictionaries. All of them are divided into two large categories:

1) Encyclopedic dictionaries

2) Linguistic dictionaries

If you need to find out when an event happened, what this or that scientific term means, to find out when a scientist or writer lived, what is the city or country where you are going to travel, then you need to turn to encyclopedic dictionaries. They can tell you almost everything!

And we will not find all this data in linguistic dictionaries - there the object of description is a word or its form. Linguistic dictionaries are divided into monolingual and bilingual (sometimes multilingual). We come across bilingual dictionaries very often - they help to learn a foreign language faster. They are actively used by schoolchildren, students and translators. Among them there are also dictionaries for certain branches of knowledge, that is, special ones, for example, the English-Russian Dictionary of Mathematical Terms, the English-Russian Dictionary for PC Users and Programmers.

There are a lot of types of dictionaries in Russian - about thirty. Consider the most used dictionaries in everyday life:

Ã Dictionaries

Ã Phraseological dictionaries

Ã Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms

Ã Grammar dictionaries

Ã Etymological dictionaries

Ã Dictionaries of foreign words

Ã Dictionaries

The first type of monolingual linguistic dictionary is an explanatory dictionary containing words with an interpretation of their meanings, grammatical and stylistic characteristics. In explanatory dictionaries, the meanings of words are described with the exact correspondence of their use.

The first explanatory dictionary was the six-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", published in 1789-1794 and containing 43 thousand words taken from modern secular and spiritual books, as well as from ancient Russian writing. The second edition, entitled "The Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in alphabetical order" was published in 1806-1822 and contained 51,388 words.

A valuable lexicographic aid was the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, published in 1863-1866 by V. I. Dahl (Eighth edition - in 1981-1982). Having put folk speech as the basis of the dictionary, including in it the vocabulary of common, dialectal, bookish, Dahl sought to reflect in it all the lexical richness of the Russian language (about 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs and sayings). The weak side of Dahl's activity was his desire to prove the uselessness of most of the words of foreign origin, an attempt to introduce non-existent words that he himself composed as their equivalents, a tendentious explanation of the meanings of many words of socio-political vocabulary.

The four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language edited by D. N. Ushakov, published in 1934-1940, played a major role in the history of Soviet lexicography. In the dictionary, numbering 85,289 words, many issues of normalizing the Russian language, streamlining word usage, shaping, and pronunciation were resolved. The dictionary is built on the vocabulary of works of art, journalism, and scientific literature. In 1947-1948 the dictionary was republished.

Based on the dictionary edited by D. N. Ushakov in 1949. S. I. Ozhegov created a one-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language, containing over 52 thousand words. The dictionary was repeatedly reprinted, now it is published under the editorship of N. Yu. Shvedova. In 1989, the 21st edition of the dictionary was published, supplemented and revised, containing over 70 thousand words.

In 1950-1965. A seventeen-volume academic Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language was published (including 120,480 words). The meanings of words and the features of their use are illustrated in it with examples from the literature of the 19th-20th centuries of various styles and genres. The grammatical characteristics of words are given, the features of their pronunciation are noted, information on word formation is reported.

Phraseological dictionaries

The desire to collect and systematize phraseological units of the Russian language found expression in the publication of a number of phraseological collections.

Phraseologisms are stable combinations of words, the meaning of which is not derived from the meanings of its constituent components (for example "to hit back"- to answer blow for blow).

This type of dictionaries is needed in order to more fully illustrate the meaning of the word and how it is used, which is not always found in explanatory dictionaries.

In 1955, the collection “Winged Words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions” by N. S. Ashukina and M. G. Ashukina. The book includes a large number of literary quotations and figurative expressions arranged in alphabetical order.

The most complete (over 4 thousand phraseological units) is the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” published in 1967 under the editorship of A. I. Molotkov. Phraseologisms are given with possible variants of components, an interpretation of the meaning is given, forms of use in speech are indicated. Each meaning is illustrated with quotes from fiction and journalism. In some cases, etymological information is given.

In 1980, V.P. Zhukov’s “School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published, containing about 2 thousand of the most common phraseological units found in fiction and journalistic literature and in oral speech. Much attention is paid in the book to historical and etymological references.

In 1967, the Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings was published by the same author, which includes about a thousand expressions of this nature.

The most complete collection of such material is the collection "Proverbs of the Russian people" by V. I. Dahl, published in 1862.

In 1981, R. I. Yarantsev’s “Dictionary-Reference Book of Russian Phraseology” was published, containing about eight hundred phraseological units.

Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms

To understand why explanatory dictionaries of this type are needed, we will give each of them a definition.

Synonyms are words that are different in sound but similar in meaning. For example: " road - way ».

Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. For example: “truth is a lie”, “poor is rich”.

Homonyms are words that sound the same as others but are completely different in meaning. For example: "lynx - running" and "lynx - animal".

As a rule, in the work of a writer, journalist, and even a copywriter - in a word, everyone who, insofar as they are engaged in literary work or writing, it is necessary to choose exactly the synonym that corresponds to the meaning of the selected word. But there are always not enough synonyms in the vocabulary that we own (as a rule, it is always very small, no matter how many words it contains!) You have to rummage around and look for a paper dictionary of synonyms, surf the Internet to find the only word that is needed in this particular text. But for some reason, paper dictionaries are too thick to facilitate our work, and Internet sources are very scarce and sometimes pass off as the desired synonym not at all what we would like to draw from them.

The dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language is the first attempt to fully describe the synonyms of the modern Russian literary language with a description of their features and with examples of the use of synonyms in literary Russian speech. Synonyms are collected in synonymous groups. Each synonymic group is accompanied by a description of the semantic and stylistic features, as well as the features of the use in speech of those words that are included in the group. The dictionary serves as a guide to the correct use of synonyms. In total, the dictionary contains over 4 thousand entries.

In 1971, the first "Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language" by L. A. Vvedenskaya was published, containing over a thousand pairs of words. In 1978, M. R. Lvov’s Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language was published, edited by L. A. Novikov, containing about two thousand antonymic pairs. The same author published in 1981 the "School Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language", which includes over five hundred dictionary entries.

In 1974, O.S. Akhmanova’s Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language was published in our country. It lists homonymous pairs in alphabetical order (rarely groups of three or four words), and, if necessary, provides grammatical information and stylistic notes, information about the origin.

In 1971, under the editorship of N. 3. Kotelova and Yu. S. Sorokin, a dictionary was published - a reference book "New words and meanings", containing about 3500 new words, expressions and meanings of words that were not included in previously published dictionaries. The new edition of the dictionary contains about 5500 new words, meanings and combinations of words. These dictionaries reflect the material of the press and literature of the 60s and 70s.

Grammar dictionaries

Grammar is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure and change of words, the combination of words in combinations and sentences.

The grammar dictionary describes the formal structure of the language (word formation, morphology and syntax).

The most complete grammatical dictionary is the “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Inflection” by A. A. Zaliznyak. It includes about one hundred thousand words. It comprehensively reflects modern Russian inflection.

In 1978, N. P. Kolesnikov's Dictionary of Indeclinable Words was published, containing about 1800 indeclinable nouns and other invariable words.

A. V. Tekuchev’s “Grammar and Spelling Dictionary” was published especially for the school.

In 1962, a reference dictionary was published under the editorship of S. I. Ozhegov, containing about four hundred dictionary entries on issues of modern word usage.

Spelling and orthoepic dictionaries

The section of linguistics that studies and regulates the rules of writing is called spelling. No one can do without a spelling dictionary, because without it you can’t write a new word without errors, you can’t write a competent statement or letter. But orthoepy is another section of linguistics that studies the rules for the literary pronunciation of words. Without an orthoepic dictionary, one cannot speak at a conference, read an article to the public, work as a leader without knowing the correct pronunciation of words.

In 1934, D. N. Ushakov's Spelling Dictionary was published, intended for secondary school students (the dictionary is constantly being reprinted).

At present, the main manual of this type is the academic Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by I. F. Protchenko. The dictionary contains over one hundred thousand words.

Special spelling dictionaries were also published: “The use of the letter ё”, “Together or separately?”.

Among the first editions of the orthoepic dictionary, we highlight the brochure published in 1951 - the dictionary "To Help the Speaker". On its basis, the Dictionary of Stress for Radio and Television Workers was created. Along with common nouns, proper names (personal names and surnames, geographical names, names of press organs, literary and musical works) are widely represented in the dictionary.

In 1983, the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language was published. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. The publication contains about 65.5 thousand words. Two appendices are given to the dictionary: "Information on pronunciation and stress" and "Information on grammatical forms". The dictionary elaborated systems of normative indications, as well as prohibitive marks

Etymological dictionaries

Etymology is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words.

In the process of centuries-old communication with other peoples, the Russian literary language acquired words of foreign origin to convey new concepts.

The vast majority of borrowed words adopted Russian grammatical design (Russian suffixes and endings, gender, conjugation, declension). Many elephants acquired new meanings or semantic shades on Russian soil. There are not so many dictionaries in this direction.

In 1961, N. M. Shansky's "Concise Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" was published, containing an etymological interpretation of commonly used words of the modern Russian literary language.

For the needs of school practice in 1970, the "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by G. P. Tsyganenko was published in Kyiv

Dictionaries of foreign words

A dictionary of foreign words is a reference book that includes a list of borrowings from different languages that have become part of the everyday life of the Russian language. In this dictionary you can find not only information about the spelling of a word, but also its interpretation, information about the etymology and how to pronounce this word correctly, as well as examples of its use in speech. Dictionaries of foreign words are constantly being improved and supplemented, as some words acquire additional meanings (for example, “resume”), for some it is necessary to clarify the spelling (for example, the word “brand”).

Every year more and more new dictionaries of foreign words are published and even more are reprinted. But, unfortunately, many of them contain a number of shortcomings: these are too short incomprehensible articles of descriptions, and explanation of the meaning of words with the help of other foreign words, which makes it difficult to understand, and dictionaries that include only very popular words, the meaning of which is already known in most cases. On the one hand, the dictionaries of the Soviet period are considered the most reliable. However, they also have disadvantages. First, they do not contain words that have come into use in recent years (for example, those that have emerged as a result of the growth of the Internet, such as "offline" and "user"). Secondly, the spelling of many words has changed since that time - before, many foreign words were written with one consonant, and now - with a double one.

On the other hand, the newer the dictionary, the more modern words it includes. But, and here there are shortcomings. For example, in different dictionaries of foreign words there are different spellings of the word "fla (y) er". There are also inconsistencies in the use of the hyphen - "french fries" or "french fries"? And, for example, about the popular word "Internet" there are still disputes and discrepancies even among specialized publications. Some of them argue that, depending on the meaning, this word can be written both with a capital letter and with a lowercase letter, while others insist that "Internet" is written only with a capital letter. And rightly so, by the way, "flyer" and "french fries."

Various variants and inconsistencies also arise with regard to the stress of the word. Until recently, for example, it was believed that in the word "sushi" both the first and second syllables could be stressed, and this was recorded in the Russian Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Academy of Sciences. However, in the latest editions of this guide, only one option is offered - stress on the first syllable.

The question arises - so what kind of reference literature can be trusted? Trust the dictionaries of foreign words of serious specialized publishers, and even better - refer to several reference books. Moreover, it is often worth checking the spelling and stress of a foreign word even if it seems to you that you know how it is spelled and pronounced, because often incorrect spelling or stress is firmly fixed in speech. Some words that are foreign in origin have penetrated into widespread popular use, entrenched in it and therefore do not have an equivalent Russian word in origin, which would be expedient to replace the foreign language.

Others are peculiar only to narrow areas of use, special terminology, book style, etc. Words that are foreign in origin, especially if they can be replaced by equivalent Russian words, should not be used unnecessarily.

At present, the most complete is the "Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by I. V. Lekhin, F. N. Petrov. The dictionary gives a brief explanation of words and terms of foreign origin found in various styles, indicates the origin of the word, and, if necessary, marks the way of borrowing.

In 1966, the two-volume Dictionary of Foreign Expressions and Words by A. M. Babkin and V. V. Shendetsov was published. It contains words and expressions of foreign languages used in Russian without translation, in compliance with the graphics and spelling of the source language.

In 1983, the School Dictionary of Foreign Words was published under the editorship of V. V. Ivanov (compiled by V. V. Odintsov, G. P. Smolitskaya, E. I. Golanova, I. A. Vasilevskaya).

Encyclopedic dictionaries

An encyclopedia is a scientific or popular science reference publication containing a systematic body of knowledge. The material in the encyclopedia is arranged in alphabetical order or according to a systematic principle (by branches of knowledge).

There are several types of encyclopedic dictionaries:

Ã Universal

Ã Industry

Ã Regional

Universal encyclopedias include books on all branches of knowledge and practice. The largest universal encyclopedic publications: "Encyclopedic Dictionary" of Brockhaus and Efron (Russia), "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" (USSR).

Industry encyclopedias include books on individual practical activities. For example, "Encyclopedia of Agriculture", "The Newest Encyclopedia of a Personal Computer", "Physical Encyclopedic Dictionary".

Regional encyclopedias include encyclopedias about some region of the country, describing its nature, climate, location of cities and towns, and the history of development. An example is the "Yenisei Encyclopedic Dictionary". He talks quite fully and in detail about the Krasnoyarsk Territory.

Reference books

A reference book is a publication containing, unlike a dictionary, brief information of a scientific, industrial, or applied nature, arranged in a certain order. Here the arrangement of words can go not only alphabetically, but also in chronological or systematic order.

Reference books are designed for a narrow circle of specialists in a particular field and are not designed for constant reading. Most directories are equipped with various indexes - subject, nominal, which make it easier to find the information you need.

Handbooks contain material in a concise, concentrated presentation. The material is arranged in an order that makes it easier to quickly find the necessary information: alphabetically, systematically (by field of knowledge), chronologically, etc. Reference books are supplied with auxiliary indexes - alphabetical, subject, systematic, nominal and geographical.

Reference books are published on many problems of politics, economics, natural sciences, technology, and culture. For example, The Book Lover's Quick Reference Guide has been repeatedly reprinted. There are also biographical directories. Handbooks of a vocational nature are published - for specialists and workers of various professions employed in all sectors of the national economy ("Technologist's Handbook", "Turner's Handbook", etc.). The information provided in such reference books is systematized. Tables of library and bibliographic classification (for scientific, public, children's and other libraries) are a special reference book for librarians. Non-production reference books are addressed to a wide range of readers who are interested in a variety of information from a particular field of knowledge or practice.

Dictionaries and reference books are constant companions of our life, serving us to expand our knowledge and improve our language culture. They are deservedly called satellites of civilization.

Dictionaries are truly an inexhaustible treasury of the national language.

Bibliography

L. A. Vvedenskaya, L. G. Pavlova - “ Culture and art of speech»

S. I. Ozhegov "Dictionary of the Russian language"

Sergeev V.N. Dictionaries are our friends and helpers

"Great Soviet Encyclopedia"

Message in Russian explanatory dictionary. What are the dictionaries? A Brief Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language: Grammatical Forms, Stress

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Similar Documents

Dictionaries in Russian Completed by: student

Introduction

Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms

Grammar dictionaries

Dictionaries of foreign words