The essence of the problem of peace and disarmament. Abstract solution of the problem of disarmament. US Leadership in Global Technology
International cooperation for peace, solution of global security problems, disarmament and conflict resolution
All global problems are permeated with the idea of the geographical unity of mankind and require broad international cooperation for their solution. Especially acute is the problem of maintaining peace on Earth
From the point of view of new political thinking, the achievement of lasting peace on Earth is possible only in the conditions of the establishment of a new type of relationship between all states - a relationship of all-round cooperation.
The program "International cooperation for peace, solving global problems of security, disarmament and conflict resolution" is designed to support and develop relations between international non-governmental organizations, between government and society in the field of improving international security. This program will deal with issues such as the reduction of weapons of mass destruction and conventional weapons.
The purpose of the program is to respond in time to the development of the political process, both in the CIS countries and around the world. The program will also analyze contemporary problems of peace and security.
The program includes the following projects:
· The structure of international security and cooperation with international institutions and non-governmental international organizations;
· Problems of disarmament and non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction;
· Assistance in improving legislation in the field of military-civil relations;
Security issues in relation to armed conflicts and the solution of global problems are dealt with by scientists, politicians, and non-governmental organizations. In the course of work, international and regional conferences, seminars and meetings are held, reports and collections of articles are published.
At the moment, not everyone has an idea about the existing danger, about the possibility and size of a catastrophe with the use of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Mankind does not pay due attention to this problem due to ignorance and unawareness of the entire depth of the problem. In no case should we forget that the threat of the use of WMD, unfortunately, is present in everyday life through the active propaganda of violence. This phenomenon is happening all over the world. Russian President Vladimir Putin said something like this: We must be aware that the nonproliferation of weapons of mass destruction has become one of the most important contemporary problems, if not the most important. The fact is that with the advent of the new century, qualitatively new challenges have appeared for mankind - new types of WMD, the phenomenon of international terrorism, which has complicated the problem of its non-proliferation. Non-proliferation is the prevention and non-admission of the emergence of new states with weapons of mass destruction. This can be understood as follows: Russia cannot allow the emergence of new nuclear powers.
Preventing the threat of WMD proliferation is recognized by Russia, the United States and other countries as one of the main tasks of ensuring their national security.
For the first time, the world community thought about the nonproliferation of WMD in the 60s of the last century, when such nuclear powers as the USSR, the USA, Great Britain, France had already appeared; and China was ready to join them. At this time, such countries as Israel, Sweden, Italy, and others seriously thought about nuclear weapons and even took up their development.
In the same 1960s, Ireland initiated the creation of an international legal document that laid the foundations for the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons. The USSR, the USA and England began to develop the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). They became the first parties to this treaty. It was signed on 07/01/1968, but entered into force in March 1970. France and China entered into this treaty a few decades later.
Its main goals are to prevent the further spread of nuclear weapons, to stimulate cooperation in the field of the use of the atom for peaceful purposes with guarantees from the participating parties, to facilitate negotiations on ending the rivalry in the development of nuclear weapons with the ultimate goal of its complete elimination.
Under the terms of this Treaty, nuclear-weapon states undertake not to assist non-nuclear states in acquiring nuclear explosive devices. Non-nuclear states undertake not to manufacture or acquire such devices. One of the provisions of the Treaty requires the IAEA to carry out measures to ensure safeguards, including the inspection of nuclear materials used in peaceful projects by non-nuclear States parties to the Treaty. The NPT (Article 10, paragraph 2) states that 25 years after the entry into force of the Treaty, a conference is convened to decide whether it should remain in force or not. Conference reports were held under the terms of the Treaty every five years, and in 1995, when it came to the end of its 25-year period, the parties - participants unanimously supported its indefinite extension. They also adopted three binding Declarations of Principles:
· Reaffirmation of previous commitments regarding nuclear weapons and the cessation of all nuclear tests;
· Strengthening disarmament control procedures;
There are 178 states parties to the treaty, including the existing nuclear powers (with the exception of North Korea), which have come out in favor of a missile technology control regime. There are also four countries conducting nuclear activities that have not joined the Treaty: Israel, India, Pakistan, Cuba.
The Cold War was accompanied by the development and proliferation of nuclear weapons, both by the main adversaries and various non-aligned countries. The end of the Cold War made it possible for the countries of the world community to reduce and then eliminate nuclear weapons. Otherwise, countries will inevitably be drawn into the process of nuclear proliferation, as each religious "superpower" seeks to either strengthen its hegemony or equalize its nuclear power with the power of the enemy or aggressor. The threat of proliferation of nuclear weapons and, to no lesser extent, nuclear technology and know-how has increased significantly since the collapse of the Soviet Union. For the first time, there was a disintegration of a state possessing nuclear weapons, a state - a permanent member of the UN. As a result, more countries with nuclear weapons appeared. This problem was taken very seriously, and after a while Russia received all the rights and obligations of the USSR related to the NPT. She also received the internationally recognized right to the perpetual possession of nuclear weapons. Together with the UN, the NPT fixes for Russia the status of a great power at the level of such countries as the USA, China, England, France.
Western assistance in this area has become an important element in strengthening the nonproliferation regime. This assistance shows that the West does not want to see the CIS countries as a source of spreading threats. At the G-8 summit in Canada in July 2002, important decisions were made on issues of international terrorism and the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
The most important components of the nuclear and other WMD non-proliferation regimes are:
· An export control system, including a well-functioning national system for accounting, control and physical protection of weapons materials. This also includes the prevention of uncontrolled export of intangible technologies, including in electronic form.
· Brain drain prevention system.
· Safety of storage, warehousing, transportation of WMD and materials suitable for its production.
· A system to prevent illicit trafficking in nuclear and other WMD and materials.
As for chemical and biological weapons (CW), the main problem is that they do not require a special technological base during manufacture, so it is impossible to create a reliable CW control mechanism. But no matter how international legal documents are created, conferences are held.
Biological weapons are an effective means of achieving the goals of terrorists: they are capable of hitting large masses of the civilian population, and this is very attractive to terrorists, and can easily provoke panic and chaos.
Terrorism is a very big problem in our time. Modern terrorism appears in the form of terrorist acts that have an international scale. Terrorism appears when a society is going through a deep crisis, primarily a crisis of ideology and the state-legal system. In such a society, various opposition groups appear - political, social, national, religious. For them, the legitimacy of the existing government becomes questionable. Terrorism as a mass and politically significant phenomenon is the result of an endemic "de-ideologization", when certain groups in society easily question the legitimacy and rights of the state, and thus self-justify their transition to terror in order to achieve their own goals.
The main strategic conditions for the fight against terrorism:
Reconstruction of a stable block world;
blocking terrorism at the initial stage and preventing its formation and development of structures;
· preventing the ideological justification of terror under the banner of "defending the rights of the nation", "defending the faith", etc.; the debunking of terrorism by all the forces of the media;
transfer of all management of anti-terrorist activities to the most reliable special services with no interference in their work by any other control bodies;
· the use of an agreement with terrorists only by these special services and only to cover up the preparation of an action for the complete destruction of terrorists;
· no concessions to terrorists, not a single unpunished terrorist act, even if it costs the blood of hostages and random people, because practice shows that any success of terrorists provokes a further increase in terror and the number of victims.
I would like to end this article with such an appeal. An important role is played by issues related to the education of people, especially young people. A unified system of combating terrorism should be developed, where the main place is given to preventive measures. Education and awareness of people in the field of disarmament and non-proliferation of WMD, as well as terrorism is one of the tasks that requires more attention.
Plan:
1. Introduction……....…………………………………………………………….2
2 . Historical origins of the problem... …...…………………………….……. ..3
3. Formation of the problem and its consequences ..…………………………….6
3.1. Problems of armament in the USSR…………….....…….……………………..7
3.2. Armament problems in the USA….……………...…...……….….……….9
4. Solving the problem of disarmament……….…... …………………………. ..11
4.1. Problems of disarmament and conversion of production in Russia……......12
4.2. Problems of disarmament and conversion of production in the USA ………....16
5. Conclusion…..……………………………………………………….…….17
6. List of used literature……….…………………….….……... 18
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1. Introduction
The global problem of disarmament and the conversion of military production is important not only for the world economy, but for the whole world as a whole. For humanity, the solution of this problem should play a greater role than the solution of all other problems. Since war is such a phenomenon in the life of society that can decide its fate. Military actions on the territory of any country can lead to a shortage of food, a shortage of fuel, energy and raw materials, and a violation of the natural ecosystem of this state will occur.
That is, the problems of disarmament and conversion can be sources of other global problems. This is what makes her decision so important.
I decided to choose this essay topic because I was interested to learn how this global problem is being solved, on which the lives of many people, including my own, depend. In the history of mankind there were such moments when its fate was on the verge of death. The reason for this was the large number of weapons that the states had accumulated. And today, many people walk the earth, only because they began to fight this problem in time. Although those days of terrible conflicts are over, the threat is still real. Weapons of mass destruction are still in service with some countries of the world. In order that it would never be used, many scientists, specialists, economists are trying to solve this problem. The basis of the theoretical material of this essay includes the work of some of them. In the aggregate, it is necessary to find a common point of view regarding the solution of this problem.
To do this, you need to study the history of the global problem and consider those moments when this problem became a real threat to the world. Next, you should find out the reasons why this problem was formed. After that, it is necessary to analyze the measures that were taken to solve this problem, identify their advantages and disadvantages, and then consider the prospects expected from solving or not solving this problem.
Throughout the course of this work, it is necessary to monitor the economies of those countries that were involved in this problem.
This is necessary in order to reflect all the negative consequences for the economy caused by the presence of this problem or its incorrect solution. The correct solution of the problem has a beneficial effect on the economy of the state. In addition, the solution to the problem of disarmament and the conversion of military production has a beneficial effect on the world economy, since the absence of wars reduces the likelihood of possible crises.
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2. Historical origins of the problem
At the dawn of the formation of civilization, the first primitive economy appeared. From her point of view, all states were divided into those who had enough resources (capable of living on self-sufficiency) and those who had a shortage of some resources or their complete absence. To overcome this deficit and the state had two options:
1. Purchase the necessary resource or ensure its exchange for any product.
2. Force method of solving the problem. Forcible seizure of a given resource or the territory of its extraction.
In those days, trade was poorly developed. It was limited to land and water routes, but even their use was dangerous for the merchants themselves (climatic and geographical factors, robberies, etc.). In addition, very few countries were involved in international trade relations, which proved the ineffectiveness of the first method in solving the problems of lack of resources. The use of the second method was more beneficial for some states. Firstly, it was possible to provide oneself with the necessary amount of the resource without excessive economic costs by capturing the territory where it is mined; , the conquered territories were usually subject to taxes (tribute, indemnity, etc.), which also enriched the treasury of the state.
Thus, the formation of a unified doctrine of development began - the economic development of the state can be realized only in cases of capturing additional territory with the further use of its resources. In order to implement this doctrine, one main factor is necessary - a strong army.
For many centuries, states have placed high hopes on their troops. History shows that having a strong and well-equipped army allows a small country to grow into a large empire.
A large amount of financial resources and human resources were spent on supplying the armed forces. With the development of achievements in science, new weapons began to appear, which made it possible to increase the effectiveness of warfare. These scientific developments helped not only to improve the quality of the campaigns of conquest, but in some cases contributed to a radical change in the course of the war. As a result, over the centuries, scientists have developed the latest types of weapons, which gradually became more powerful, more efficient and more deadly.
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This continued until the middle of the 19th century, when another war swept the world. In 1853, the Russian Empire once again launched military operations against the Ottoman Empire, the company's goal was to gain dominance in the Black Sea and over some territories of the Middle East. At first, the war turned in favor of Russia, but after the entry into hostilities of England, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia, the situation changed. The English landing in the Crimea forced the Russian military command to take decisive steps to defend the main Black Sea port, Sevastopol. Until the end of the war, the allied forces tried to capture this port and for this they used various means of destruction, which at that time were known to military science. Russian sailors and soldiers sitting in the bastions were fired upon with numerous explosive and fragmentation shells, hoping to inflict maximum casualties. The terrible and bloody defense of Sevastopol, which proved the backwardness of Russia's military technology, forced her in 1856 to sign the Peace of Paris. However, the results of the war horrified not only the Russian Empire, but all participating countries. The huge number of dead, wounded, crippled and disabled made the governments of all civilized countries of the world think about a radical revision of the doctrine of warfare. For the first time, an international conference was created, the main task of which was to establish the rules of warfare, the rules for the treatment of prisoners of war, a ban on the further use of certain types of weapons, and more. Of course, the problems that were solved at that conference were not of a global nature, but the main thing is that the world finally saw all the terrible consequences of the war and decided to fight them in agreement with all countries.
Several decades have passed since the end of the Crimean War, during which time several military conflicts have passed, which had little resonance in the world community. But the First World War came. This was the war with the largest amount of human resources used in the history of mankind (at that time in history). To suppress numerous armies, it was necessary to use the latest models of weapons, which were supposed to destroy the enemy in large quantities and at the same time must conclude the norms of international agreement, and such weapons were created and successfully used. Their effectiveness is evidenced by huge human (10-12 million people killed, 20 million injured), and economic losses.
This war proved to humanity that it will certainly slide into self-destruction.
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In order to prevent such catastrophes in the future, an international organization was created - the League of Nations (1919). Its main function was to maintain peace and order in Europe, on the basis of a joint discussion of problems between countries belonging to the League of Nations. In the same year, the Versailles Conference was held, following its results, it was possible to establish the fate of the countries that lost the war, the further world order in Europe, the distribution of roles assigned to developed capitalist countries to maintain further order, the limitation of the armed forces (for countries that lost the war), as well as the prohibition for the use of certain types of weapons.
These include flamethrowers, chemical weapons, some types of mines, heavy artillery, and more. It seems that peace and order should finally come, because now a separate organization (the League of Nations) stands guard over the world, which was supposed to prevent bloodshed, solving problems exclusively by legal means, but this did not happen.
The League of Nations showed its inconsistency in solving international problems during the development of fascist Germany. After the Nazis came to power (January 30, 1933), Hitler proclaimed the course of preparing the country for a new war. However, Germany had a number of restrictions that prevented her from implementing these plans, but from 1933 to 1935 all these restrictions were lifted. Restrictions on the number of troops and restrictions on the production of heavy weapons were abolished, conscription was introduced, and the Rhine demilitarized zone was invaded. The League of Nations made no serious effort to stop these violations of the restrictions created by the Treaty of Versailles. Further, the world situation worsened even more. From 1936 to 1939, Austria was forcibly annexed to Germany (March 1938), the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia was annexed (September 1938), support (financial and military) was provided for the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). ). It has long been clear to the world community that the seizure of the industrial regions of Europe and the acquisition of new allies is part of the preparation for a new world war, but the necessary measures that could stop this process were still not taken. As a result of this inaction, the Second World War began. It was the war with the highest loss of life in history. And all these victims could have been avoided. The League of Nations ceased to exist during the Second World War. Instead, after the war, the UN was created (October 24, 1945 - the entry into force of the UN Charter). However, a new stage of international relations was already beginning.
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3. Formation of the problem and its consequences
A few years after the end of World War II, there was a possibility of a new armed conflict between the US and the USSR. The contradiction of the socio-political structures of both states resulted in the "cold war". The USSR and the USA understood that the growing confrontation would definitely develop into hostilities, and therefore they sought to build up their weapons in order to provide a worthy rebuff in the event of an enemy attack. It was planned to use the latest weapons, including nuclear weapons, as weapons. The presence of atomic and hydrogen bombs was supposed to play the role of a method of psychological influence on the enemy (“atomic diplomacy”), the use of weapons of mass destruction was envisaged only as a last resort. Therefore, during the Korean War (1950-1953), the USSR, which supported the socialist north, and the United States, which supported the democratic south, did not seek to use nuclear weapons to change the course of the war, although both countries had such an opportunity. However, a few years later, the moment came when the nuclear potential of both superpowers was put on full alert. In April 1961, the American landing, with the support of the fleet and air force, tried to overthrow the socialist regime of F. Castro in Cuba, but the attempt failed. Further, Cuba asked for help from the USSR, and such assistance was provided. In 1962, the USSR deployed nuclear weapons on Liberty Island. The United States faced a real threat of attack from an ideological adversary. In this regard, the United States delivered an ultimatum to the USSR, aiming at it all its nuclear potential. The USSR did the same. Within a few days, the fate of the whole world was being decided. It is Mira, because if 10-12 million people died in the First World War, about 55 million people died in the Second, then all of humanity should have died in the Third World War. According to the researchers, if both superpowers used their entire nuclear arsenal, the consequences would be an ecological catastrophe and the subsequent "nuclear winter" that would last on Earth for many years. Such an outcome did not suit the leaders of the United States and the USSR, so the crisis that had begun (“the Caribbean crisis”) ended successfully. Over the following years, the threat of a new world war began to gradually subside, but it was still real, just as the death of mankind was real. The presence of a huge amount of weapons from the superpowers has become a global problem for mankind. Moreover, this global problem has gradually developed into internal economic problems of the owners of weapons themselves.
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3.1. Armament problems in the USSR
The USSR was faced with the dual task of arming, firstly, it needed to arm itself, and, secondly, it needed to arm its allies, since for the most part they did not have the ability to produce weapons. These were most of the countries of Eastern Europe included in the Warsaw Treaty Organization (established in May 1955), as well as the countries of Asia and Africa. In addition, the USSR was a participant in the arms race, and it had to respond to every new US military-technical innovation with its own. Thus, huge funds had to be spent on armaments and research in this area.
From a military point of view, all these means were justified. For each new type of weapon created in the USA, the USSR responded with its analogue and other development. At the same time, in terms of quality and efficiency, they were not inferior to American ones and even in most cases surpassed them. In the USSR, types of military equipment were created that were many years ahead of their time.
But from an economic point of view, it was unprofitable. The fact is that most of the types of weapons created by Soviet scientists remained in the drawings and projects, many of which are still stored in the archives of the domestic military-industrial complex. The funds were spent on research of unrealized projects. Even with weapons already created, there was a large amount of expense. Additional funds had to be allocated for the maintenance, storage and maintenance of each additional unit of military equipment. And there were many such additional units, since they were produced based on a future war. In addition, the produced weapons were distributed practically free of charge to our friendly countries, without bringing any economic profit, except for the weapons that were exported.
In social terms, the growth of armaments had a favorable result. The construction of new military facilities (ports, airfields, etc.), work at military facilities and enterprises of the defense complex provided jobs for a large number of people. In addition, many military enterprises were engaged in the production of civilian products. But all this brought benefits to a greater extent to the citizens themselves and to a lesser extent to the state. Because he had to spend money on the construction of facilities that in themselves did not bring economic profit, with the exception of military-industrial enterprises.
In the scientific sphere, the growth of weapons has an ambiguous character. On the one hand, the demand for the latest types of weapons is an incentive for science. In this case, speech
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is about science in relation to the military sphere of production. It has already been said about the merits of Soviet military technologies and their superiority over American ones, and the main merit in this is the design engineers of the Soviet military-industrial complex. But on the other hand, there is no connection between the number of armed forces and the state of science in a given country as such. Everything depends on the financing of scientific and educational activities in the country. In the 1950s, when, after the 20th Congress of the CPSU, followed by the debunking of the personality cult of Stalin, the USSR began to take the initiative to regulate foreign policy, the army was reduced by 2 million people, reforms began within the country, it was proposed to organize a meeting of the heads of both superpowers.
It was this period that was marked by an increase in funding for Soviet science. During the 1950s and 1960s, state spending on science increased 12 times in the USSR, the number of scientific employees increased 6 times and accounted for a fourth of all scientists in the world. In the 60s, Norbert Wiener (the founder of cybernetics) came to the Soviet Union, he got acquainted with the achievements of Soviet scientists in the field of creating electronic computers. Returning to the United States, he said that if the government did not take serious measures, then by the 70s the USSR would overtake the United States in the field of information technology. But as it turned out later, no special measures needed to be taken. By the 70s, Soviet research institutes stopped researching their own developments, and simply began to copy American technologies. This was followed by the complete lag of the USSR in this field of science. This lag affected the development of military science. To understand what exactly happened, consider a few examples:
Example 1. In the late 70s and early 80s, the latest American fighters ran into a problem. They could not fly for long at extreme altitudes. And this was due to the fact that the on-board computer was completely based on microcircuits that were frozen from low temperatures at high altitudes. The Americans began to install heating, but as a result, perspiration began to appear on the microcircuits and, as a result, moisture began to accumulate, which also negatively affected the operation of the microcircuits. The most interesting thing is that Soviet pilots did not have such problems, and they could fly at high altitudes for a long time. A few years later, one of the Soviet designers clarified the situation. It turns out that the latest Soviet fighters of that time were equipped with on-board computers that worked on the tube principle. The tube principle was used at the heart of the first computers in the early 60s. Soviet science had not yet developed to microcircuits, so old technologies were used everywhere, which, paradoxically, improved the superiority of Soviet fighters over the latest Western technologies.
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Example 2: In October 1972, a new Arab-Israeli war began (the "two-week war"). Several countries in the Middle East created an anti-Israeli coalition whose goal was to capture Israel and then transfer part of its territory to Palestine. The USSR was interested in the victory of the coalition, so it provided the countries with the latest Soviet tanks at that time.
By the way, the number of tanks used in that war was practically equal to the same number of tanks used on the Kursk Bulge.
The first week of the war was successful for the Arab states, the Israeli troops were defeated and retreated. But at the beginning of the second week, the situation changed radically. Israel had new anti-tank shells that themselves flew to the target, turning it into a pile of metal. With superiority in tank forces, the Arab military could not do anything against shells fired from a hand grenade launcher. Soviet tanks were helpless, they could not answer the science of that time.
As already mentioned, science does not depend on the size of the armed forces, but it is directly related to their quality.
3.2. Armament problems in the USA
The United States had the same weapons problems as the USSR, but there were also significant differences that should be mentioned.
For example, they had no problem financing their allies in the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO, formed in 1949). The allies were the developed countries of Western Europe, whose defense complex was sufficiently developed, and they could independently produce and use weapons and military equipment without the help of the United States.
There were also problems in acquiring their own weapons. In the United States, several firms were engaged in the country's defense order, they assumed the costs of design, construction and research, and in the future they tried to win the competitive selection of the US government for serial supply of weapons. This is where a number of technical lags in American military equipment come from. The fact is that arms suppliers did not strive to create high-quality military equipment, the main thing for them was that it could win the competition and at the same time cost a lot. From here, weapons samples appeared that had low efficiency.
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Many examples can be given here. This is the F-15 fighter, which is lagging behind the Su and MiGs in many respects, here is the M-16 rifle, the handling of which is more difficult, unlike the AKA-47. American helicopters in Vietnam had good speed and maneuverability, but they did not carry weapons with them and therefore could not help the soldiers in local battles, in contrast to it, the Soviet Mi were armed with a machine gun and direct-fire missiles. There are many other examples that show that the better economic position of the United States compared to the USSR did not contribute to the growth of the effectiveness of the armed forces, and therefore the huge financial resources of the United States were spent without bringing the desired results.
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4. Solving the problem of disarmament
At the moment, the solution of all global problems is handled by the UN. This organization was originally created to solve the problems of maintaining peace, so the problem of disarmament is one of the priorities.
The UN has been trying to find a solution to this problem for decades, trying to negotiate with the United States and the USSR on the mutual reduction of weapons, which by October 1986 in the USSR amounted to 10,000 nuclear charges, and in the United States 14,800 charges. Various laws and resolutions were developed that had the goal of peacefully and legislatively stopping the bloody confrontations between the two ideological systems in third world countries, as well as reducing the risk of new military conflicts (both local and global). Thus, in December 1984, the UN opposed the transfer of the arms race to outer space, adopting a resolution on the use of outer space exclusively for peaceful purposes. Although these attempts in different years had different results, on the whole the problem of disarmament remained open, and there were no radical changes in its solution until the end of the 1980s.
With the beginning of perestroika in the Soviet Union (1985), the process of rapprochement of the two superpowers in matters of peace and cooperation began. In November 1987, a meeting was held between the Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, M.S. Gorbachev and US President R. Reagan, during which an agreement was signed between the USSR and the USA on the elimination of intermediate and shorter-range missiles, as well as protocols related to it on procedures for the elimination of missiles and on inspections. In March 1989, negotiations were held in Vienna between the countries belonging to the Warsaw Treaty Organization and NATO, these negotiations provided for the reduction of armaments from the Atlantic to the Urals. In July 1991, a new meeting of the leaders of the USSR and the USA took place in Moscow, during which an agreement was signed on the reduction of approximately one-third of the strategic offensive weapons of both countries. Finally, in 1992, Russia and the United States signed a declaration to end the Cold War.
The threat of a third world war has ceased to be real. And this is rightfully the merit of the UN. But even after the end of the Cold War and the destruction of the Soviet Union, the possibility that undestroyed nuclear warheads could again be aimed at the cities of the world has not disappeared. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has pledged to help Russia cope with the dangerous legacy of the USSR. The IMF as well as the UN is a body engaged in solving global problems. It provides financial assistance to solve these problems. Most of the cash assistance is provided to the country in the form of loans, which must be repaid within a predetermined period. Thus, any
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countries no longer need to seek financial resources to solve their problems. These funds can be provided by the IMF at any time. Russia was also granted IMF loans to solve internal economic problems, including disarmament problems, but this will be discussed later.
At the beginning of the 21st century, new methods of solving global problems appeared.
These methods include the creation of Global Custodians. This is a global electronic exchange that allows you to attract unlimited resources from abroad for any period. Trading on this exchange is carried out via the Internet, which is also a method of solving global problems. With the help of Global Custodians, countries can purchase any amount of the required resource without resorting to military methods to seize the same resource. And therefore, excessive weapons become unnecessary.
4.1. Problems of disarmament and conversion of production in Russia
After the collapse of the USSR (December 1991), Russia became his successor. She inherited all the problems and debts of the Soviet Union, while losing a third of the territory, more than 40% of the population, more than 30% of production assets. one
At the same time, the economy was on the verge of collapse, and this trend was outlined in previous years.
The share of the main subsystems of the economy in the global totality of GDP, % 2 .
| Subsystem | 1970 | 1980 | 1985 | 1987 | 1992 |
| Prom. the developed countries | 67,8 | 68 | 70,1 | 72,3 | 74 |
| Eastern European countries | 16,5 | 10,5 | 9,7 | 9,5 | 8 |
| developing countries | 15,5 | 21,5 | 20,2 | 18,2 | 18 |
On the favorable side, it should be noted that Russia inherited 70% of the volume of foreign economic relations of the USSR 3 .
With all these positive and negative sides, Russia had to solve the problems of its own economic recovery, social problems, problems of science, problems of the army, etc. The world community, represented by the IMF, provided funds for this, which theoretically should have been enough for disarmament Russian army and for the conversion of military production.
4 credits:
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1992 - $4.1 billion standby loan to stabilize the ruble.
1993 System Transformation Loan, $3 billion
1996 Quality Change Loan, $10.4 billion
etc.................
"Problems of peace and disarmament"
Introduction
1. Wars: Causes and Victims
2. Arms control problem
Conclusion
List of used literature
“Devastating wars will always take place on earth ... And death will often be the lot of all the belligerents. With boundless malice, these savages will destroy many trees in the forests of the planet, and then turn their fury on everything that is still alive around, bringing pain and destruction, suffering and death to it. Neither on earth, nor under earth, nor under water will there be anything untouched and undamaged. The wind will scatter the land devoid of vegetation around the world and sprinkle it with the remains of creatures that once filled different countries with life ”- this chilling prophecy belongs to the great Italian of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci.
Today you see that the brilliant painter was not so naive in his prediction. Indeed, who today will take the liberty of reproaching the author of these words, which are not very pleasant for us, for spreading some kind of “absurd fables” or inciting unnecessary passions? These are unlikely to be found, because the great Leonardo turned out to be right in many ways. Unfortunately, the whole history of the development of mankind is a terrible history of military operations.
The second part of the prophecy of Leonardo da Vinci, to our great happiness, has not yet been realized, or rather: it has not been fully realized. But who today is not clear that for the first time in its history, humanity has seriously faced the question: "To be or not to be?" (At the same time, we emphasize: humanity collided, and not an individual person, with whose fate the Hamlet question is connected). Blood, torment and tears were all over the human path. However, new generations always came to replace the dead and the dead, and the future was, as it were, guaranteed. But now there is no such guarantee.
In the period from 1900 to 1938, 24 wars broke out, and in the years 1946-1979 - 130. More and more human casualties became. 3.7 million people died in the Napoleonic Wars, 10 million in World War I, 55 million in World War II (together with the civilian population), and 100 million in all wars of the 20th century. To this we can add that the first world war captured an area in Europe of 200 thousand km 2, and the second already - 3.3 million km 2.
Thus, the Heidelberg Institute (Germany) in 2006 registered 278 conflicts. 35 of them are of an acutely violent nature. Both regular troops and detachments of militants participate in armed clashes. But not only they suffer human losses: there are even more victims among the civilian population. In 83 cases, the conflicts proceeded in a less severe form, i.e. the use of force occurred only occasionally. In the remaining 160 cases, conflict situations were not accompanied by hostilities. 100 of them were in the nature of a declarative confrontation, and 60 proceeded in the form of a hidden confrontation.
According to the Center for Defense Information (USA), there are only 15 major conflicts in the world (losses exceed 1 thousand people). Experts from the Stockholm SIPRI Institute believe that this year 19 major armed conflicts took place in 16 places on the planet.
More than half of all hot spots are on the African continent. The war in Iraq has been going on in the Greater Middle East for several years now. Afghanistan, where NATO is trying to restore order, is also far from calm, and the intensity of attacks by the Taliban and al-Qaeda militants on government structures, troops and police, and on the military units of the North Atlantic Alliance is only increasing.
Some international experts suggest that armed conflicts annually claim up to 300,000 lives, mostly civilians. They account for 65 to 90% of losses (the figure varies depending on the intensity of hostilities). Statistics show that only 5% of those killed in World War I were civilians, and in World War II, about 70% of those killed were not combatants.
However, in none of the current armed conflicts there are clashes between different countries. The struggle is going on within the dysfunctional states. Governments are confronted by various paramilitaries of rebels, militants and separatists. And they all serve different purposes.
Back in 2001, after large-scale terrorist attacks in New York and Washington, the United States declared war on international terrorism, but even today, five years later, there is no end in sight to it, more and more forces are being drawn into it.
For example, the wave of violence in Iraq does not subside. Since the country was occupied and Saddam Hussein's regime was overthrown in 2003, militant attacks have hit the United States and its allies. Today, Iraq is slipping more and more into the abyss of civil war. Many US experts, and, above all, members of a special commission that recently submitted 79 recommendations to President George W. Bush on settling the situation in Mesopotamia, insist on the withdrawal of US troops from the region. However, the owner of the White House, at the request of the generals and in accordance with his intentions to win at all costs, decided to increase the size of the contingent.
In Sudan, there is a fierce confrontation between the Muslim north and the Christian south, striving for autonomy. The first skirmishes between the Sudan People's Liberation Army and the Justice and Equality Movement took place in 1983. In 2003, the confrontation took the form of a ruthless war in Darfur. Here, too, there is no end in sight to armed violence, and tensions only continue to grow.
The main sources of armed conflicts and the scale of victims associated with them are reflected in Appendix 1 and 3. Let's try to understand the causes of wars of various scales.
If until the 20th century the struggle for territories rich in minerals was carried out primarily by states, now numerous irregular armies of separatists and simply bandits have joined the struggle.
The UN concluded that since the end of the Cold War (1991), the number of armed conflicts in the world has decreased by 40%. Moreover, wars have become much less bloody. If in 1950 the average armed conflict claimed the lives of 37 thousand people, then in 2002 - 600. The UN believes that the merit in reducing the number of wars belongs to the international community. The UN and individual countries of the world are making significant efforts to prevent new wars from breaking out and stopping old ones. In addition, the increase in the number of democratic regimes plays a positive role: it is generally accepted that modern democracies do not go to war with each other.
Renowned analyst Michael Clare, author of Resource Wars, is convinced that the world has entered an era of resource wars, and year by year these wars will become more frequent and fierce. The reason is the growing needs of mankind and the reduction of natural resources. Moreover, according to Clare, the most likely wars that will be waged for control over fresh water reserves.
Throughout human history, states have fought each other for territories rich in minerals. The bloody war between Iraq and Iran was started because of Iraqi claims to a number of Iranian territories rich in oil. For the same reason, Iraq occupied Kuwait in 1990, which in Baghdad was considered an integral part of Iraqi territory. Today, approximately 50 of the 192 countries in the world dispute certain territories with their neighbors. Quite often, these claims do not become the subject of diplomatic disputes, since it is too dangerous to make these claims an integral part of bilateral relations. However, some politicians are in favor of a speedy resolution of such problems. According to the American researcher Daniel Pipes, there are 20 such disputes in Africa (for example, Libya argues with Chad and Niger, Cameroon with Nigeria, Ethiopia with Somalia, etc.), in Europe - 19, in the Middle East - 12, in Latin America - 8. China is a kind of leader in the number of claims - it claims 7 land plots, regarding which its neighbors have a different opinion.
The "resource" component, that is, the factor of the presence of significant mineral reserves in the disputed territory or in the part of the ocean belonging to it, as a rule, makes it difficult to resolve interstate disputes. Examples of such conflicts are the situation that has developed around the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, which are claimed by Great Britain and Argentina (large deposits of oil have been discovered in the Falklands), the islands in Corisco Bay, which are claimed by Equatorial Guinea and Gabon (oil has also been discovered there) , the islands of Abu Musa and Tanb in the Strait of Hormuz (Iran and the United Arab Emirates, oil), the Spratly archipelago (the subject of a dispute between China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines and Brunei. This area is rich in high-quality oil, competing countries opened hostilities several times ) etc.
The most peaceful dispute is over the territories of Antarctica (which also contain significant reserves of various minerals), which are claimed by Australia, France, Norway, New Zealand, Argentina, Chile and Great Britain, with the last three countries contesting a number of territories of the ice continent from each other. A number of states of the world, in principle, do not recognize these claims, but other countries reserve the right to make similar demands.
Since all applicants for a piece of the Antarctic pie are parties to the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959, recognizing the Sixth Continent as a zone of peace and international cooperation, free from weapons, the transition of these disputes to the military stage is almost impossible. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, the military dictatorships of Chile and Argentina demonstratively declared the Antarctic Islands to be the territories of their countries, which provoked protests from the world community.
The history of mankind can be seen as the history of wars. Indeed, out of more than four thousand years of known history, only about three hundred were completely peaceful. All the rest of the time, wars blazed in one place or another on Earth.
According to the unanimous assessment of many scientists and politicians, the third world war, if it breaks out, will be the tragic finale of the entire history of human civilization. Calculations of scientists show that the most likely and most disastrous for all living consequences of a nuclear war will be the onset of a "nuclear winter".
If some people survive after a nuclear war, they will find themselves in conditions of severe cold, without drinking water, food and fuel, under the influence of powerful radiation, in conditions of extreme psychological stress and rampant epidemics, and all this will take place in twilight or in darkness.
It would be a mistake to think that only a nuclear war can have catastrophic consequences. Wars with the use of improved "conventional" weapons can become tragic for humanity. They are also able to claim hundreds of millions of human lives, destroy natural landscapes, and leave unhealed "scars" on the surface of the planet.
So is there any hope of avoiding a nuclear catastrophe? Even the German philosopher I. Kant argued that the world will inevitably pave its way, as the realization of the unacceptability of war comes. With the accumulation of nuclear weapons, such an awareness came. “We must warn again and again of the danger all the time; we can and must do our best to ensure that the peoples of the world, and especially their governments, are imbued with the consciousness of the horror of the catastrophe that they will surely cause if they do not change their attitude towards each other and their approach to the task of building the future,” A. Einstein wrote.
Obviously, this implies the creation of such a world order, which was based on the following initial principles:
Recognition of the priority of universal human values, attitude to human life and as the highest value of mankind;
Rejection of war as a means of resolving contentious issues, tireless search for peaceful, political ways to resolve all conflicts and problems;
Recognition of the right of peoples to freely and independently choose their own destiny;
Understanding the modern world as an integral and interconnected community of people.
These principles pave the way for new practice in international relations. Efforts, primarily by Russia and the United States, to reduce military arsenals are already bearing real fruit. Almost unanimous rebuff of the community of nations is caused by any aggression, no matter where in the world it may arise. Relations of trust and cooperation between peoples are growing stronger. The path to a lasting and reliable peace is long, but the first, most difficult steps towards it have already been taken.
The problem of disarmament and the preservation of peace on earth International cooperation for peace Solving global security problems Program goals WMD proliferation NPT Goals of the NPT Outcomes of the work of the NPT "cold war" and the development of nuclear weapons Strengthening the nonproliferation regime NATO biological and chemical weapons NATO goals CSTO Creation of a collective rapid reaction force
International cooperation for peace All global problems are permeated with the idea of the geographical unity of mankind and require broad international cooperation for their solution. Especially acute is the problem of maintaining peace on Earth. From the point of view of new political thinking, the achievement of lasting peace on Earth is possible only in the conditions of establishing a new type of relations between all states - relations of all-round cooperation. All global problems are permeated with the idea of the geographical unity of mankind and require broad international cooperation for their solution. Especially acute is the problem of maintaining peace on Earth. From the point of view of new political thinking, the achievement of lasting peace on Earth is possible only in the conditions of establishing a new type of relations between all states - relations of all-round cooperation.
Solving global problems of security, disarmament and conflict resolution The program "International cooperation for peace, solving global problems of security, disarmament and conflict resolution" is designed to support and develop relations between international non-governmental organizations, between government and society in the field of improving international security. This program will deal with issues such as the reduction of weapons of mass destruction and conventional weapons. The program "International cooperation for peace, solving global problems of security, disarmament and conflict resolution" is designed to support and develop relations between international non-governmental organizations, between government and society in the field of improving international security. This program will deal with issues such as the reduction of weapons of mass destruction and conventional weapons.
Aims of the program The purpose of the program is to respond in time to the development of the political process, both in the CIS countries and around the world. The program will also analyze contemporary problems of peace and security. The purpose of the program is to respond in time to the development of the political process, both in the CIS countries and around the world. The program will also analyze contemporary problems of peace and security. The Program includes the following projects: The Program includes the following projects: The structure of international security and cooperation with international institutions and non-governmental international organizations; The structure of international security and cooperation with international institutions and non-governmental international organizations; Problems of disarmament and non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction; Problems of disarmament and non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction;
Proliferation of WMD At the moment, not everyone has an idea about the existing danger, about the possibility and the size of the catastrophe with the use of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Mankind does not pay due attention to this problem due to ignorance and unawareness of the entire depth of the problem. In no case should we forget that the threat of the use of WMD, unfortunately, is present in everyday life through the active propaganda of violence. At the moment, not everyone has an idea about the existing danger, the possibility and the size of the catastrophe with the use of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Mankind does not pay due attention to this problem due to ignorance and unawareness of the entire depth of the problem. In no case should we forget that the threat of the use of WMD, unfortunately, is present in everyday life through the active propaganda of violence
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). Preventing the threat of WMD proliferation is recognized by Russia, the United States and other countries as one of the main tasks of ensuring their national security. Preventing the threat of WMD proliferation is recognized by Russia, the United States and other countries as one of the main tasks of ensuring their national security. The first time the world community thought about WMD nonproliferation was in the 60s of the last century, when such nuclear powers as the USSR had already appeared. The first time the world community thought about WMD nonproliferation was in the 60s of the last century, when such nuclear powers as, USSR, USA, UK, France; and China was ready to join them. At that time, such countries as Israel, Sweden, Italy and others began to think seriously about nuclear weapons and even began to develop them. The USA, Great Britain, France; and China was ready to join them. At this time, such countries as Israel, Sweden, Italy, and others seriously thought about nuclear weapons and even took up their development.
Objectives of the NPT Under the terms of this Treaty, nuclear-weapon states undertake not to assist non-nuclear states in acquiring nuclear explosive devices. Non-nuclear states undertake not to manufacture or acquire such devices. Under the terms of this Treaty, nuclear-weapon states undertake not to assist non-nuclear states in acquiring nuclear explosive devices. Non-nuclear states undertake not to manufacture or acquire such devices. Its main goals are to prevent the further spread of nuclear weapons and to stimulate cooperation in the peaceful use of the atom. Its main goals are to prevent the further spread of nuclear weapons and to stimulate cooperation in the peaceful use of the atom.
Outcome of the NPT The treaty has 178 states, including the existing nuclear powers (with the exception of North Korea), which have come out in favor of a missile technology control regime. There are also four countries conducting nuclear activities that have not entered into the Treaty: Israel, India, Pakistan, Cuba. There are 178 states parties to the treaty, including the existing nuclear powers (with the exception of North Korea), which have come out in favor of a missile technology control regime. There are also four countries conducting nuclear activities that have not entered into the Treaty: Israel, India, Pakistan, Cuba.
The Cold War and the Development of Nuclear Weapons The Cold War was accompanied by the development and proliferation of nuclear weapons, both by the main adversaries and various non-aligned countries. The end of the Cold War made it possible for the countries of the world community to reduce and then eliminate nuclear weapons. Otherwise, countries will inevitably be drawn into the process of nuclear proliferation The Cold War was accompanied by the development and proliferation of nuclear weapons, both by the main adversaries and by various non-aligned countries. The end of the Cold War made it possible for the countries of the world community to reduce and then eliminate nuclear weapons. Otherwise, countries will inevitably be drawn into the process of nuclear proliferation.
Biological and chemical weapons. Biological weapons are an effective means of achieving the goals of terrorists: they are capable of hitting large masses of the civilian population, and this is very attractive to terrorists, and can easily provoke panic and chaos. Biological weapons are an effective means of achieving the goals of terrorists: they are capable of hitting large masses of the civilian population, and this is very attractive to terrorists, and can easily provoke panic and chaos. Terrorism is a very big problem in our time. Modern terrorism appears in the form of terrorist acts that have an international scale. Terrorism appears when a society is going through a deep crisis, primarily a crisis of ideology and the state-legal system. Terrorism is a very big problem in our time. Modern terrorism appears in the form of terrorist acts that have an international scale. Terrorism appears when a society is going through a deep crisis, primarily a crisis of ideology and the state-legal system.
NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO, the North Atlantic Alliance is a military-political bloc. Appeared on April 4, 1949 in the USA. Then the United States, Canada, Iceland, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Italy and Portugal became NATO member states. It is a "transatlantic forum" for Allied countries to consult on any matter affecting the vital interests of its members, including events that could endanger their security; provides deterrence or protection against any form of aggression against the territory of any NATO member state. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO, the North Atlantic Alliance is a military-political bloc. Appeared on April 4, 1949 in the USA. Then the United States, Canada, Iceland, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Italy and Portugal became NATO member states. It is a "transatlantic forum" for Allied countries to consult on any matter affecting the vital interests of its members, including events that could endanger their security; provides deterrence or protection against any form of aggression against the territory of any NATO member state.
NATO Objectives NATO's primary objective is to guarantee the freedom and security of all its members in Europe and North America, in accordance with the principles of the UN Charter. To achieve this goal, NATO uses its political influence and military capabilities in accordance with the nature of the security challenges faced by its member states. The main goal of NATO is to guarantee the freedom and security of all its members in Europe and North America in accordance with the principles of the UN Charter. To achieve this goal, NATO uses its political influence and military capabilities in accordance with the nature of the security challenges faced by its member states.
CSTO The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) is a military-political union created by the CIS states on the basis of the Collective Security Treaty (CST), signed on May 15, 1992. The contract is renewed automatically every five years. On May 15, 1992, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan signed a Collective Security Treaty (CST) in Tashkent. Azerbaijan signed the agreement on September 24, 1993, Georgia on September 9, 1993, Belarus on December 31, 1993. The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) is a military-political union created by the CIS states on the basis of the Collective Security Treaty (CST), signed on May 15, 1992. The contract is renewed automatically every five years. On May 15, 1992, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan signed a Collective Security Treaty (CST) in Tashkent. Azerbaijan signed the agreement on September 24, 1993, Georgia on September 9, 1993, Belarus on December 31, 1993. On April 2, 1999, the presidents of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan signed a protocol to extend the agreement for the next five-year period, but Azerbaijan, Georgia and Uzbekistan refused to extend the agreement. On April 2, 1999, the presidents of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan signed a protocol to extend the agreement for the next five-year period, but Azerbaijan, Georgia and Uzbekistan refused to extend the agreement.
Creation of Collective Rapid Reaction Forces On February 4, 2009, in Moscow, the leaders of the countries of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) approved the creation of the Collective Rapid Reaction Forces. According to the signed document, the Collective Rapid Reaction Forces will be used to repel military aggression, conduct special operations to combat international terrorism and extremism, transnational organized crime, drug trafficking, as well as to eliminate the consequences of emergency situations. On February 4, 2009, in Moscow, the leaders of the countries of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) approved the creation of the Collective Rapid Reaction Force. According to the signed document, the Collective Rapid Reaction Forces will be used to repel military aggression, conduct special operations to combat international terrorism and extremism, transnational organized crime, drug trafficking, as well as to eliminate the consequences of emergency situations.
