Specific and middle cultures are local. Local culture is a culture limited in time and space, having internal unity, its own specific features and characteristics. Specific and "middle" cultures

The concept of local cultures by O. Spengler

Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) was a German philosopher, historian and culturologist. His book "The Decline of Europe", written in 1914 and published in 1917, became one of the most popular in the world; she appeared 20 times immediately after the release, he was called a "spiritual drug", "philosophical hit". Obviously, this happened because Spengler not only spoke truthfully about the modern era, but also pathetically predicted many contradictions of the future.

The study of history, the philosopher believed, cannot be approached from the standpoint of rigorous scientific analysis; in history, the main thing is to catch the uniqueness, and the intellect is capable of this - intuition is needed. You can understand and appreciate culture only from within, by feeling it.

In Spengler there is no concept of "humanity" - there are separate peoples (cultures). He believed that each culture grows on the basis of its own "primal phenomenon" - a way of experiencing life and lives for about 1200-1500 years in a certain "biological rhythm" (birth, childhood, youth, maturity, old age). In the life of culture, Spengler distinguished two main stages.

1. The stage of raising culture - organic evolution.

2. The stage of the decline of culture - civilization - a mechanical type of evolution; it is characterized in particular by:

Ossification of creative principles;

Omasovlennya life (symbol of masovlennya - cities)

Globalization (the principle of space defeats the principle of time, hence the inevitable world wars)",

The lack of spirituality of life (the transition from creativity to sports, from literature to variety shows, from heroes to engineers, the replacement of poetry with mechanics).

Back in 1914, Spengler predicted the Second World War and almost all the global problems of our era.

A. Toynbee's concept of local civilizations

Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975) - English philosopher, historian believed that it was not possible for a person to understand world history; this is the realm of divine vision. The logic of development can only be understood in relation to individual civilizations. The unit of study of history is a single society. Companies are divided into two types:

The first type is "primitive";

The second type is "civilizational".

The development of society is carried out through "mimesis" - imitation. The first type is societies that allow the old, were, to rely on the traditions and authority of their ancestors. The second type follows its heroes, leaders, creative personalities. Heroes create the dynamics of development, they are able to concentrate energy and respond to the "challenge" of history. Toynbee believes that a person reaches civilization not due to biological wood (heredity) or favorable conditions of the geographical environment, but in response to a challenge in a situation of special difficulties, inspires him to hitherto unprecedented efforts. Thus, the internal mechanism of history, according to Toynbee, can be represented as a challenge response. "Challenges", in his opinion, are divided into three types:

1. Unfavorable weather and conditions (for example, swamps in the Nile Delta - a challenge for the ancient Egyptians, forests and frosts - for the Russians).

2. Attack of foreigners.

3. The decay of previous civilizations (for example, the fall of the Hellenic Roman civilization brought to life the rise of Byzantine and European cultures).

Thus, even a brief enumeration of the concepts of progress gives an idea of their diversity and different methodological orientation.

How to explain it? Perhaps social science was still "in diapers" and spent various hypotheses explaining the essence of the development of society; or maybe the development of society is so diverse, diverse, that all these concepts that reflect one of its sides, facets, have truth (each in its own way and in its own way)?

These questions, like many others in philosophy, we will leave open, but not as proof of the impotence of our mind, but as a stimulus for its further development.

Expand your vocabulary:

progress, regression, escalator model of history, tree visible model of history, criterion of progress, socio-economic formation, basis, superstructure, technocratic concepts of progress, post-industrial society, cultural-civilizational cyclism, cultural-historical type.

Work on the following creative tasks. Exercise 1

In history, there is a clear tendency to accelerate the pace of social progress: for example: mammals live on earth for about 50 million years, hominids - 4 million years, homo sapiens - about 40 thousand years, the agricultural revolution took place about 8 thousand years ago, the industrial revolution - 200 years, scientific and technological revolution - 50 years ...

Determine the internal mechanisms and factors for accelerating social progress. Or is the trend of acceleration in the future infinite, there will come a time when the progress of society will slow down and reach some optimal pace?

Task 2

Philosopher Vladimir Solovyov in his short work "The Secret of Progress" tells a fairy tale: "A hunter got lost in the deep forest. Tired, he sat down on stones over a wide turbulent stream. And the hunter felt heavy at heart." I am lonely in life, as in a forest," he thinks, "and I have long gone astray along different paths ... Loneliness, longing and death ... "Here someone touched his shoulder. He sees a hunched old woman standing ... "Do you hear, good fellow ... transfer me to the other side, otherwise where can I resist across the current ..." There was a hunter, a kind-hearted fellow. "Well, grandmother, climb on your backs, and then pull your bones into the inside, otherwise you will spit up - you won't collect them in the water." Grandmother climbed onto his shoulders, and he felt such a terrible weight, as if he had put the coffin with the dead on himself, - he could hardly step. "Well, he thinks, now it's a shame on the heels!" He entered the water and suddenly it didn’t seem so difficult, but there it was getting easier and easier with every step ... Coming ashore, he looked around: instead of a woman, a beauty that cannot be described, a real tsar-maiden, pressed against him ... "

(Soloviev BC The Secret of Progress).

The fairy tale is a lie, but there is a hint in it ... What philosophical ideas do you see in this fairy tale? What features of social progress can you single out by comparing it with the development of nature?

What are the main criteria for social progress.

Task 4

Give arguments to prove that progress is the main direction of human history.

Task 5

Try to answer the question of the great Russian writer-philosopher L. Tolstoy: it is not such a simple course of progress when inventions and material improvements are made that destroy the moral order of life. When this disorder becomes very heavy, moral questions are raised... and again a step forward of material improvements and a second step of morality... (L.N. Tolstoy).

Do you agree with this view of social development?

Task 6

There is such a criterion of progress as the method of distribution of the produced product. In distribution, humanity seeks to implement the principle of equality and justice.

How do you understand this principle? What are the mechanisms in society for its implementation?

Task 7

Describe in detail such a criterion of social progress as the amount and structure of the use of free time. Evaluate our era from the standpoint of this criterion.

Task 8

What regularity of social progress is referred to in the following statement: "... Industrial progress is not at all parallel in history with the progress of art and real civilization ..."

(E. Renan. Poetry from the exhibition).

Give facts that illustrate this pattern.

Task 9

What dimension, what criterion of social progress are discussed in the following excerpts of artistic and philosophical theses:

"Progress is the desire to bring a person to human dignity ..."

(N. Chernyshevsky)

"All progress is reactionary if a person collapses." (A. Ascension. Oza).

"Who needs such technical progress does not make a person kinder, more cordial, more noble ..." (Yu. Bondarev. Tamo mora fox "). What criteria of social progress can you name. How can you explain the course of history with their help?

Task 10

To what extent is the humanistic content of progress realized in modern society? Justify your answer.

What fundamental provisions of dialectics are reflected in the following view of D. Lisarev on social development. "Humanity is moving forward - this is true; but one should not think that every step forward and every movement is a movement for the better. On the contrary, humanity is moving forward not in a straight line, but in zigzags; each success is bought at the cost of many erroneous attempts."

(D.Pisarev Popularizers of negative doctrines).

Give historical examples to support these statements.

By whom and when was the concept of "socio-economic formation" first introduced into sociology?

Try to assess the level of development of the society in which we live in terms of the formational approach.

As you understand, the well-known statement of K. Marx that progress is like a pagan idol did not want to drink nectar except from the skulls of the slain.

What feature and what regularity of progress is observed here?

Seeing the direct dependence of social changes on changes in technology, the American sociologist White believes that social systems play a secondary, subordinate role in relation to technical systems. Technology is the independent variable, the social system is the dependent system. Analyze this concept.

What do you agree with, what do you disagree with? Justify your conclusions.

Modern scientific and technological revolution creates huge opportunities for increasing the power of man over nature. However, it is known that the resources of nature are not unlimited. This is the basis for pessimistic forecasts about the possible natural death of mankind due to lack of means of subsistence.

Do you agree with this point of view? What do you think the corresponding optimistic forecasts can be based on?

In the last third of the 20th century, the technocratic approach was increasingly criticized.

Do you agree with this criticism? Show with specific examples what the "logic of a piece of iron" can lead to - "first we will create a technique, then we will deal with a person ..."

Some scholars argue that at a certain stage of technological progress, technology will rise above man, and not man will master technology.

What is your point of view? Justify your answer. Problem 18

What contradiction of modern progress is the author of the following reasoning talking about: “Workers engaged in the maintenance of robots, of course, admit that they are now saved from hard tedious work, but they complain that prolonged communication with a thoughtless machine, continuously and monotonously performs a monotonous operation, causes they are under stress...

(V. Tsvetov. The fifteenth stone of the Ryoanji garden). Problem 19

Highlight the position that characterizes the concept of technological determinism better than others?

1. What is the mode of production, such is society.

2. The key to understanding history is the types of social information systems.

3. The historical process is primarily associated with technical progress.

4. The social system is primarily characterized by the type of political management.

5. The fate of peoples is determined mainly by their external environment.

6. The scientific revolution determines the technical revolution, and together they determine the principles of organization of the totality of social elements.

"One thing is certain: technology is aimed at transforming man himself in the course of transforming the entire labor activity of a person. Man can no longer free himself from the influence of the technology created by it. And it is quite obvious that not only unlimited possibilities are invested in technology, but also unlimited dangers ".

(K. Jaspers Content and purpose of history). What danger for a person does the philosopher speak of? What contradiction and what regularity of progress are reflected here.

In the age of barbarism and the atom

We are obstetricians of the new,

This participation is hell for us

To your liking and to your liking

We are midwives, and the mother's age roars like a cross between a baboon and an aircraft engine. Try to stand like this during childbirth,

burn on the electrode

and happy to take.

And happy with this share

artist in workshop

stands, mortally ill

radiation disease.

What features of modern social development does A. Vozneseisky speak about

According to the English historian and sociologist A. Toynbee, the driving force behind the development of civilizations is the "creative minorities" of the carriers of the mystical "life impulse", which, successfully responding to various historical "challenges", entails an "inert majority". The peculiarity of these "challenges" and "answers" determines the specifics of each civilization, the hierarchy of its social values and philosophical concepts of the meaning of life.

What concept of history is reflected here? Do you agree with the author?

Justify your answer.

"Should the formula of progress contain, as a necessary element, the principle of happiness, or should it completely ignore happiness? If happiness is included in the concept of progress, does it increase and develop with the progress of mankind or not? ... Therefore, a dilemma arises : one can recognize the historical process as progress, but on the other hand, one has to exclude the point of view of happiness from the concept of progress, but if happiness becomes the criterion for progress, then the very existence of progress becomes problematic. (77 Sorokin Man, Civilization. Society) Try to answer the questions posed by the philosopher.

Try to define a progress criterion

In science - in art - in morality

In the education system - in politics

Is A. Blok talking about a period in the history of mankind?

What pattern of progress is seen here?

Under the sign of equality and brotherhood

Here mature dark affairs...

That century was cursed a lot

L will not get tired of cursing

And how to get rid of his sadness?

He gently Slal - yes hard to sleep.

"Progress ... does not consist in going all in one direction (in which case it would soon cease), but in circumventing the entire field that constitutes the field of the historical activity of mankind in all directions. Therefore, no civilization can be proud that she represents the highest point of development, compared with her predecessor or contemporaries ... "*

(Danilevsky N.Ya. Russia and Europe)

What methodology for studying society is reflected here?

Do you agree with this approach?

Justify your answer.

To sum up the study of three topics: 4 Social philosophy: the main methodological problems "-," Sources and driving forces of the development of society "and" Public o-gres "

1. Mark the correct answers in the following tests:

1. The first division of social production is:

b. Production of tools

C. Production of a person as a personality through socialization

2. The second subsection of social production is:

a. Production of wealth

b. Production of tools

in. Production of public relations

d. Production of man through procreation

e. Production of spiritual values

3. The third subsection of social production is:

a. Production of wealth

b. Production of tools

in. Production of public relations

d. Production of man through procreation

e. Production of spiritual values

e. Production of a person as a personality through socialization

4. The fourth division of social production is:

a. Production of wealth

b. Production of tools

in. Production of public relations

d. Production of man through procreation

e. Production of spiritual values

e. Production of a person as a personality through socialization

5. Highlight the feature that does not reflect the essence of labor as a specific human activity:

a. public character

6. Purposefulness

in. Use of nature

d. Use of tools

e. Conscious character

b. Highlight the concepts formulated in the framework of naturalistic methodology in understanding the essence of society:

a. Dialectical-materialistic

b. Social Darwinism

d. Cultural determinism

e. Geographical determinism

7. Highlight the concepts formulated within the technocratic approach:

a. Dialectical-materialistic

b. Social Darwinism

in. Technological determinism

d. Cultural determinism

e. Geographical determinism

8. Highlight the concepts formulated within the cultural approach:

b. Social Darwinism

in. Technological determinism

d. Cultural determinism

e. Geographical determinism

9. Within the framework of what concept is the following statement substantiated: "Society does not fundamentally differ from natural processes; the same laws operate in it as in nature:"

a. idealistic

b. Dialectical-materialistic

in. naturalistic

Cosmological

e. Theological

10. Highlight the natural factors in the development of society:

a. productive forces

b. Population

in. Property Relations

d. Minerals

e. Means of labor

11. Fatalism is:

a. Absolutization of freedom

12. Voluntarism is:

a. Absolutization of freedom

b. Absoluteization of the role of economic relations

in. Absolutization of the role of culture

d. Absolutization of historical necessity

e. Absolutization of the principle of development

13-Highlight the main productive force of society:

a. Tools

b. Technics

d. Man

14. Highlight the position that best characterizes the relationship between the concepts of scientific and technological revolution (STI) and scientific and technological progress (STP):

a. Scientific and technological revolution and scientific and technical progress are the same, coincide in time and content: it characterizes changes in technology based on scientific knowledge

b. These concepts do not coincide at all, reflecting various social processes.

in. The concept of STP is broader, STP is one of the stages of STP

d. The concept of scientific and technological revolution is broader, technical progress is one of the stages of scientific and technological revolution

15. Among the named areas of scientific and technological revolution, highlight the main one that determines all others:

a. Use of high technologies in production

b. Chemicalization of production

in. Production automation

d. Space exploration

e. Use of new energy sources

16. Antagonism is:

a. Social groups

b. Basis of society

in. Type of social reforms

d. irresolvable contradiction

d. Ting personality

17. Revolution is:

a. Qualitative transformation of social relations

b. Political coup

in. Ideological reforms

d. Economic reforms

e. Changing the Constitution

18. Subjects of the historical process:

a. Personality

b. Ideological doctrines

in. Humanity

d. Social groups

19-The main criterion of social progress in the historical concept of Hegel

a. Personal development

b. The degree of freedom of the individual

e. Quality of life

20. The main criterion of social progress in the historical concept of K. Marx

a. Personal development

b. The degree of freedom of the individual

in. Level of development of engineering and technology

d. Mode of production of wealth

e. Quality of life

21. Social progress is:

a. Improvement of society

b. The natural development of society

in. fauna development

d. Structuring the noosphere

e. Management optimization

22. The goal of social progress is:

a. Achieving equality between men and women

b. Solving global problems of our time

in. All-round development of the essential forces of each person

d. Creation of worldwide political organizations

e. Destruction of terrorism

23. The main criterion of social progress from the point of view of Marxism:

in. Consumption level

d. Degree of freedom of the individual

e. Human happiness

24. The main criterion for social progress in techno-crown concepts

a. Level of development of engineering and technology

b. Type of industrial relations (forms of ownership)

in. Consumption level

d. Degree of freedom of the individual

e. Human happiness

25. What concept of progress does the theory of "post-industrial society" refer to:

a. Dialectical-materialistic

b. Social Darwinism

in. Technological determinism

d. Cultural determinism

e. Geographical determinism

26. Highlight a law that is not the main pattern of progress

a. The relationship between gradualness and cyclicality

b. The trend of uneven social progress

in. Law - the trend of accelerating the pace of social progress

d. Law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes

e. The trend of non-linear progress

a. 3. Freud

b. K. Marx

in. G. Hegel

C. Montesquieu

Dr. N. Chernyshevsky

28. Highlight the structural elements of the socio-economic formation:

a. superstructure

b. Religion

d. Means of labor

b. W. Rostow

in. K. Marx

G. O. Spengler

a. P. Holbach

b. W. Rostow

in. K. Marx

G. O. Spengler

d. Toynbee

31. Highlight the stages of progress in the theory of post-industrial society:

a. post-industrial society

b. feudal society

in. bourgeois society

d. Patriarchal Society

e. Industrial Society

a. K. Marx

b. Toynbee

in. O. Spengler

W. Rostow

Dr. N. Danilevsky

33. Highlight the position that characterizes the concept of technological determinism better than others:

a. The mode of production, such is society

b. The key to understanding history is the types of social information systems

in. The historical process is primarily associated with technological progress.

d. The social system is primarily characterized by the type of political governance

e. The fate of peoples is determined mainly by their external environment.

34. Among the named types of social groups, select ethnic communities:

a. Nationalities

b. Classes

e. Professional groups

35. Among the named types of social groups, select economic groups:

a. Nationalities

b. Classes

e. Professional groups

36. Determine the type of social group distinguished by legal characteristics:

a. Nationalities

b. Classes

in. states

37. Highlight the needs by areas of activity:

a. The need for labor

b. The need for rest

in. Need for food

d. Need for clothing

e. Need for communication

38. Highlight the needs for the object:

a. The need for labor

b. The need for rest

in. Need for food

d. Need for clothing

e. Need for communication

39. What factor of the social process in Marxism stands out as the main one:

a. Level of development of engineering and technology

40. What factor of the social process stands out as the main one in geographical determinism:

a. Level of development of engineering and technology

b. Development of the production method

in. The level of development of spiritual culture

d. Natural environment (climate, soil, minerals)

e. The level of realization of the creative potential of the individual

41. What factor of the social process stands out as the main one in cultural determinism:

a. Level of development of engineering and technology

b. Development of the production method

in. The level of development of spiritual culture

d. Natural environment (climate, soil, minerals)

e. The level of realization of the creative potential of the individual

42. What factor of the social process stands out as the main one in technological determinism:

a. Level of development of engineering and technology

b. Development of the production method

in. The level of development of spiritual culture

d. Natural environment (climate, soil, minerals)

e. The level of realization of the creative potential of the individual

43. The carrier of the conflict are:

a. An object

b. Subject

in. Animal

d. Construction

e. Nature

44. Social conflict arises:

a. between states

b. Between eras

in. Between social groups

d. With myself

e. Between animals

45-To peacefully resolve the conflict, you need:

b. Humiliation

d. Compromise

e. Reproaches

46. Geopolitics is:

a. The science that studies the poured political sphere of society onto the natural environment

b. The science that studies the political situation of a country

in. Science that studies the influence of natural factors on the main directions of the domestic and foreign policy of the state

d. Science that studies the main directions of the agrarian policy of the state

e. Natural resource science

47. Civilization is:

a. Nature

b. The degree of "cultivation" of society

in. Subculture

d. Political regime

e. Scientific concept

48. Many researchers call modern Western civilization:

a. The newest society

b. capitalist society

in. Post-industrial (information), society

d. Modern Society

e. patriarchal society

49. The main indicator of the development of modern society is:

a. Agricultural development

b. The development of high technology!

in. Development of heavy industries

d. Development of the mass consumer industry

e. Development of the media

50. Which of the following is not a major development trend

modern civilization:

a. Shaping the World Economy

in. Intensive cultural exchange

The Crisis of the Institutions of Representative Democracy

e. Creation of a single information space

Enculturation is the process of mastering the norms of social life and culture by an individual.

Art - Most case, requiring such skills, skills

Canon - 1. Immutable rule, regulation some directions, teachings, etc. // What firmly established, accepted sample.// What is the traditional generally accepted norm, custom, rule.
2. Established and legitimized by the church rule, dogma, rite etc.
3. church chant in honour saint, holiday, etc.
4. Accurate repetition one melody different, successively entering friend after another in voices (a form of polyphonic music).

Kitsch(from Polish. Sus - handicraft). A term that was in circulation in the 1960s and 1970s and has now gone out of fashion, as it has been replaced by a more weighty concept - postmodernism.

In fact, kitsch there is an origin and one of the varieties postmodernism. Kitsch- This mass art for the elect. A work belonging to Quichu, should be done at a high artistic level, it should have a fascinating plot. But this is not a real work of art in the highest sense, but a skillful fake for it. AT quiche there may be deep psychological conflicts, but there are no genuine artistic discoveries

Classicism - Direction in literature and art of the 17th century - early 19th century, a characteristic feature of which was an appeal to patterns and forms of ancient art as most perfect.

Communication - (lat. communicatio - from communico - I make it common, I connect, I communicate), 1) way messages, connection one places with others. 2) Communication, the transfer of information from person to person is a specific form of interaction between people in the processes of their cognitive and labor activity, carried out main way with the help of language (less often with the help of other sign systems). Communication is called also signal ways communication with animals.

Counterculture - used in literature general designation heterogeneous in ideological and political orientation of the values of certain groups of young people ("" new left "", hippies, beatniks, yippies, etc.), opposed to official values. This protest takes various forms: passive to extremist; general democratic goals often combined with sanarchism, "leftist" radicalism; "non-acquisitive" image life is permeated with cultural nihilism, technophobia, religious quests.

Conformism - adaptability, crazy following general opinions, fashion trends

Nonconformism (from non - not, no and conformis - similar, consistent) - non-acceptance of the prevailing order, norms, values, traditions or laws (regardless of their logical or legitimate basis).

Cosmopolitan - adherent cosmopolitanism.

Cosmopolitanism - Reactionary bourgeois ideology, which, under the guise of the slogans of "world state" and "world citizenship", rejects right nations on their own Existence and state independence, preaches refusal from national traditions and national culture, from patriotism

Creativity - (from lat. creatio - creation- creation), creative, constructive, innovative activity.

Cult - (from lat. cultus - veneration) -1) one of the basic elements of religion; actions (body movements, reading or singing certain texts, etc.), aimed at giving visible expression religious worship or attract to their performers the divine ""forces""(so-called sacraments). 2) Excessive exaltation of something or someone (the cult of personality).

Cultural heritage is part of the material and spiritual culture, created by past generations that passed the test time and passed on to generations as something valuable and revered

Messianism (ancient Hebrew mashiah - anointed one, Arabic mash - anointing, mashih - anointed one) - religious the doctrine of the coming coming into the world of God's messenger - messiah designed to establish justice peace, peace on earth. The reasons for the appearance of messianism are connected with the unresolved social problems, the loss of hope for a better future, etc. It is no coincidence that messianism found favorable ground among peoples, ethno-confessional groups that were subjected to persecution and persecution. For example, sermon messianism in Judaism intensified precisely when the Jewish state was destroyed, when Jews were held captive in Egypt and Babylon. Desperate people hoped for the help of divine forces. Messianism was also attractive to Christians during the period of persecution in Roman Empire. According to the Christian eschatology, coming The Second Coming of the Messiah (Jesus Christ). The ideas of Messianism were developed in islam especially among Muslims Shiites. The Shia minority experienced persecution in many countries. Messianic expectations of the emergence Mahdi in Shiite teachings, they were associated with popular aspirations to establish a kingdom of justice on earth. Thus, the more people lost hope of getting rid of evil, the more religious quests spread among them, the painful expectation of the coming of the Messiah.

Kulturtragerstvo - Activity cultural trailer.

Kulturtreger - One who carries out their unseemly goals under the guise of spreading culture

Cultural genesis is the process of emergence and formation of culture of any people and nationality in general and the emergence of culture as such in primitive society. At the moment, there is no unified theory of the emergence of culture

Latent - Hidden, outwardly unmanifested

Local culture is a culture limited in time and space, having internal unity, its own specific features and characteristics.

Magic - Aggregate ritual actions and words, supposedly possessing miraculous properties and capable of influence to the supernatural strength

Mythology - 1. Scientific discipline, studying the myths of ancient peoples.
2. Aggregate some myths. people.

Mass culture - concept, covering the diverse and heterogeneous cultural phenomena of the 20th century, which received Spread in connections with the scientific and technological revolution and the constant renewal of mass media. Production, distribution and consumption products of mass culture is industrial-commercial character. The semantic range of mass culture very wide- from primitive kitsch (early comics, melodrama, pop hit,""soap opera"") to complex, content-rich forms (some kinds rock music,""intellectual"" detective, pop Art). The aesthetics of mass culture is characterized by a constant balancing between trivial and original, aggressive and sentimental, vulgar and sophisticated. Actualizing and objectifying expectations mass audience, mass culture meets her needs for leisure, entertainment, play, communication, emotional compensation or relaxation, etc.

Polycentrism - (from poly ... and ... center) - theory origin of modern man kind(Homo sapiens) and its races in several regions of the globe from different forms of ancient people. Most domestic anthropologists are not accepted.

Primate - dominance, primacy, prevailing meaning

Enlightenment - Spread knowledge, education. 2) The system of general educational institutions in the country (see. also public education)

Regress - decline in the development of something backward movement

Reduction - Weakening, less distinct pronunciation vowel sound in an unstressed position (in linguistics).

The fall of the stock market course securities or stock prices.

Reduction of a complex manufacturing process to more simple.

Process, back oxidation; recovery(in chemistry).

Reducing the size of an organ simplification its structure or complete disappearance in connections with the loss of its functions in the process evolution organism (in biology).

Fluid pressure drop gas, steam in the system of engines, installations using a gearbox.

The seizure by royal power from the feudal nobility of those who passed into it arms state lands (in some European states of the 15th-16th centuries).

Reconstruction - 1. Indigenous refurbishment, refurbishment something // Change organization principles.
2. Recreation, restoration something according to surviving remains or descriptions.

Restoration - 1. Recovery in the original form of dilapidated or destroyed monuments of art.
2. trans. Recovery overthrown political order.

SACRALIZATION

(from lat. sacrum - sacred) - English sacredization; German sacralisierung. Endowing objects, things, phenomena, people with "sacred" content; subordination watered, and societies, institutions, social. and scientific thought, culture and art, domestic relations, religious influence

Samizdat (read [samizdat]) - a way of unofficial and therefore uncensored distribution literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge and permission of the authorities, as a rule, by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods, by the end of the USSR also with the help of a computer. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava,Y. Kim, emigrant singers, etc.; a similar phenomenon often had a separate name magnitizdat

Secularization - 1. Appeal church and monastic property in own secular.
2. Withdrawal something from ecclesiastical, spiritual knowledge and broadcast secular, civil jurisdiction.
3. trans. Liberation from church influence (in social and mental activity, in artistic creativity)

Selectivity - (selectivity) of a radio receiver - its ability isolate a useful radio signal against the background of extraneous electromagnetic oscillations (interference). Parameter, characterizing this abilityquantitatively. The most common frequency selectivity.

Symbol - 1. That which serves as a symbol for some sl. concepts, ideas.
2. Artistic image, conditionally transmitting some thought, idea, experience.
3. Conditional designation some size, some concepts, accepted by either different science.

Syncretism - fusion, indivisibility, characterizing the original, undeveloped condition something

Slang - Aggregate words and expressions used by representatives of certain groups, professions, etc. and constituents layer colloquial vocabulary that does not correspond to the norms of the literary language (usually with regard to to English-speaking countries).

Sobornost - (catholicity) (Greek Katholikos - universal) - one of the main features of the Christian Church, fixative its self-understanding as universal, universal (""single, saint, catholic and apostolic church""-Nicene-Constantinopolitan symbol faith, 4th c.). Considering catholicity as a specific property Orthodox tradition (sobornost as an aggregate intelligence"of the church people" in difference from the religious individualism of Protestantism and the authoritarianism of the pope in the Roman Catholic Church), A.S. Khomyakov interpreted it as general principle dispensation of being, characterizing multitude gathered by force love in "" free and organic unity""(in social philosophy the greatest approximation this principle was seen in the peasant community). concept catholicity was perceived by Russian religious philosophy con. 19th-20th centuries

Socialization - (from lat. socialis - public) - process assimilation by the human individual of a certain system of knowledge, norms and values that allow him function as a full member of society; includes as a purposeful impact on the personality(education), so natural, spontaneous processes affecting her formation. Studied in philosophy, psychology, social psychology, sociology, history and ethnography, pedagogy, theology.

Stagnation - (from lat. stagno - I make immobile) in the economy - stagnation in production, trade, etc.

Standard - 1. type specimen, to whom smth. must satisfy size, shape, quality. // Single the form organization, carrying out
2. trans. That which does not include nothing original, original; template, stencil.

Stereotype - 1. Monolithic printed the form in the form of a relief copy from a printing set, used for printing large-circulation or repeated editions.
2. unfold stereotypical edition.
3. trans. unchanging common pattern, which is followed without thought; template, stencil.

Stylization - 1. Giving work of art characteristic heck some style. // Recreation some coloration. era in the images and stylistic features of a literary work.
2. Work, shaped like imitation to some style.

Sublimation - 1. Transition substances when heated from a solid state to a gaseous state, bypassing the liquid phase; sublimation.
2. Transition water vapor into ice snow in the atmosphere.

Switching lower (mainly sexual) urges to higher, intellectual and socially useful purposes (in medicine).

Taboo - 1. outdated. religious ban, imposed on a action, word, object, violation which - according to superstitious ideas - was punished by supernatural forces.
2. Any strict ban on smth.

Typing - 1. Embodiment by means of art of the general, typical in specific artistic images, forms.
2. Mixing diversity samples something (machines, buildings, technological processes, etc.) to a small number of types; unification.
3. Assignment to a certain classification type.

Totem - 1. Animal, plant, object or phenomenon nature, which among tribal groups served as an object of religious veneration.
2. Coat of arms tribe with so image.

Universals - (from lat. universalis - general) - general concepts. Ontological status of the universal - one of the central problems of medieval philosophy (dispute about the universals of the 10th-14th centuries): whether there are universals ""before things"", what are the eternal ideal prototypes (Platonism, extreme realism), "" in things "" (Aristotelianism, moderate realism), ""after things"" in human thinking (nominalism, conceptualism).

Unification - (from lat. unus - one and ... fiction) - cast something to a single system, form, uniformity. In technology, unification is understood as bringing various types of products and means of their production to the smallest number of sizes, brands, properties, etc. One from standardization methods.

Utilitarianism - Direction in ethics according to to whom benefit or benefit recognized as a criterion of morality.

Activities based on rough material calculation, striving from extract everything benefit; narrow practicality.

Phenomenon - Phenomenon, in which it is found essence something (in philosophy).

1. Rare, unusual, exceptional phenomenon.
2. trans. Outstanding, exceptional in some respect Human.

Fetish - 1. Inanimate object, endowed - according to the ideas of believers - supernatural force and is an object of religious worship.
2. trans. What blindly worship

Folklore - 1. Oral folk creation.
2. Works created by the people and existing in it.
3. Same as: folklore.

Value - 1. Price something, expressed in money; price.// high price something // unfold Ratio at the rate; dignity(about money, securities).
2. Something that has a high cost; valuable item.
3. trans. Importance, value.

Civilization - 1. Level social development, material and spiritual culture.
2. Modern world culture, progress, enlightenment.
3. Third - next for savagery and barbarity - stage social development.

Evolution - 1. Process gradual change and development.
2. see also evolution.

Evolutionism - Doctrine about the laws of historical development of organic peace and ways of controlling the development of organisms.

Egalitarian Leveling - 1. Corresponding in meaning. with noun: equalization (1*), leveling, tied with them.
2. employee to equalize (1*) smth.
3. Based on leveling.

Eclectic - - compound heterogeneous, internally unrelated and possibly, incompatible views, ideas, concepts, styles, etc. For E. characteristically ignoring logical connections and substantiation of provisions, non-contradiction of the law, usage polysemantic and inaccurate concepts and statements, errors in definitions and classifications, etc. Using facts and formulations taken out of context, uncritically uniting opposing views, E. strives together so create an appearance logical sequence and severity. E. appeared as a methodological principle for the first time in late Greek philosophy expression its decline and intellectual impotence. E. wide used in medieval scholasticism, when cited dozens and hundreds heterogeneous, internally unrelated arguments for and against some provision. E. sometimes used as reception in advertising and propaganda, in mass media communication when fragmentation It has more value than integrity, internal connectedness and sequence.Void and theoretical infertility E. usually masquerading as references to need cover everything manifold existing phenomena with a single integrating view, without losing sight of real contradictions. Insolvent as a general methodological method of describing reality, E. sometimes acts as an inevitable moment in the development knowledge. Most often it has place in period theory formation, when a new problem is being mastered and is still unattainable synthesis disparate facts, ideas and hypotheses into a single system. eclectic It was, e.g. existence side by side with another corpuscular and wave theories of light, later unified in the framework of quantum mechanics. Elements E. present also in initial period learning a new scientific discipline, when knowledge remain fragmented and incoherent, and there is still no skill highlight in the mass of information most significant and defining.

Elite - 1. Chosen, the best seeds, plants or animals, obtained as a result of selection and intended for further reproduction or breeding.
2. trans. The best representatives of any parts of society. // Representatives of privileged social groups.

Emancipation - 1. The equation rights (usually providing women equal rights with men in the field of public and labor activities).
2. outdated. Liberation from some dependencies.

Aesthetics - 1. Philosophical doctrine about the essence and forms of beauty in art, artistic creativity, nature and life.
2. System views on art or on some his appearance, which smb. adheres to.
3. Beauty, artistry in smth.

Ethics - 1. Philosophical doctrine about morality, its principles, development and roles in society.
2. Aggregate code of conduct, morality some social group, organization, etc.

By the end of the 20th century, thanks to the development of scientific and technological progress in human society, a system of mass communication is being formed, which incorporates the latest technical possibilities for disseminating information to an almost unlimited audience, which allows it to become a real force influencing the formation of the entire system of spiritual values and needs of mankind. It should be recognized that the system of mass communication is becoming the dominant factor in modern culture. This destroys it as a relatively equilibrium system, giving rise to a number of new phenomena; some of them are so unusual that they hardly fit into the framework of traditional ideas about culture.

In order to understand this, it is necessary to conduct a comparative analysis of the state of culture before the formation of the mass communication system and its current state, as well as changes in intercultural communication itself (communication between different cultures).

Thus, we can say that culture is a contradictory formation, which is in relative unity, but inside which there are constantly contradictory tendencies, expressing relatively opposite essences, two vectors of self-realization of each individual's creativity. On the one hand, in the process of creative activity, a person relies on the stereotypes, traditions and norms of life that are characteristic of most people in their ordinary lives. In this regard, the characteristics of individual life, the living environment and conditions determine the form and nature of a person's everyday life. On the other hand, creative activity can take place far from standard life stereotypes and ideas, can be removed from reality, creating as a result a special “elitist” cultural layer, within which general cultural and universal values arise, which society is guided by. “Only together, in mutual mediation and interdependence, do both of these principles constitute social reality; only together, in unceasing interaction, do they constitute the life of mankind.”

One vector of culture is directed, in the words of Knabe, "up", forming some general ideas and values in the sphere of the spirit (science, art, religion, etc.). The other one is “down”, fixing the everyday stereotypes of a person’s life both at the individual and at the level of microgroups. Bakhtin, long before modern postmodernism with its philosophy of the body, considered such an opposition between the upper and lower parts of culture as a special tradition of opposing the top and bottom of a particular person. The upper culture was abstract, spiritual, experienced and removed from real life. The grassroots, on the contrary, was corporeal, concrete, not only experienced by the individual, but also embodied by him.

The abstract-spiritual, refined part of culture is gradually taking shape in the history of human civilization as CULTURE "with a capital letter". It is fundamentally removed from everyday life, even from a specific person. It requires some preparation for its perception. Finally, she requires a certain form of organization of space for the reproduction of her samples. When we talk about culture, we most often mean culture in the first sense, while its second sense seems to be too insignificant. Such an understanding of culture is so typical that sometimes it may seem that there is no other culture.

The audience associated with the "upper" culture is elitist and limited, but it is life circumstances that give some people the opportunity to join such a high culture, while others do not. The values of the "upper" culture, due to the fact that they have taken a refined form, limit themselves from outside influences for a longer period, they are easier to maintain artificially, to cultivate, which makes it possible for them to be preserved almost in their "original form". Even the perception of such cultural values requires not only some internal preparation, special literacy, but also special premises for this, which is also a factor limiting the scope of its distribution. Thus, an idealized system of cultural values is being created, which, due to the above circumstances, is quite stable, is wary of any changes in it, and is truly the basis of universal culture. Everyday (non-elitist, grassroots, etc.) culture, in whose consumption of products the largest mass of people are included, was less stable due to its openness, and, consequently, more subject to change.

So, culture as a system is a dialectical unity of contradictory aspects that are in impulsive interaction. A high CULTURE ensures continuity, unity, creates a system of values, while a “grassroots” culture ensures the self-development of the system, its renewal. In this sense, culture is dialogical already by virtue of the presence in it of two interacting cultures, more precisely, dialogue is a form of its existence. But this dialogue is carried out within a single whole. “Dialogue embodies the dialectic of development, the dialectic opened into the future and in this sense historically positive – positive both in the objective, philosophical and historical sense, and in the subjective-human, moral sense” . Therefore, the opposition of "upper" and "lower" culture is a cultural opposition, does not go beyond its scope.

Naturally, as in any contradictory process, the unity of the parties cannot do without attempts to suppress one side of the other, one (in this case) culture of the other. Thus, for example, attempts to suppress "low" culture on the part of "high" culture are often expressed in the fact that everything related to the first is declared to be a certain area of fundamentally uncultured. Ordinary life is understood as something unworthy of a cultured person, as if the latter does not eat, drink, give birth to children, etc. It is, as it were, a periphery, the wrong side of being (Knabe), which must be hidden, covered. This culture of cover, reaching the point of absurdity, was described in a grotesque form by Gogol, fixing the intracultural opposition between everyday life, everyday life, simplicity of behavior, reflected in the language of a normal person, and its semantic invariant, supposedly reflecting the existence of a person in a "high" culture. There is also a reverse pseudo-progressive movement in culture, when attempts are made to oust reference images from it: the latter are assessed as outdated and not in keeping with the spirit of the times.

Local culture as a complete holistic symbolic system of cultural meanings, reflects the completeness of the existence of man and humanity in the products of his creativity. Completeness (which postmodernism does not like so much) is generally one of the principles of classical culture. In music it is a symphony, in literature it is a novel or short story, in architecture it is a sustained style of buildings, in philosophy it is an all-encompassing concept. "Completeness" is inevitably associated with limitation (at least in the form of boundaries separating from other objects), which is most clearly manifested in literature. A complete literary text is a certain standard of a text in general, a certain complete meaning, which is opposed by the texts of the "grassroots" culture, on the contrary, often broken, not structured, inconsistent, strange, indecent, etc.

The isolation and self-sufficiency of the local culture is manifested in its opposition (sometimes quite harsh) to other cultures. And here the situation is reversed. The "upper" part of one local culture can be quite close to the "upper" part of another. But at the level of "grassroots" culture, in terms of individual everyday opposition, the gap turns out to be large. This is expressed in the relevant proverbs and sayings, stereotypes of perception of representatives of another culture. Therefore, on the whole, the thesis about a single universal culture as an integral system was, rather, only a metaphor.

This does not mean that such local cultures did not communicate with each other, did not know about each other. But each of the cultures developed in itself a powerful framework, a kind of “immunity” to another culture, which did not let in alien elements and influences. Therefore, one of the central cultural oppositions of the system of local cultures was the opposition "mine– stranger", in which one's own (intracultural) was considered as true, and someone else's - as a negation of mine, and therefore hostile (false). The basis of local cultures was, first of all, the system of ethnic and religious values. The development of such a culture and the increment of values in it passed through a dense sieve of traditions and values, while maintaining a common direction. Recognizing the presence of other cultures, any local culture has always considered itself as the highest expression of human culture as a whole.

In philosophy and cultural studies, an important problem is the question of what constitutes a historical and cultural process: the development of world culture as a whole or the change of local cultures, each of which lives its own, separate life. From the point of view of the theory of local cultures, the scheme of history is not a unidirectional linear process: the lines of development of cultures diverge. This position was held by N.Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, L. Frobenius, A. Toynbee, E. Meyer, E. Troelch and others. These thinkers opposed their concepts to the idea of universality and world history (the concepts of Voltaire, Montesquieu, G. Lessing, I. Kant, I. G. Herder, V. Solovyov, K. Jaspers and others).

The existence of a variety of specific cultures cannot be built in the order of "higher - lower". In principle, all are equal and have the possibility of different ways of their political, economic and socio-cultural development.

Highlighting in the typology " local » cultures is largely based on a 'civilizational' approach .

With a civilizational approach, they single out " local "cultures" (from Latin "locus" - a certain place), specific types of cultures (often called "civilizations") - closed, not maintaining a dialogue with others.

In the development of each "local" culture there is something unique, indescribable, forever perishing along with it.

The main features of a "local" culture are:

The presence of core images and spiritual values of social life: worldview ideals, religion and church (priestly) organization; - the originality of material foundations (the ratio of agriculture, crafts, trade); - ideals of beauty and morality expressed in art;

The specifics of social stratification (the ratio of free and dependent groups of the population, the position of women);

Features of political and legal relations (main types of state formations, the ratio of monarchical and democratic tendencies in society); - difference in everyday life: a variety of types of settlements: predominantly rural or urban, ways of organizing living space, types of dwellings, family relations, relations between free and slaves (serfs, etc.); - main activities, hobbies in free time, ways of spending leisure time. The idea of the identity of Russian culture was developed in the 30-50s. 19th century “Slavophiles” (A. Khomyakov, I. Kireevsky, Yu. Samarin, I. and K. Aksakovs, etc.), who adopted the ideas of I. Herder and F. Schelling about the “folk spirit”. The "Westerners" who opposed them (V. Belinsky, A. Herzen, T. Granovsky, I. Turgenev, S. Solovyov and others) argued the need for Russia to develop along the Western European model. The ideas of "Slavophilism" became the basis for N. Ya. Danilevsky. Russian public and political figure Nikolay Yakovlevich Danilevsky (1822-1885) developed the concept of local cultural-historical types, or civilizations, successively passing through the stages of birth, flourishing, decline and death in their development. Cultural-historical types are the subjects of human history. However, the history of culture is not exhausted by these subjects. Unlike positive cultural-historical types, there is also the so-called. "negative figures of mankind" - barbarians, as well as ethnic groups, which are not characterized by either positive or negative historical roles. The latter make up ethnographic material, being included in cultural-historical types, but not reaching historical individuality.

N.Ya. Danilevsky identifies the following cultural and historical types:

1) Egyptian culture;

2) Chinese culture;

3) Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician;

4) Chaldean, or ancient Semitic, culture;

5) Indian culture;

6) Iranian culture;

7) Jewish culture;

8) Greek culture;

9) Roman culture;

10) Arabian culture;

11) Germano-Roman, or European, culture.

A special place in Danilevsky's theory is given to the Mexican and Peruvian cultures, which were destroyed before they could complete their development. Among these cultures, "solitary" and "successive" types stand out. The first type is Chinese and Indian cultures, and the second is Egyptian, Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician, Greek, Roman, Jewish and European cultures.

Each original cultural and historical type evolves from the ethnographic to the state state, and from it to civilization. All history, according to Danilevsky, demonstrates that civilization is not transmitted from one cultural-historical type to another.

Under the period of civilization, Danilevsky understood the time during which the peoples that make up the type manifest mainly their spiritual activity in all those directions for which there are pledges in their spiritual nature. Danilevsky singles out the following basis of cultural typology: directions of human cultural activity.

The Russian sociologist divides all sociocultural human activity into four categories that are not reducible to one another:

1) religious activity, including a person's attitude to God - the people's worldview as a firm faith, which forms the living basis of all human moral activity;

2) cultural activity in the narrow sense (actually cultural) of this word, embracing the relationship of a person to the outside world. This is, firstly, theoretical-scientific activity, secondly, aesthetic-artistic and, thirdly, technical-industrial activity;

3) political activity, including both domestic and foreign policy;

4) socio-economic activity, in the process of which certain economic relations and systems are created. In accordance with the categories of human cultural activity, N.Ya. Danilevsky distinguished the following cultural types:

1) primary cultures, or preparatory. Their task was to work out the conditions under which life in an organized society becomes possible at all. These cultures have not shown themselves sufficiently fully or clearly in any of the categories of sociocultural activity. These cultures include Egyptian, Chinese, Babylonian, Indian and Iranian cultures, which laid the foundations for subsequent development;

2) monobasic cultures - historically followed the preparatory ones and showed themselves quite clearly and fully in one of the categories of sociocultural activity. These cultures include Jewish (creating the first monotheistic religion that became the basis of Christianity); Greek, embodied in the actual cultural activity (classical art, philosophy); Roman, which realized itself in political and legal activities (classical system of law and state system);

3) dual-base culture - Germano-Roman, or European. Danilevsky called this cultural type the political-cultural type, since it was these two areas that became the basis of the creative activity of European peoples (the creation of parliamentary and colonial systems, the development of science, technology, and art). Indeed, in economic activity, the Europeans succeeded to a much lesser extent, since the economic relations they created did not reflect the ideal of justice;

4) four-basic culture - a hypothetical, just emerging cultural type. Danilevsky writes about a completely special type in the history of human culture, which has the opportunity to realize in its life the four most important values: true faith; political justice and freedom; culture proper (science and art); perfect, harmonious socio-economic system, which could not be created by all previous cultures. The Slavic cultural-historical type can become such a type, if it does not succumb to the temptation to adopt ready-made cultural forms from Europeans. The destiny of Russia, Danilevsky believed, is not to conquer and oppress, but to liberate and restore.

Danilevsky's philosophy of history is based on the idea of denying the unity of mankind, a single direction of progress: a universal civilization does not exist and cannot exist. Universal means colorlessness, lack of originality. Without doubting the biological unity of mankind, Danilevsky insists on the originality, self-sufficiency of cultures. The true creators of history are not the peoples themselves, but the cultures created by them and having reached a mature state.

Local cultures and local civilizations (O. Spengler and A. Toynbee)

The development of the problem of locally developing crops was continued Oswald Spengler (1880–1936). In The Decline of Europe, he defends the idea of the discrete nature of history.

Spengler argues that there is no progressive development of culture, but only the circulation of local cultures. Likening cultures to living organisms, Spengler believes that they are born unexpectedly, being absolutely isolated and devoid of common ties. The life cycle of every culture inevitably ends with death.

Spengler identifies eight types of cultures that have reached their completion: Chinese; Babylonian; Egyptian; Indian; antique (Greco-Roman), or "Apollo"; Arabic; Western European, or "Faustian"; the culture of the Mayan people. In a special type, which is still at the stage of emergence, Spengler singled out the Russian-Siberian culture. Contrasting the concepts of culture and life, under culture, Spengler understands the external manifestation of the internal structure of the soul of the people, the desire of the collective soul of the people for self-expression.

The historical and cultural type is closed in itself, exists separately, in isolation. Culture lives its own, special life; it cannot absorb anything from other cultures. There is no historical continuity, no influence or borrowing. Cultures are self-sufficient, and therefore dialogue is impossible. A person belonging to a certain culture not only cannot perceive other values, but is also unable to understand them. All norms of human spiritual activity make sense only within the framework of a particular culture and are significant only for it.

According to Spengler, the unity of mankind does not exist, the concept of "humanity" is an empty phrase. World history is an illusion generated by the European cultural type. Each type of culture, with the inevitability of fate, goes through the same life stages (from birth to death), gives rise to the same phenomena, painted, however, in peculiar tones.

Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975) in his work "Comprehension of History" develops the concept of local civilizations. Civilizations are divided by him into three generations. The first is primitive, small, non-literate cultures. There are countless of them, and their age is small. They are characterized by one-sided specialization, adaptability to life in a certain geographical environment; social institutions - the state, education, church, science - they do not have. These cultures breed like rabbits and die spontaneously unless they merge, through a creative act, into a more powerful second generation civilization.

The creative act is hampered by the static nature of primitive societies: in them, the social connection (imitation), which regulates the uniformity of actions and the stability of relations, is directed to deceased ancestors, to the older generation. In such cultures, custom rules and innovation is difficult. With a sharp change in living conditions, which Toynbee calls a "challenge", society cannot give an adequate response, rebuild and change its way of life; continuing to live and act as if there is no “challenge”, as if nothing has happened, the culture is moving towards the abyss and perishing.

However, some cultures produce a "creative minority" from their midst who are aware of the challenge and are able to respond satisfactorily to it. This handful of enthusiasts - prophets, priests, philosophers, scientists, politicians - by the example of their own disinterested service, carry away the main mass, and the society moves on to new tracks. The formation of a subsidiary civilization begins, which inherited the experience of its predecessor, but is much more flexible and versatile.

According to Toynbee, cultures that live in comfortable conditions, do not receive a challenge from the environment, are in a state of stagnation. Only where difficulties arise, where the mind of people is excited in search of a way out and new forms of survival, conditions are created for the birth of a civilization of a higher level.

According to Toynbee's Law of the Golden Mean, the challenge should be neither too weak nor too harsh. In the first case, there will be no active response, and in the second, difficulties can stop the emergence of civilization. The most common answers are: the transition to a new type of management, the creation of irrigation systems, the formation of powerful power structures capable of mobilizing the energy of society, the creation of a new religion, science, and technology.

In second-generation civilizations, social bonding is directed towards creative individuals who lead the pioneers of a new social order. Civilizations of the second generation are dynamic, they create large cities, they develop the division of labor, commodity exchange, the market, there are layers of artisans, scientists, merchants, people of mental labor, a complex social stratification system is established. Attributes of democracy can develop here: elected bodies, legal system, self-government, separation of powers.

The problem of the birth of civilization from a primitive culture is one of the central ones for Toynbee. He believes that neither racial type, nor environment, nor economic structure play a decisive role in the genesis of civilizations: they arise as a result of mutations of primitive cultures, which occur depending on combinations of many causes. Predicting a mutation is difficult, as a result of a card game.

Civilizations of the third generation are formed on the basis of churches. In total, according to Toynbee, by the middle of the 20th century. of the three dozen civilizations that existed, seven or eight survived: Christian, Islamic, Hindu, etc. Like his predecessors, Toynbee recognizes a cyclical pattern of civilization development: birth, growth, flourishing, breakdown and decay. But this scheme is not fatal, the death of civilizations is probable, but not inevitable. Civilizations, like people, are not far-sighted: they are not fully aware of the springs of their own actions and the essential conditions that ensure their prosperity.

The narrow-mindedness and selfishness of the ruling elites, combined with the laziness and conservatism of the majority, lead to the degeneration of civilization.

Approximate basis of action (OOA) for independent work of students during school hours (performing independent work)

7.1. Find the inconsistency.

Typology of Education

Preschool education General (secondary) education and special education

Kindergarten - elementary school - college

Secondary school - technical school

Evening school - college

Gymnasium, lyceum - institute

Cadet School - University

Correctional labor school - military schools

7.2. Fill in the empty space.

State typology

State-territorial structure

Unitary 2. Federal 3. ?

7.3. Correct the inconsistency.

Art typology

By transmission method: 2. By type of performance 3. By cultural affiliation

Cinema - Screen - Western

Music - sound - oriental

Literature - written, book - southern

Visual Arts - Artistic - Nordic

4. By territory 5. By time of occurrence

European - the art of ancient times

Western European - medieval art

Asian - contemporary art

7. 4. What is incorrect? Explain why?

Typology of literary genres

1. Comedy, 2. Horror, 3. Tragedy, 4. Drama, 5. Fantasy and science fiction, 6. Fairy tale,

7. Story, 8. Tale, 9. Epics, 10. Detectives, 11. Ballads, 12. Poem, 13. Roman, 14. Epic, 15. Novella, 16. Epic, 17. Ode, 18. Play, 19. Essay, 20. Fable, 21. Myth, 22. Elegy, 23. Epigram.

1. Local cultures as a model of human development. The concept of cultural-historical types (N.Ya. Danilevsky)

Russian sociologist Nikolai Yakovlevich Danilevsky (1822-1885) developed the concept of local cultural-historical types, or civilizations, successively passing through the stages of birth, flourishing, decline and death in their development. Cultural-historical types are the subjects of human history. However, the history of culture is not exhausted by these subjects. Unlike positive cultural-historical types, there is also the so-called. "negative figures of mankind" - barbarians, as well as ethnic groups, which are not characterized by either positive or negative historical roles. The latter make up ethnographic material, being included in cultural-historical types, but not reaching historical individuality.

N.Ya. Danilevsky identifies the following cultural and historical types:

1) Egyptian culture;

2) Chinese culture;

3) Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician;

4) Chaldean, or ancient Semitic, culture;

5) Indian culture;

6) Iranian culture;

7) Jewish culture;

8) Greek culture;

9) Roman culture;

10) Arabian culture;

11) Germano-Romance, or European culture.

A special place in Danilevsky's theory is given to the Mexican and Peruvian cultures, which were destroyed before they could complete their development.

Among these cultures stand out "solitary" and "successive" types. The first type is Chinese and Indian cultures, and the second is Egyptian, Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician, Greek, Roman, Jewish and European cultures.

The fruits of the activity of the latter were transferred from one cultural type to another as nourishment or "fertilizer" of the soil on which another subsequently developed.

ethnographic to statehood, and from it to civilization.

All history, according to Danilevsky, demonstrates that civilization is not transmitted from one cultural-historical type to another.

It does not follow from this that they did not mutually influence each other, but this influence cannot be considered as a direct transmission.

The peoples of each cultural-historical type do not generally work; the results of their labor remain the property of all other peoples who have reached the civilizational period of their development.

Under the period of civilization, Danilevsky understood the time during which the peoples that make up the type manifest mainly their spiritual activity in all those directions for which there are guarantees in their spiritual nature. Danilevsky singles out the following basis of cultural typology: directions of human cultural activity.

The Russian sociologist divides all sociocultural human activity into four categories that are not reducible to one another:

1) religious activity, including a person's attitude to God - the people's worldview as a firm faith, which forms the living basis of all human moral activity;

2) cultural activity in the narrow sense (properly cultural) of the word, embracing the relationship of man to the outside world. This is, firstly, theoretical-scientific activity, secondly, aesthetic-artistic and, thirdly, technical-industrial activity;

3) political activity, including both domestic and foreign policy;

1) cultures primary, or preparatory. Their task was to work out the conditions under which life in an organized society becomes possible at all. These cultures have not shown themselves sufficiently fully or clearly in any of the categories of sociocultural activity. These cultures include Egyptian, Chinese, Babylonian, Indian and Iranian cultures, which laid the foundations for subsequent development;

2) monobasic cultures - historically followed the preparatory ones and showed themselves quite brightly and fully in one of the categories of socio-cultural activity. These cultures include Jewish (creating the first monotheistic religion that became the basis of Christianity); Greek, embodied in the actual cultural activity (classical art, philosophy); Roman, realized itself in political and legal activities (classical system of law and state system);

3) dual-base culture Germano-Romance, or European. Danilevsky called this cultural type the political-cultural type, since it was these two areas that became the basis of the creative activity of European peoples (the creation of parliamentary and colonial systems, the development of science, technology, and art). Indeed, in economic activity, the Europeans succeeded to a much lesser extent, since they created

economic relations did not reflect the ideal of justice; 4) culture

four-basic - a hypothetical, just emerging cultural type. Danilevsky writes about a completely special type in the history of human culture, which has the opportunity to realize in its life the four most important values: true faith; political justice and freedom; culture proper (science and art); perfect, harmonious socio-economic system, which could not be created by all previous cultures. The Slavic cultural-historical type can become such a type, if it does not succumb to the temptation to adopt ready-made cultural forms from Europeans. The destiny of Russia, Danilevsky believed, is not to conquer and oppress, but to liberate and restore.

2. Local cultures and local civilizations (O. Spengler and A. Toynbee)

The development of the problem of locally developing cultures was continued by Oswald Spengler (1880–1936). In The Decline of Europe, he defends the idea of the discrete nature of history.

Contrasting the concepts of culture and life, under culture, Spengler understands the external manifestation of the internal structure of the soul of the people, the desire of the collective soul of the people for self-expression.

Each culture, each soul has a primary worldview, its own “primary symbol”, from which all the richness of its forms flows; inspired by him, she lives, feels, creates. For European culture, the "first symbol" is only its characteristic way of experiencing space and time - "aspiration to infinity". Ancient culture, on the contrary, mastered the world, based on the principle of a visible limit. Everything irrational is alien to them, zero and negative numbers are not known.

belonging to a certain culture, not only cannot perceive other values, but is also unable to understand them. All norms of human spiritual activity make sense only within the framework of a particular culture and are significant only for it.

According to Spengler, the unity of mankind does not exist, the concept of "humanity"

- an empty sound. World history is an illusion generated by the European cultural type. Each type of culture, with the inevitability of fate, goes through the same life stages (from birth to death), gives rise to the same phenomena, painted, however, in peculiar tones.

Russian philosopher Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev(1874-1948) substantiates the idea of the gradual transformation of the "human race" into "humanity". A huge role in the way of human awareness of their community belongs to Christianity, which historically arose and revealed itself during the period of the universal meeting of all the results of the cultural processes of the Ancient World. During this period, the cultures of the East and the cultures of the West merged.

The fall of great cultures, according to N. Berdyaev, testifies not only to their experience of the moments of birth, flourishing and dying, but also to the fact that culture is the beginning of eternity. The fall of Rome and the ancient world is a catastrophe in history, not the death of culture. After all, Roman law is eternally alive, Greek art and philosophy are eternally alive, like all other principles of the Ancient World, which form the basis of other cultures.

Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975) in his work "Comprehension of History" develops the concept of local civilizations. Civilizations are divided by him into three generations. The first is primitive, small, non-literate cultures. There are countless of them, and their age is small. They are characterized by one-sided specialization, adaptability to life in a certain geographical environment; social institutions - the state, education, church, science - they do not have. These cultures breed like rabbits and die spontaneously unless they merge, through a creative act, into a more powerful second generation civilization.

According to Toynbee's Law of the Golden Mean, the challenge should be neither too weak nor too harsh. In the first case, there will be no active response, and in the second -

difficulties can stop the birth of civilization. The most common answers are: the transition to a new type of management, the creation of irrigation systems, the formation of powerful power structures capable of mobilizing the energy of society, the creation of a new religion, science, and technology.

AT In second-generation civilizations, social bonding is directed towards creative individuals who lead the pioneers of a new social order. Civilizations of the second generation are dynamic, they create large cities, they develop the division of labor, commodity exchange, the market, there are layers of artisans, scientists, merchants, people of mental labor, a complex social stratification system is established. Attributes of democracy can develop here: elected bodies, legal system, self-government, separation of powers.

The emergence of a full-fledged secondary civilization is not a foregone conclusion.

In order for it to appear, a combination of a number of conditions is necessary. Since this is not always the case, some civilizations turn out to be frozen, or "underdeveloped".

Civilizations of the third generation are formed on the basis of churches. In total, according to Toynbee, by the middle of the 20th century. Of the three dozen civilizations that existed, seven or eight survived: Christian, Islamic, Hindu, etc.

Like his predecessors, Toynbee recognizes a cyclical pattern of civilization development: birth, growth, flourishing, breakdown and decay. But this scheme is not fatal, the death of civilizations is probable, but not inevitable. Civilizations, like people, are not far-sighted: they are not fully aware of the springs of their own actions and the essential conditions that ensure their prosperity.

The narrow-mindedness and selfishness of the ruling elites, combined with the laziness and conservatism of the majority, lead to the degeneration of civilization.

AT to counterbalance the fatalistic and relativistic theories of Spengler and his followers, Toynbee is looking for a solid foundation for the unification of mankind, trying to find ways of a peaceful transition to the "universal church" and "universal state".

The pinnacle of earthly progress, according to Toynbee, would be the creation of a "community of saints." Its members would be free from sin and capable of cooperating with God, albeit at the cost of hard effort, to transform human nature. Only a new religion, built in the spirit of pantheism, could, according to Toynbee, reconcile the warring groups of people, form an ecologically healthy attitude towards nature, and thereby save humanity from destruction.

3. The theory of cultures-civilizations by S. Huntington

The theory of culture-civilizations of our contemporary Samuel Huntington is consonant with the general concepts of cultures presented above. It also contains the idea of

the significance of cultural characteristics; Huntington declares the confrontation between the modern and the traditional to be the fundamental problem of the modern era.

S. Huntington revives a civilized approach to the analysis of the historical and cultural process. He uses the research method used by A. Toynbee, N. Danilevsky, O. Spengler.

Huntington believes that the main conflict of the era is the confrontation between modernity and traditionalism. The content of the modern era is the clash of cultures-civilizations. The leading culture-civilizations Huntington includes the following: Western, Confucian (China), Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Orthodox Slavic, Latin American and African.

According to S. Huntington, identity (self-awareness, self-identification) will have an ever more decisive significance in the near future precisely at the level of identified cultures-civilizations, or metacultures. This is also connected with the awareness of the conflict nature of the world and the upcoming clashes of civilizations along the "lines of cultural faults", that is, the spatial boundaries of metacultural communities. At the same time, S. Huntington is pessimistic about the prospect of historical development and believes that the fault lines between civilizations are the lines of future fronts.

S. Huntington proceeds from the idea that the differences between civilizations-cultures are enormous and will remain so for a long time to come. Civilizations are not similar in their history, cultural traditions and, most importantly, religions. People of different cultural civilizations have different ideas about the world as a whole, about freedom, models of development, about the relationship between the individual and the community, about God. Fundamental for the general cultural concept is S. Huntington's position that intercultural differences are more fundamental than political and ideological ones.

A special role in determining the image of the modern world is played by fundamentalism (strict observance of archaic norms, a return to the old order), primarily in the form of religious movements.

S. Huntington assesses the return to traditional cultural values as a reaction to the expansion of Western industrial culture into developing countries. This phenomenon has embraced, first of all, the countries of Islamic orientation, which play a significant role in the modern world.

The scientist sees the main "cultural fault" in the opposition of the West to the rest of the world; the Confucian-Islamic union plays a decisive role in defending their cultural identity.

S. Huntington, on the other hand, sees one of the possible options for the development of the conflict of the era in the fact that Euro-Atlanticism, being at the top of its power, will be able (more or less organically) to assimilate the values of other cultures. In principle, the reorientation of modern industrial culture to a more introverted one, facing the inner world of a person, has already been going on in recent decades. This was expressed in a huge interest in personal improvement, in religious systems of Buddhist and Taoist orientation, in the younger generation's rejection of a rational-material approach to life, the emergence of a counterculture and the search for the meaning of existence in Western culture. These trends have existed in Western culture since the early 1970s. They influence the internal functioning of industrialism.