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Modern great apes and humans have. General characteristics of the family of great apes. The difference between humans and apes

Question 4. Modern great apes

Large modern great apes belong to the pongid family. These animals are of particular interest because a number of morphophysiological, cytological and behavioral features bring them closer to humans.

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, while higher apes have 24. It turns out (geneticists are increasingly inclined to this) that the second pair of human chromosomes was formed from the fusion of pairs of other chromosomes of ancestral anthropoids.

In 1980, a strict scientific publication appeared in the journal Science (Science) with the following title: “A striking similarity (striking resemblance) of high-resolution stained for human and chimpanzee chromosome bands. The authors of the article are cytogenetics from the University of Minneapolis (USA) J. Younis, J. Sawyer and K. Dunham. Using the latest methods of staining chromosomes at different stages of cell division of two higher primates, the authors observed up to 1200 bands per karyotype (previously it was possible to see a maximum of 300-500 bands) and made sure that the striation of chromosomes - carriers of hereditary information - in humans and chimpanzees is almost identical .

After such a great similarity in chromosomes (DNA), no one can be surprised by the “striking similarity of blood proteins and tissues of humans and monkeys - after all, they, proteins, receive a “program” from the parental substances encoding them, which are so close, as we have seen, those. from genes, from DNA.

Great apes and gibbons diverged 10 million years ago, while the common ancestor of humans, chimpanzees and gorillas lived only 6 or at most 8 million years ago.

Opponents of this theory argued that it was unverifiable, while supporters argued that the data obtained using the molecular clock corresponded to those prehistoric dates that could be verified using other means. Fossils found later confirmed our recent ancestors among fossil great apes.

Question 5. Large great apes

The extinct driopithecins and pongins undoubtedly included the ancestors of humans and modern great apes - those large, hairy, intelligent inhabitants of the rainforests of Africa and Southeast Asia. Fossil data on the ancestors of great great apes are scarce, except for finds that allow us to connect the orangutan with the group of fossil monkeys that included Ramapithecus. But biological research has shown that great apes and humans shared a recent common ancestor.

Modern great apes include the genera:

1. Pongo, an orangutan, has a shaggy reddish coat, long arms, relatively short legs, short thumbs and toes, large molars with low crowns.

2. Pan, a chimpanzee, has long, shaggy black hair, arms longer than legs, a bare face, large supraorbital ridges, large protruding ears, a flat nose, and mobile lips.

3. Gorilla, the gorilla is the largest of the modern great apes. Males are twice as large as females, reaching a height of 6 feet (1.8 m) and a mass of 397 pounds (180 kg).

Question 6. Social behavior of anthropoids

Communities of all animals leading a group lifestyle are by no means a random association of individuals. They have a well-defined social structure, which is supported by special behavioral mechanisms. In a group, as a rule, there is a more or less pronounced hierarchy of individuals (linear or more complex), members of the group communicate with each other using various communicative signals, a special “language”, which determines the maintenance of the internal structure and coordinated and purposeful group behavior. This or that type of social organization is associated, first of all, with the conditions of existence and the prehistory of the species. Many believe that primate intragroup behavior and the structure of their communities are determined to a much greater extent by phylogenetic factors than by environmental ones.

The question of the relative role of ecological and phylogenetic determinants of community structure plays an important role in choosing a particular species of primates as a model, the study of which can lead to a deeper understanding of the structure of the society of ancient people. Both factors must be taken into account, of course.

Experimental studies of the behavior of great apes have shown a high ability to learn, form complex associative relationships, extrapolate and generalize previous experience, which indicates a high level of analytical and synthetic activity of the brain. Speech and tool activity have always been considered fundamental differences between humans and animals. Recent experiments on teaching sign language (used by deaf and dumb people) to great apes have shown that they not only learn it quite successfully, but also try to pass on their “language experience” to cubs and relatives.

The smartest, most developed monkeys are anthropoids. There are 4 species: orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and pygmy chimpanzees, or bonobos. Chimpanzees and bonobos are very similar to each other, while the other two species are completely different from chimps and from each other. But, nevertheless, all great apes have much in common. These monkeys do not have a tail, the structure of the hands is similar to that of a human, the volume of the brain is very large, and its surface is dotted with furrows and convolutions, which indicates the high intelligence of these animals. Great apes, like humans, have 4 blood groups, and bonobo blood can even be transfused to a person with the corresponding blood type - this indicates their “blood” relationship with people.

Both the chimpanzee and the gorilla live in Africa, the continent considered the cradle of mankind, while the orangutan, our most distant relative among the great apes, lives in Asia.

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE CHIMPANSEE

Chimpanzees live in groups of 20 on average. The group, headed by one male leader, includes males and females of all ages. A group of chimpanzees lives in a territory that males protect from invading neighbors.

In places where food is plentiful, chimpanzees are sedentary, but if food is scarce, they roam widely in search of food. It happens that the living space of several groups intersect, then they temporarily unite, and in all disputes, the advantage is the group in which there are more males and which, as a result, is stronger. Chimpanzees do not form permanent married couples, and all adult males can freely choose a mate for themselves from among adult females, both of their own and of the neighboring, joined group.

After an 8-month pregnancy, a single completely helpless cub is born to a female chimpanzee. Up to a year, the mother carries the child on her stomach, then the baby independently moves to her back. For 9 years, mother and child are almost inseparable. Mothers teach their cubs everything they know how to do, introduce them to the world around them and to other members of the group. Sometimes older babies are sent to a "kindergarten", where they frolic with their peers under the supervision of several adult females. By the age of 13, chimpanzees become adults, independent members of the group, and young males are gradually included in the struggle for leadership.

Chimpanzees are quite aggressive animals. Quarrels often occur within the group, developing into bloody fights, sometimes with a fatal outcome. A wide range of gestures, facial expressions and sounds, with which they show displeasure or approval, help monkeys build relationships with each other. Monkeys express friendly feelings by touching each other's wool.

Chimpanzees forage both on the ground and in the trees, feeling quite confident everywhere. In addition to plant foods, their diet includes insects and small animals. Moreover, hungry monkeys as a whole community can go hunting and get, for example, a gazelle.

SMART HEAD AND SKILLED HANDS

Chimpanzees are very smart and know how to use tools, and they specially select the most convenient tool and can even improve it. So, to climb into an anthill, a chimpanzee takes a twig and cuts off all the leaves on it. They use a stick to knock down a tall growing fruit or hit an opponent during a fight. Getting to the core of the nut, the monkey can put it on a specially selected flat stone, and with another, sharp one, break the shell. To get drunk, a chimpanzee uses a large leaf as a scoop or makes a sponge from a chewed leaf, dips it into a stream and squeezes the water into his mouth.

During the hunt, monkeys are able to throw stones at their prey, a hail of stones awaits a predator, such as a leopard, who dared to hunt monkeys. In order not to get wet when crossing a stream, chimpanzees can make a bridge out of sticks, use leaves as umbrellas, fly swatters, fans, and even as toilet paper.

MONSTERS OR GOOD GIANTS?

It is not difficult to imagine the feelings of a person who first saw a gorilla in the wild - a humanoid giant who frightens the alien with menacing cries, beats his chest with his fists, breaks and uproots young trees. Such meetings with forest monsters gave rise to legends about the fiends, whose superhuman strength is fraught with a serious danger to the human race. The emergence of such legends caused the ruthless extermination of gorillas. It is not known what human fear and ignorance would have led to if scientists had not taken under their protection these huge monkeys, about which they knew almost nothing at that time.

It turned out that the "monstrous" gorillas are peaceful vegetarians, eating exclusively plant foods, moreover, they are almost not aggressive and use their strength only in defense. To avoid bloodshed, male gorillas try to scare off the enemy - be it another male or a person. That's when all means of intimidation come into play: screaming, roaring, beating your chest with your fists and breaking branches.

Gorillas live in small groups, usually 5-10 animals, including 1-2 young males, several females with cubs of different ages, and the head of the group is an older male, who is easily distinguished by the silver-gray coat on his back. The male gorilla reaches puberty by the age of 14 and instead of black hair, a light stripe appears on his back. An adult male is huge: with a height of about 180 cm, it can weigh up to 300 kg. The eldest of the silver-backed males becomes the head of the family group, and care for all its members falls on his powerful shoulders. The leader gives signals to wake up in the morning and go to sleep in the evening, chooses a path in the forest that the whole group will follow in search of food, maintains order and peace in the family. He also protects his wards from all the dangers that the rainforest is fraught with.

Cubs in the group are raised by females - their mothers. But, if suddenly the kids become orphans, it is the silver-backed patriarch who will take them under his protection, will carry them on himself, sleep next to them and watch their games. Protecting the cubs, the leader can enter into a duel with a leopard and even with armed poachers.

Often, capturing a baby gorilla costs not only the life of its mother, but also the life of the head of the group. Having lost their leader and deprived of protection and guardianship, helpless females and young animals may well die if some single male does not take care of the orphaned family.

JUST LIKE PEOPLE

The routine of gorilla life is very similar to that of humans. At sunrise, at the signal of the leader, the whole group wakes up and begins to search for food. After dinner, the family rests, digesting what they have eaten. Young males sleep in the distance, females with cubs - closer to the leader, teenagers frolic next to them - each has its own place. At night, gorillas build nest-beds from branches and leaves. Nests are usually located on the ground. Only light young animals can afford to climb low into a tree and make a bed there.

Cubs enjoy special love in the family. Toddlers spend most of their time with their mother, but the whole group is involved in their upbringing, and adults are patient with the pranks of young people. Gorillas mature slowly, only twice as fast as human children. Newborns are completely helpless and need maternal care, only by 4-5 months they can move on all fours, and by eight they can walk upright. Further maturation goes faster, surrounded by relatives, young gorillas quickly learn everything. At the age of 7, females become completely adults, males mature by 10-12 years, and at 14 years their back becomes silvery. The silverback male often leaves the group and lives alone for a long time until he manages to create a new family.

THE MAIN ENEMY IS MAN

Huge and strong gorillas have few enemies in nature. Even the largest predator in the African forests, the leopard, rarely dares to attack a gorilla. But, like all animals, forest giants are powerless against traps, snares and poachers' guns, which produce cubs for livestock traders, skulls and hands of adult males for lovers of exotic souvenirs and meat for gourmets, fans of African cuisine. And although the strictest measures are taken to protect these rare animals, gorillas continue to be killed, because sometimes poaching is the only form of income available to the local population.

"FOOD PEOPLE"

"Orangutan" - translated from Malay - means "forest man". This is the name of the great apes that live in the jungles of the islands of Kalimantan and Sumatra. Orangutans are amazing creatures and differ from other great apes in many ways. Firstly, orangutans lead an arboreal lifestyle and, despite their considerable weight (70-100 kg), they climb trees perfectly at a height of up to 20 m and do not like to descend to the ground. It is clear that such heavy animals cannot jump from branch to branch, but they are able to climb confidently and quickly. Orangutans feed almost all day long, eating fruits and leaves, as well as bird eggs and chicks. In the evening, orangutans build nests, each their own, and settle down there for the night. They sleep, holding on to a branch with one paw, so as not to fall in a dream. Every night these monkeys settle down in a new place and rebuild their bed. Unlike gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans rarely form groups, preferring to live alone or in pairs (female - male, mother - cubs), but sometimes a pair of adult animals and several cubs of different ages form a family group.

A female orangutan gives birth to one cub, which the mother takes care of for almost 7 years, until he becomes quite an adult. Until the age of 3, a small orangutan feeds almost exclusively on mother's milk, and only then does the mother begin to accustom him to solid food. Chewing the leaves, she makes a vegetable puree for her child. Preparing the baby for adulthood, the mother teaches him to climb trees and build nests. Baby orangutans are very affectionate and playful, and the whole learning process is perceived by them as an entertaining game. Orangutans are very smart, in captivity they learn to use tools and even make them themselves. But in nature, these monkeys rarely use their abilities: the constant search for food does not leave them time to develop natural intelligence.

    When asked what species of monkeys belong to the group of anthropoids, many people answer without hesitation: "chimpanzee, gorilla, orangutan." Those who are more knowledgeable in zoology also call the gibbon. But few people know about the existence of our much closer relative, the bonobo, or pygmy chimpanzee. And this despite the fact that the set of bonobo genes coincides with the set of human genes by 98%!

    Orangutans and gorillas are able to determine from the image of an animal that it belongs to a certain class: they distinguish between mammals, birds, reptiles, insects and fish.

    Orangutans and bonobos are able to plan their actions. Both types of monkeys saved up the necessary tools to receive this or that reward in the future. Analyzing a series of carefully designed experiments, the researchers concluded that the ability to foresee the future is not exclusively a human trait. This feature is most likely embedded in the thought patterns of animals.

    Alexander Markov

    Primates have evolved many new genes (mostly by doubling old ones), but very little is known about the functions of these genes and the details of their evolutionary history. One such gene, CDC14Bretro, appeared in a common ancestor of great apes as a result of the activity of retrotransposons. Later, in the common ancestor of gorilla, chimpanzee, and man, the gene underwent a rapid change under the influence of selection, changing its "profession" and "place of work."

    Alexander Markov

    The results of the study of the most ancient and most complete skeleton of an Australopithecus Afar cub have been published. The skeleton was discovered in December 2000 in eastern Ethiopia, around the same area where the famous Lucy was found in 1974, and belongs to a three-year-old girl who lived 3.3 million years ago. Apparently, the girl died during the flood and was immediately covered with sand, which ensured the exceptional safety of the bones. The study of the unique find confirmed that the Afar australopithecines were bipedal creatures with an almost human lower body, retaining many simian features in the structure of the arms and skull.

    Of all the arguments proving that people are fundamentally different from animals, the most compelling concerns the ability of a person to understand the minds of others. Only people can not only perceive their experiences, but also realize that the thoughts and views of other people are different from their own. However, the results of the latest study published in Science suggest that monkeys are endowed with the same ability.

    The formation of vocalizations (that is, sounds made) in newborn marmosets depends on whether they receive feedback from their parents. At first glance, this result, of course, does not look like a sensational discovery. However, it is very important because it contradicts the traditional notion that the sound signals in primates are strictly innate and in no way dependent on experience and social environment. We set out to find out what the new results mean for understanding the nature of language, what scientists currently think about its origin, and why it is so difficult to teach monkeys to speak.

    Western lowland gorilla Koko was born on July 4, 1971 at the San Francisco Zoo. At the age of one year, animal psychology student Francine Patterson began working with Koko, who began to teach her sign language. At the age of 19, the gorilla successfully passed the "mirror test", which determines the ability of animals to recognize themselves in the mirror (most gorillas and other animals are unable to do this). Patterson admitted that at the beginning of the training she also believed that the gorilla unconsciously performs actions in order to receive a reward, but she rethought this after Koko began to invent her own words. The ring became the "finger bracelet" and the mask was called the "eye cap". Koko was one of the few known animals that had pets - kittens, which she chose the name herself.

    Researchers have unearthed ancient hammer stones in Ivory Coast. According to some signs, scientists have determined that these tools were used by chimpanzees. And if the conclusions of archaeologists are correct, we have before us - the earliest known example of such behavior of monkeys.

    For the first time, scientists have documented wild gorillas using simple tools (sticks) to measure the depth of a swamp.

Great apes, or hominids, are not human ancestors. However, most likely, humans and anthropoid descend from common ancestors. Our anatomy is very similar to that of hominids, but the human brain is much larger. The most important difference between a person and a great ape is the mind, the ability to think, feel, do deliberate actions and communicate using language.

Hominid (lat. Hominidae) is a family of primates, which includes gibbons and hominids. The latter include orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans. The first researchers who discovered such monkeys in the jungle were struck by their resemblance to humans and at first considered them to be a kind of cross between man and animal.

The brain of modern anthropoids is relatively larger in volume than that of other animals (except dolphins): up to 600 cm³ (in large species); it is marked by well-developed furrows and whorls. Therefore, the higher nervous activity of these monkeys resembles that of a human, conditioned reflexes are easily developed in them, and - which is especially important - they are able to use various objects as simple tools. They have a good memory, a fairly rich facial expression expressing different emotions: joy, anger, sadness, etc. But, despite all the similarities with a person, they can not be put on the same level with people.

Chimpanzee(lat. Pan) live in Africa, where, apparently, the first people appeared. Ordinary chimpanzees grow up to 1.3 m, weight - up to 90 kg, are able to move on their hind limbs. It is the closest primate to humans. Once every three to five years, the female gives birth to one cub, which remains in the care of the elders for a long time. Chimpanzee family ties are very strong. It happens that an old female helps her daughter to nurse her grandchildren. Chimpanzees have a very rich "language" of communication: sounds, facial expressions and gestures.


When they ask, they quite humanly stretch out their hands. Rejoicing at the meeting, they hug and kiss. They know how to notify relatives by drumming on hollow tree trunks. They use stones and branches as a tool. They break nuts with stones and get termites with twigs. The leaves of medicinal plants are applied to the wounds and even ... they are wiped with them after the toilet. In male chimpanzees, as in humans, male friendship is of great importance for life. Such inseparable friends are always ready to help each other. They live in family groups, learn quickly and use a variety of tools. Although chimpanzees pass on their accumulated experience to the next generations, no animal is able to do this as effectively as a person. Pygmy chimpanzees are distinguished by a more fragile physique, long legs, black skin (pink in a normal chimpanzee), etc.


Gorillas(males) grow to 1.75 m or more and weigh up to 250 kg. Chest girth up to 180 cm. This is the largest primate in the world, including humans! Its range is the humid equatorial forest of Central and East Africa. An ardent vegetarian. It feeds on fruits, succulent herbaceous vegetation, young shoots. No meat food in nature does not eat! An adult male always has a gray back. In gorillas it is a sign of male maturity. At night, females with children sleep in the trees in the nest, and heavy males on the ground arrange a bed of branches. By nature, gorillas are phlegmatic and do not quarrel with anyone. Not aggressive. They begin to rage only when they try to persecute them, beat their chests, and then attack the enemy and selflessly protect their relatives. A wonderful example of true nobility for animals and people.


s(lat. Pongo) live in Borneo and Sumatra. Males grow up to 1.5 m, weight can reach 130 kg. Long forelimbs allow them to easily move through the trees. This is the largest tree animal in the world! The female gives birth to only one cub every three to five years. A child up to four or five years old remains under her care. From the age of 4, they begin to unite in games with other kids. Its close relationship with man is confirmed even by the name. Orangutan means "forest man" in Malay. The orangutan is very strong, only the elephant and the tiger cause him respect! In the hands of a leisurely, even slow. Doesn't do jumps. He simply swings the tree he is on, with a long strong arm intercepts the branch of the neighboring one, then pulls himself up - and already on another tree. Its slowness is deceptive, not a single person in the forest can catch up with the orangutan. At night, it settles in a nest built from branches and leaves. It turns out a wonderful springy bed. From the downpour, it often hides under a plucked giant palm leaf, like under an umbrella.

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Origin and evolution of great apes

Approximately at the turn of the Oligocene and Miocene (23 million years ago), or a little earlier (see Fig. 2), the hitherto single trunk of narrow-nosed monkeys split into two branches: cercopithecoids, or dog-like ( Cercopithecoidea) and hominoids, i.e. anthropoids ( Hominoidea). This division, apparently, was largely due to the fact that part of the narrow-nosed (ancestors of cercopithecoids) switched to feeding on leaves, while the other part (ancestors of hominoids) remained faithful to the fruit diet. Differences in the menu affected, in particular, the structure of the teeth, which is extremely important for paleontologists, since it is the teeth that make up the majority of fossil finds. The surface of the chewing teeth of cercopithecoids has a characteristic pattern, inherent only to them, formed by four tubercles. On the teeth of great apes, there are five rounded tubercles separated by a U-shaped groove - the so-called "driopithecus pattern" (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. The surface of the molars of cercopithecoids (A) and hominoids (B)

Cercopithecoids, represented by a single but very numerous family of monkeys, are often called lower narrow-nosed monkeys, and hominoids are called higher. In addition to the peculiarities of the shape of the teeth, hominoids are also distinguished from the lower narrow-nosed monkeys by the absence of a tail, a shorter (in relation to the limbs), flat and wide body, and, finally, the specific structure of the shoulder joint, which provides greater freedom of rotation of the upper limbs in different planes. Apparently, all of the listed characters were acquired by early hominoids as a result of adaptation to such methods of movement through trees that require an upright and at least partially straightened body position. This is climbing with support on the lower limbs, as well as the so-called brachiation, i.e. transferring or throwing the body from branch to branch with the help of the upper limbs (Fig. 6). For lower apes, neither one nor the other, in general, is characteristic, and, unlike the anthropoids, they even move along the branches, as a rule, on four limbs, like all other mammals from squirrels to leopards.

Rice. 6. Gibbons - classic brachiators

At one time, some researchers believed that cercopithecoids and hominoids separated as early as the early Oligocene, and that already the propliopithecus and Egyptithecus, who lived about 30-35 million years ago, should be considered as hominoids. Indeed, the teeth of these monkeys, found in the Faiyum depression, bear a well-defined pattern of driopithecus, but the bones of their skull and skeleton are closer in structure to similar bones of cercopithecoids. Such a mosaic of characters allows us to see in these genera a more or less close similarity to the ancestral form from which cercopithecoids and hominoids originated. Unfortunately, a huge time interval, covering the entire Late Oligocene, still remains practically uncharacterized fossil material, and therefore it is still impossible to imagine in any detail the process of divergence of the two branches of narrow-nosed monkeys.

At one time, the genus Camoyapithecus was presumably considered as the earliest form of hominoids ( Kamoyapithecus), identified from finds at the Late Oligocene locality of Losidok in northern Kenya. Due to their occurrence between two layers of basalt well dated by the potassium-argon method, the lower of which has an age of 27.5 ± 0.3 Ma, and the upper 24.2 ± 0.3 Ma, these finds have a reliable chronological reference. However, they are still too few and fragmentary to be identified with complete certainty as the remains of a great ape. More representative material, shedding light on the early stages of hominoid evolution, comes from a number of localities in western Kenya, but even the oldest of them, Meswa Bridge, is about 3 million years younger than Losidok.

Now, thanks to finds in Africa and Eurasia, about 30 genera of Miocene hominoids are known, but it is assumed that this material does not even half reflect their real diversity. According to some estimates, the number of genera that existed during this period could be five times greater, and those of them that are critical for understanding the phylogenetic relationships of different groups within the superfamily Anthropoids have not yet been discovered. Like it or not, but ideas about the phylogeny of hominoids - both fossil and modern - are still really far from clear.

Since the mid 60s. 20th century to build a family tree of the order of primates (as well as many other groups of animals), they began to use the information contained in the macromolecules of proteins and especially nucleic acids. The principle underlying the methods used for this is somewhat similar to that on which radioisotope dating methods are based. If in the latter, the rate of decay of radioactive elements (for example, C 14 - radioactive carbon) is used as the basis for calculations, approximately the same for long periods of time, then in the former, the so-called neutral point mutations play a similar role. Such mutations, although they lead to a change in the sequence of DNA nucleotides, are supposed to have no significance for natural selection and are distributed in time (of course, we are talking about fairly long periods of time) more or less evenly. If this is so, then by comparing the structure of DNA molecules in different groups of organisms using various, very sophisticated methods, one can judge the degree of their relationship (the closer it is, the less differences should be), and with a known mutation rate, even about the approximate time divergence from a common ancestor. Of course, biomolecular methods of phylogenetic studies cannot be considered absolutely reliable and self-sufficient, and there are still many unsolved problems in this area. However, as experience shows, as far as the evolution of primates is concerned, biomolecular and paleontological analyzes generally give fairly close results.

Comparison of nucleotide sequences in DNA molecules taken from modern cercopithecines and great apes, says, according to most experts, that the evolutionary paths of these groups diverged somewhere in the range from 22 to 28 million years ago. Thus, paleontological and molecular data, taken together, suggest that the independent phylogenetic history of the hominoid superfamily, which includes humans and great apes (chimpanzee, gorilla, orangutan, gibbon, siamang) from living primates, began about 25 million years ago. back (Fig. 4).

Until recently, it was customary to distinguish three families within the superfamily of hominoids: hylobatids ( Hylobatidae), represented by the gibbon and siamang, pongid ( Pongidae), which included the genera of the orangutan ( pongo), gorillas ( Gorilla) and chimpanzees ( Pan), and hominid ( Hominidae), i.e. man and his upright ancestors. This classification was based on external anatomical features, primarily such as the proportions of the limbs, structural features of the canines and molars, etc. The widespread use of biomolecular methods in taxonomy, however, showed that a regrouping of the taxa accepted to date is necessary. In particular, it turned out that the orangutan is genetically separated from the African great apes (gorilla and chimpanzee) further than the latter from humans, and should be allocated to a separate family. In addition, evidence has emerged suggesting that the genetic distance between humans and chimpanzees may be even less than between chimpanzees and gorillas, and if so, then corresponding changes in taxonomy are necessary.

There is little doubt that hominoids originated in Africa, and for almost 10 million years their history remained exclusively associated with this continent. Apart from the disputed materials from Losidki mentioned above, the earliest hominoids found in the Lower Miocene localities of East Africa belong to the genus Proconsul ( Proconsul) (Fig. 7). True, there is a point of view according to which the proconsul was also not yet actually a hominoid, but its supporters also admit that some of the species of this genus could well be the common ancestor of all later anthropoid apes.

Rice. 7. Reconstruction of the skeleton and skull of a proconsul

At the end of the early Miocene, representatives of several genera of hominoids already lived in Africa: Dendropithecus, Micropithecus, Afropithecus, Turkanopithecus, etc., but the phylogenetic significance of these forms is unclear. It is difficult to say whether any of them were directly related to the lineage of modern gorillas or chimpanzees. African Early Miocene hominoids ranged in body size from very small to 3 kg in weight ( Micropithecus clarki), to large ( Proconsul major, Turkanapithecus heseloni), weighing about 100 kg, like the female of a modern gorilla, and their diet consisted mainly of fruits and young leaves. All of these forms led a predominantly arboreal way of life, and when moving on the ground they remained quadrupedal. The only exception to the latter rule was perhaps the Oreopithecus, or, more precisely, the species Oreopithecus bamboli, but he lived not in Africa, but in Europe, and not at the beginning, but at the end of the Miocene. The study of Oreopithecus bone remains found in Italy in deposits aged 8–9 million years led a number of paleontologists to suggest that this creature, when it was on the ground, preferred to use not four, but two legs for walking.

In the middle Miocene, when a land bridge was established between Africa and Eurasia (16–17 million years ago), the habitat of hominoids expanded significantly by including the territories of southern Europe and Asia. The most ancient fossil representatives of this group in Europe are about 13–15 million years old (pliopithecus ( Pliopithecus), driopithecus ( Dryopithecus), later Ouranopithecus ( Ouranopithecus)), and in Asia about 12 Ma. However, if in Asia, at least on its southeastern outskirts, they managed to thoroughly gain a foothold, having survived there to this day (orangutans, gibbons, siamangs), then in Europe the conditions turned out to be less suitable, and, having experienced a short period of prosperity, to At the end of the Miocene, hominoids die out here. In deposits younger than 7 Ma, their remains have not been found in Europe. In Africa, during the period under consideration (from 15 to 5 million years ago), there is also a significant reduction in the number of known species of hominoids, but, despite this, it is it that still remains the site of the main events in their evolution. The most important of these events, directly related to the origin of man, will be discussed in the following chapters.

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Cooperation between males and females in communities in modern African great apes and human ancestors

Great apes, or ( Hominoidae) is a superfamily of primates, which includes 24 species. Although people are Hominoidea, the term "ape" does not apply to humans and describes non-human primates.

Classification

Great apes are classified in the following taxonomic hierarchy:

  • Domain: ;
  • Kingdom: ;
  • Type: ;
  • Class: ;
  • Squad: ;
  • Superfamily: Hominoids.

The term great ape refers to a group of primates that includes the families: hominids (chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans) and gibbons. scientific name Hominoidea refers to apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, gibbons) as well as humans (i.e. ignoring the fact that humans prefer not to call themselves apes).

The gibbon family is the most diverse, it has 16 species. Another family - hominids - is less diverse and includes: chimpanzees (2 species), gorillas (2 species), orangutans (3 species) and humans (1 species).

Evolution

The record is incomplete, but scientists believe that ancient hominoids diverged from marmosets between 29 and 34 million years ago. The first modern hominoids appeared about 25 million years ago. Gibbons were the first group to split off from other groups, about 18 million years ago, followed by a lineage of orangutans (about 14 million years ago), and gorillas (about 7 million years ago).

The most recent split occurred between humans and chimpanzees about 5 million years ago. The closest living relatives of hominoids are the Old World monkeys, or marmosets.

Environment and habitat

Hominoids live throughout the West and Central, as well as in the Southeast. Orangutans are found only in Asia, chimpanzees inhabit West and Central Africa, gorillas are common in Central Africa, and gibbons live in Southeast Asia.

Description

Most hominoids, with the exception of humans and gorillas, are skilled as well as flexible climbers. Gibbons are the most agile arboreal primates of all hominids. They can jump up branches, moving quickly and efficiently through trees.

Compared to other primates, hominoids have a lower center of gravity, a shortened spine relative to their body length, a broad pelvis, and broad chest. Their overall build gives them a more upright posture than other primates. Their shoulder blades are on their backs, allowing for a wide range of motion. Hominoids also do not have a tail. Together, these characteristics give hominoids a better balance than their closest living relatives, the Old World monkeys. Hominoids are therefore more stable when standing on two legs or swinging their limbs and hanging from tree branches.

Hominoids are very intelligent and able to solve problems. Chimpanzees and orangutans make and use simple tools. Scientists studying orangutans in captivity have noted the ability of these primates to use sign language, solve puzzles and recognize symbols.

Nutrition

The diet of hominoids includes leaves, seeds, nuts, fruits, and a limited number of animals. Most species but fruits are the preferred food. Chimpanzees and orangutans primarily eat fruits. When fruit is scarce at certain times of the year or in certain regions, gorillas feed on shoots and leaves, often bamboo. Gorillas are well adapted to chewing and digesting such a low-nutrient food, but these primates still prefer fruit when available. Hominoid teeth are similar to those of Old World monkeys, although they are especially large in gorillas.

reproduction

Gestation in hominoids lasts from 7 to 9 months and leads to the birth of one offspring or, more rarely, two. Cubs are born helpless and require care for a long time. Compared to most other mammals, hominoids have a surprisingly long period of breastfeeding. In most species, full maturity occurs at the age of 8-13 years. As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years.

Behavior

Like most primates, hominoids form social groups whose structure varies by species. Gibbons form monogamous pairs. Orangutans are an exception to the social norm of primates, they lead a solitary life.

Chimpanzees form groups that can number from 40 to 100 individuals. Large groups of chimpanzees break up into smaller groups when fruit becomes less available. If small groups of dominant male chimpanzees leave to feed, the females often copulate with other males in their group.

Gorillas live in groups of 5 to 10 or more individuals, however they stay together regardless of the presence of fruit. When fruit fruits are hard to come by, they resort to eating leaves and shoots. Since the gorillas stay together, the male is able to monopolize the females in his group. This fact is associated with more in gorillas than in chimpanzees. In both chimpanzees and gorillas, groups include at least one dominant male, with females leaving the group at adulthood.

Threats

Many species of hominoids are endangered due to destruction, poaching and hunting for bushmeat and skins. Both species of chimpanzee are endangered. Gorillas are on the verge of extinction. Eleven out of sixteen gibbon species are becoming extinct.