Organization Theory and Organizational Behavior. textbook for masters. The theory of organization and organizational behavior The formation of the theory of organization and organizational behavior as

Topic 1. Introduction to "Organization Theory and Organizational Behavior"

Question 1. The concept and place of "Organization Theory"

and "Organizational behavior" in the system of social and managerial sciences

Organization theory is the science of the basic laws governing the life of organizations as real

objects of reality around us.

The theory of organization occupies a peculiar place in the system of sciences related to management.. The place of organization theory in the system of social and managerial sciences is determined by the fact that, on the one hand, it studies special social groups, and on the other hand, it introduces managers into the object of their future managerial activity.

The study of the theory of organization is impossible without knowledge of the economic foundations of the functioning of society.

The study of sociology allows us to understand what place organizations occupy among the totality of social communities and groups, and what role organizations play in society.

Psychology studies the human mental environment of various aspects of organizational relations.

Knowledge of cultural studies allows you to better understand the features of the emergence and development of organizational culture

Without understanding the functions, structure and principles of operation of the management object, it is impossible to adequately understand and assimilate the technological aspects of management, reflected both in its general course and in industry disciplines, as well as in marketing and organizational behavior.

Understanding the organization creates the basis for the study of management, since "organization" answers the question of what to manage, and "management" - why and how to influence the object. This position allows a deeper and more comprehensive study of the patterns and principles of building organizations of various types, identifying the most suitable conditions and ways to ensure the effectiveness of individual elements, relationships and interdependencies.

As can be seen from the diagram, organization theory has a close relationship with the discipline of organizational behavior. It is this connection that we will consider in the study of our course.

	Organization theory	Organizational behavior
Object of analysis	macro level - the organization as a whole and its parts	microlevel - the behavior of individuals and groups
are being studied	conditions and prerequisites for the behavior of the organization, its overall effectiveness, opportunities for adaptation and achievement of goals; describes the actual structure of the organization and offers options for its optimal structure that ensures effective functioning	the behavior of individuals in terms of perception of values, professional education, motivation and personal characteristics; group behavior: roles, statuses, leadership, communication and conflicts; employee productivity, employee turnover, job satisfaction
	related disciplines, have many points of contact, complement each other in the study of problems of behavior of organizations.
For example, in the study of conflict	Conflict is a collision as a result of existing shortcomings in building an organization. Associated primarily with problems of internal coordination	Conflict is a problem between people. Attention focuses on interpersonal and intragroup clashes that occur due to the diversity of personal characteristics and insufficient communication.
Considerations	structural	socio-psychological

The disciplines of organization theory and organizational behavior are related, have many points of contact, complement each other in the study of problems of behavior of organizations. Thus, when examining conflicts, organizational behavior focuses on interpersonal and intragroup clashes that occur due to the diversity of personal characteristics and insufficient communication. When conflict is studied by organization theory, it is associated primarily with problems of internal coordination. In one case, the conflict is seen as a problem that arises between people, in the other - as a clash as a result of existing shortcomings in the organization.

Thus, organization theory and organizational behavior cover various levels and aspects of the analysis of the organizational process.

The purpose of the discipline:study of the main theoretical concepts of social organizations and organizational behavior as an interdisciplinary field of knowledge related to the study of human attitudes and labor activity in an organization.

Discipline tasks:

• study of organization theory;
• familiarization with the experience of successful (competitive) organizations, reaching an understanding of the prerequisites for the success of organizations;
• formation of skills for solving key problems of management activity;
• achieving an understanding of the causes and criteria for evaluating the behavior of people in an organization;
• acquisition of skills in the analysis of human behavior in a social group.

Question 2. The concept, features and properties of the organization

Why study organizations?To manage them? To manage yourself by working in them? To live in them! Indeed, organizations are the same generic feature of a person as bipedalism, hand, speech, consciousness, labor. A person all his life is immersed in organizations of various nature from the family to the global civilization, daily participating in their creation and experiencing their beneficial or destructive influence.

Like any product of human activity, organizations have a dual nature: subjective, due to personal creation, and objective, due to social creation and purpose. The objective nature of organizations is also due to the fact that they are alive. Organizations are conceived, born, mature, grow old, and finally die. The life of organizations often flows unnoticed, but sometimes their crises entail dramas and tragedies of individuals, peoples and generations.

Consider the generally accepted content of the concept of "organization".

The presence of control mechanisms distinguishes an organization from a group and a team.

Group - a set of people united by a common interest, profession, activity, etc.

A team is a group of people united by a common work.

In our discipline, we will consider under the organization precisely the organizational system,which is a consciously coordinated social entity with defined boundaries, functioning on a relatively permanent basis to achieve a common goal or goals.

Under the phrase "consciously coordinated" understand management, under social education - that the organization consists of individuals or their groups interacting with each other. That is, organizational processes have a social essence. The patterns of interaction followed by individuals are deliberate, and the interaction of group members must be balanced, which implies its coordination.

Thus, in the theory of organization we are talking about social organizations.Social organizations are planned, deliberately created formations.The main connecting element of social organization is a person. Features of social organizations:

• realization of the potential capabilities and abilities of a person;
• formation of unity of interests of people (personal, collective, public). The unity of goals and interests serves as a system-forming factor;
• complexity, dynamism and a high level of uncertainty.

All organizations are built according to certain laws and principles. Consider the features and properties of the organization.

Organization features.

1. The organization is separated from the external environment, and all boundaries may change over time. Organization boundaries can be:

• Timelines are the life cycle of an organization.
• Boundaries in space - territorial boundaries, which determine which elements are inside and outside the organization, where one organization ends and another organization begins, to which areas its activities extend.
• Property boundaries – This is the right to own, dispose of, use the property of the organization.

Some organizations have clearly defined boundaries that have existed for a long time without changes and are fixed in the charter, memorandum of association, regulations and other documents. At the same time, there are a number of restrictions provided for by laws and other regulations, for example, restrictions on the number of personnel, the amount of capital, types of activities, etc..

2. An organization always has a set of goals, hierarchically linked, from its mission to daily operational goals. members of the organization,who have certain responsibilities, contribute to the achievement of common (organizational) goals.

The advantage of organized groups is that a person, being part of a team, can successfully achieve their goals than individually. Therefore, in order to achieve his goals, he creates integrated, cooperative systems of behavior. That is, 3 traits, this is ...

3. To achieve the goals, a system of corporate behavior standards is created,including generally recognized values, attitudes and motives for the behavior of personnel inwithin the organization.

That is, an organization must have an organizational culture. a certain set of values ​​and behavioral norms shared by employees

4. The definition of an organization providesthe need for formal coordination of the interaction of workers.

That is, the organization has a certain structure that determines how tasks should be distributed, what should be the subordination, what are the formal coordinating mechanisms and models of interaction between employees and departments in the process of achieving organizational goals.

5. The organization is characterized by complexity, formalization and a certain ratio of centralization and decentralization.

• Complexity allows us to consider the organization as a set of its elements and the relationships between them based on specialization and division of labor, the number of levels in the hierarchy of the organization and the degree of territorial distribution of parts of the organization.
• Under the formalization understand the pre-designed and established rules and procedures governing the behavior of employees and intra-company relationships.
• The ratio of centralization and decentralization is determined by the levels at which management decisions are developed and made in the organization.For example, in some organizations, the decision-making process is super-centralized, with top managers dealing with problems. In other cases, decision-making is decentralized, with responsibility delegated down the management hierarchy.

6. Organizations are designed in advance to form a structure subordinate to the achievement of established goals.. There is no universal organization capable of achieving various goals without changing the structure.

Since we consider the organization as a system, we distinguish the followingorganization system properties:

1. the organization is able to maintain its most important variables within acceptable limits in the event of unexpected changes, disturbances and complications, that is, it is homeostatic;
2. the organization counteracts the impacts that disrupt their work and strengthens the positive ones, maintaining the stability of its internal environment and external relations and ensuring their development.The ability to self-preservation and development in the long term is called superstability(according to Ashby);
3. the organization is able to adapt its behavior to a variety of changes in external and internal factors, that is, it has adaptability;
4. the organization has a synergistic effect, which consists in increasing the efficiency of activities as a result of integration, the merging of individual parts into a single system due to the so-called. systemic effect. In the organisation the leader makes sure that the differences of employees work synergistically. There are three main processes in the synergetic action: adequate planning, effective exchange of knowledge and current information between the employees of the organization, and current coordination of work; all this can also be united under the general term "collective thinking";
5. the organization operates rationally, organically and purposefully;
6. the organization develops, improving the methods of achieving goals.

The success and efficiency of an organization is measured by its ability to achieve its goals.

Question 3: Managing organizational behavior

Any organization is a dual unity of managerial relations - formalized and personalized.

Formalized relationships - orient workers to establish and comply with strict requirements, providing top-down impact. These management relationships can be:

• autocratic - employees obey the will of the leader;
• technocratic - workers are subject to the production process;
• bureaucratic - employees obey the organizational order to the detriment of the interests of the case;

Personalized relationships - focus on "soft" requirements, providing employees with independence in solving problems;

• democratic - involve employees in the management of the organization;
• humanistic - focus on human relations;
• innovative - encourage creativity and innovation in the organization.

The behavior of the organization should be oriented towards a harmonious combination of formalized and personalized relationships and orientation in order to establish cooperation in the organization.

Cooperation is assessed as an integral characteristic of the organization's behavior, the basis of partnership, equality, solidarity, mutual respect.

Cooperation indicators are:

• effectiveness - the degree of achievement of a common goal;
• efficiency - the rationality of achieving the goal;
• meaningfulness - the perception of the goal and readiness for joint efforts;
• ethics is a means to an end.

Cooperation develops in numerous formalized and personalized relationships at various levels:

• within the organization - intra-company cooperation, the purpose of which is to ensure a common goal by the efforts of everyone;
• outside the organization - productive interaction with the external environment.

The basis of effective cooperation is the formation of a team, the main characteristics of which are group competence, complementarity, harmony, and creativity.

The behavior of an organization depends on the types of organizational structure that are presented in the table.

Influence of types of org. structures on the behavior of the organization

Types of organizational structures	Impact on organizational behavior
bureaucratic (mechanical): functional, linear, linear-functional and divisional structures	They are based on the formalization of the behavior of the organization and limit the activities of personnel by regulating actions and labor operations. Formalization of behavior allows to reduce its variability and manage, predict organizational behavior
organic (adaptive): project, matrix, program-target and group structures	They are distinguished by a flexible structure, coordination of organizational behavior based on mutual agreement and cooperation. There is no standardization of organizational behavior. Such structures allow solving innovative problems.
innovative: modular, integrated, conglomerate, atomistic, multidimensional, network, virtual structures	They are characterized by high adaptability and openness, "intellectuality", which determines the ability of the organization to self-learning, self-development and advanced self-management

The less predictable, the more complex the environment, the more bureaucratic structures are replaced by organic ones, or organic structures are partially included in bureaucratic ones.

The structure of the organization directly affects the efficiency of its functioning, so it must be flexible and dynamic. In industrialized countries, the management structures of corporations change on average every three to five years, depending on the state of the organization.

The dynamics of organizational development requires a rational design of the organization in order to create an effective management mechanism.

The formation of such a mechanism should be based not only on experience, analogies, habitual schemes and intuition, but also on scientific methods of organizational design. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the organizational structure is a behavioral system in which people and the groups they form constantly enter into various relationships to solve common problems.

The methodology for constructing an organization includes three stages:

1. The stage of composition - the formation of a general structural diagram of the control apparatus;

2. Stage of structuring - determining the composition of the main units and the links between them;

3. Stage of regulation - development of regulatory characteristics of the management apparatus and procedures for management activities.

The criterion for the effectiveness of organizational design is the full and sustainable achievement of the organization's goals.

Organization behavior managementshould be carried out taking into account the phase of its life cycle.Life cycle phases are predictable changes in the state of an organization that occur in time with a certain sequence.

According to the model of organizational development of L. Greiner (1972), five stages of the life cycle of an organization are distinguished, determined from each other by the moments of organizational crises. The transition of an organization from one stage of its development to the next lies through overcoming the crisis of the corresponding period.

Behavior of the organization depending on the stage of the life cycle

Life cycle stage	Main characteristic	Organizational crisis	The main task
Stage I - the birth of the organization	Definition of the main goal and the desire to maximize profits, the realization of the creative potential of the founders of the organization.	The organizational structure is informal, resulting in a leadership crisis.	The main task is to enter the market and survive
II stage - Childhood and youth	Getting short-term profits and accelerated growth.	A bureaucratic management structure is being formed, which leads to the suppression of the autonomy of departments.	The main task is to strengthen and capture part of the market.
III stage - maturity	Systematic, balanced growth, the formation of an individual image of the organization, decentralization of leadership and delegation of authority.	Development is ensured through structural adjustment, which subsequently leads to a crisis of control.	The main task is to diversify the activities of the organization.
IV stage - aging of the organization	Saving the achieved results.	In the structure of the organization, strategic units are distinguished with high independence, which subsequently becomes the cause of the border crisis.	The main task is to ensure the stability and preservation of the organization.
Stage V - the revival of the organization	Striving to revitalize the organization, expand cooperation. A new impetus to development is given by the creation of a team of like-minded people in the organization.	This stage may culminate in a crisis of "organizational fatigue" or trust.	The main task is the rejuvenation and revival of the organization.

Each stage is distinguished by the behavior of the staff and the organization as a whole, the style of management, development goals and ways to achieve them.

Organizational structures must change as the firm's objectives change. An imperfect structure leads to conflicts, disruption of normal work, role uncertainty, and this does not allow the organization to achieve high results, reduces profits.

Economy

Sociology and psychology

Culturology

Organization theory

Marketing

Management

Organizational behavior

innovation management

Personnel Management

Strategic management

Management decisions

Research of control systems

ORGANIZATION

Property

(internal orderliness, consistency in the interaction of more or less differentiated and autonomous parts of the whole, due to its structure)

Process

(a set of processes or actions leading to the formation and improvement of relationships between parts of the whole)

Organizational system

(an association of people who jointly implement a certain program or goal and act on the basis of certain procedures and rules)

team

Group

Organization

Course of lectures "ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR"

Topic 1. Fundamentals of organizational behavior (Lectures 1-5).

Lecture 1. The dynamics of individuals and organizations.

1. Essence, subject and methods of organizational behavior.

2. Scientific approaches to organizational behavior.

Essence, subject and methods of organizational behavior. Organizational behavior.

Behavior- this is a set of actions that are characteristic in certain conditions for a certain person.

Action- this is a one-time contact with the outside world, the exit of the subject to the outside world. Professional actions in the organization form the general professional behavior, or activity. Organizational behavior manifests itself in actions (technological, creative, etc.); attitudes towards oneself, colleagues, management, organization, etc.

Hence the discipline organizational behavior studies the behavior of individuals, groups and organizations in order to understand, predict and improve the individual performance of work and the functioning of organizations.

In this way Organizational behavior considers three levels behaviors: personal, group, organizational .

Psychological aspects are widely considered in organizational behavior.

Knowledge of the basics of organizational behavior allows you to describe the behavior of personnel, explain the reasons for their actions, predict behavior, and, accordingly, manage it in the organization, as well as more fully reveal the potential of the organization's personnel.

Factors that determine certain organizational behavior:

1) personal parameters of an employee of the organization: socio-psychological qualities of the individual;

2) parameters of the organization: organizational and technical parameters, working conditions, style and methods of management;

3) parameters of the external environment: laws, culture, morality.

The main forces that determine organizational behavior are organization, stimulation, group, control.

Peculiarities organizational behavior is driven by four groups of changes: human capital, customer expectations, organizations, management processes.

One of the features of organizational behavior in modern Russia is the increase in the effectiveness of interpersonal relations.

Psychological structure organizations are informal (informal) connections and relations that do not have regulated legal prescriptions. They develop between workers in the course of their activities under the influence of the coincidence of interests, opinions and views on various issues, mutual sympathy and trust, community of hobbies (sports, hunting, music, etc.).

The foundation organizational behavior - the use of socio-psychological methods of management aimed at managing the socio-psychological processes occurring in the team, to influence them in order to achieve the goals set for the organization.

Ways of implementation social impact:

purposeful formation of the personnel of the organization;

moral stimulation of employees;

use of individual behavior management methods;

implementation of the collective activities of employees and the use of their social activity.

Methods of psychological influence:

use of methods of psychological motivation (motivation);

taking into account the individual characteristics of employees (temperament, character, abilities, personality orientation, human needs);

taking into account the psychological aspects of human activity (attention, emotions, will, speech, skills).

Scientific approaches to organizational behavior.

Organizational behavior as a scientific field is based on two directions: the school of human relations, the concept of behavioral sciences.

Its main elements are the cognitive approach, the behavioral approach, the social learning approach.

cognitive(cognitive - from French "understand", "be aware") an approach- direction in psychology, proceeding from the recognition of the primacy of human mental activity.

Behaviorism(from English "behavior") - a direction in American psychology in which human behavior is understood as physiological reactions to stimuli.

Social learning theory combines and integrates behavioral and cognitive concepts. She claims that learning is possible on the basis of imitation, self-control and taking into account such a personality parameter as self-efficacy.

self-efficacy- this is the perception by the individual of how much she is able to cope with problems as they arise, and the desire of the individual to realize their capabilities.

In addition, the following approaches to the study of organizational behavior are used: an approach that involves the accumulation of life, managerial experience; an approach related to mastering theoretical knowledge and practical skills; psychological approach; motivational approach.

Basic theoretical approaches. ABOUT relies on fundamental concepts about the nature of man and organizations. We will rely on the main theoretical approaches: for human resources, situation, results and systems.

Orientation to human resources. P involves the analysis of personal growth and development of individuals, their achievement of ever higher levels of competence, creative activity and diligence, since a person is the main resource of an organization and society. Traditional approach to management assumes that the decision on the goal is made by the manager, who strictly controls the performance of the task by the employee, i.e. directive and controlling character. Oriented on human resources approach is supportive. It is assumed that the task of management is to provide opportunities for improving the skills of employees, increasing their sense of responsibility, creating an atmosphere conducive to increasing their contribution to the achievement of the organization's goals.

Human nature. It is customary to distinguish six basic concepts that characterize any individual: individual characteristics, perception, personality integrity, behavior motivation, the desire for complicity and the value of the individual.

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS . There is a lot in common between people, but each individual differs from other people in a million characteristic features. The presence of individual characteristics predetermines the fact that the most effective motivation of employees involves a specific approach of the manager to each of them. The proposition that each person is unique is commonly referred to as the law of individuality.

PERCEIVE E. Each of us individually perceives what is happening around c80

events. The reasons that determine the unequal perception of the “world of work” by employees are different. We are dealing with the so-called process of selective perception, when a person's attention is attracted primarily by those features of the working environment that are consistent with or reinforce his individual expectations.

Managers must learn to analyze the characteristics of the perception of employees, their emotionality and find an individual approach to each employee.

INTEGRITY OF THE PERSON . Each of us is a whole human being. The implementation of the EP suggests that the administration of the organization needs not just qualified employees, but developed personalities. Our work activity largely determines our individual traits, which means that managers should think about the impact of work on the personality as a whole.

MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR . One of the main provisions of psychology says that normal human behavior is formed under the influence of certain factors that may be associated with the needs of the individual and / or the consequences of his actions.

Employee motivation- a mandatory attribute of any organization. Regardless of the technology and equipment at its disposal, these resources cannot be used until the labor of previously motivated people is applied to them.

VALUE OF THE PERSON . Today, the high value of qualifications and abilities, opportunities for self-development of each employee are in “fashion”.

The Nature of Organizations. The foundation of the organizational concept is formed by the position that organizations are social systems.

SOCIAL SYSTEMS. One of them is a formal (official) social system, the other is an informal one. The social system assumes that the environment of the organization is subject to dynamic changes, all its elements are interdependent and each of them is subject to the influence of any other element.

Systems approach to organization and management is a way of thinking, gives a holistic view of the system based on its interaction with the external environment, is a way of interconnecting individual components into a single composition.

situational approach. The use of a situational approach involves an appeal to an extended range of scientific disciplines, consistency and research orientation. Thus, it contributes to the practical application of all the knowledge available in the “arsenal” of managers about the behavior of people in organizations.

Results orientation. Each organization strives to produce some specific products or achieve certain results. The key factors for the success of an organization are in two areas - external and internal. The dominant goal for many is results orientation. concept performance.

Lecture 2. Models of organizational behavior

Let us consider four models of OP developed on the basis of different theories of human behavior and used in different historical periods: authoritarian, custodial, supportive and collegial.

AUTHORITARY MODEL. The authoritarian, power-based model of the OP dominated during the Industrial Revolution. In order to demand from a subordinate “you must do this - or ...”, the manager must have the appropriate authority to subject the employee who does not obey orders to penalties.

Under certain conditions, the authoritarian model demonstrates high efficiency; should not be abandoned completely. The authoritarian model was assessed as acceptable in the absence of alternative approaches and is still adequate for certain conditions (for example, for an organization in crisis).

CUSTODY MODEL. In the late nineteenth - early twentieth centuries. some companies have begun to implement social security programs. The OP guardianship model was born. The success of the guardianship model depends on economic resources.

Guardianship leads to increased dependence of the employee on the organization. The fact that his weekly earnings depend on the immediate supervisor, the employee feels, realizing that his safety and well-being largely depend on the organization.

The guardianship model assumes that employees of the company are constantly indoctrinated with thoughts about economic incentives and benefits, and as a result of this kind of psychological processing, they feel quite satisfied with life. However, the feeling of satisfaction is by no means a strong stimulus, it causes passive cooperation. Therefore, the effectiveness of the guardianship model is only marginally better than the performance achieved with an authoritarian approach. The guardianship model is good in that it instills a sense of security in the worker, and yet it is only the basis for moving to the next step.

SUPPORTING MODEL. The supportive model of the OP is based on the "principle of supportive relationships". Supportive behavior does not require the attraction of significant financial resources. Rather, it is about the style of behavior of the management of the organization, which is manifested in the treatment of leaders with people. The role of a manager is to help employees solve problems and complete work tasks. The supportive EP model is particularly effective in high-affluence countries because it responds to the desire of workers to meet a wide range of needs.

PARTICULAR MODEL. The collegiate model is a further development of the supporting EP model. The term collegial refers to a group of people striving to achieve a common goal. The success of the collegial model is determined by the possibility of forming (under the guidance of management) among employees a sense of partnership, a sense of their necessity and usefulness.

The feeling of partnership comes in different ways. Some organizations are eliminating designated parking spaces for senior executives, others are banning words like "boss" and "subordinate" as they see them as separating managers and other employees, others are deregistering check-in times, forming "committees to leisure activities pay for employee hikes or require managers to go out on a weekly basis. All these activities contribute to the formation of a partnership atmosphere in the organization, when each employee makes the maximum contribution to the achievement of common goals and highly appreciates the efforts of his colleagues.

The management of such an organization is focused on teamwork, when the leader is treated as a coach who creates a winning team. The employee's reaction to such a situation is a sense of responsibility when the work task is performed at a high level, not because the manager ordered it, and not under threat of punishment, but because the employee feels a sense of duty to achieve the highest quality.

SITUATIONAL APPLICATION OF MODELS. Although one model usually prevails at one time or another, there are still opportunities to use others. Managers have different knowledge and different skills; the role expectations of employees, determined by the cultural context and historical features, also differ. The policies and cultures of organizations are different, but the most important thing is the features of their production processes. Some types of work require routine, unskilled, rigidly programmed labor, are tightly controlled by management, and their performance guarantees mainly material incentives and a sense of security (the conditions of the authoritarian and guardian model). Intellectual, unregulated types of work require teamwork and self-motivated employees. Workers engaged in this type of work are most responsive to supportive and collaborative approaches.

Lectures 3-4. Communicative behavior in the organization.

1. Two-way communication process.

2. Communication barriers and symbols of communication.

Bilateral communication process.

Communication process is a contact, communication for the purpose of exchanging ideas, opinions and information orally or in writing with the help of symbols or actions.

the main goal communication process - ensuring understanding, accepting, informational messages.

Communication in the organization- this is the exchange of information, on the basis of which the manager receives the information necessary for making decisions, and brings this decision to the performers. I.e., oh organizational communications- These are specific processes through which the movement and exchange of information takes place within the organization.

The exchange of information is built into all major types of management activities (management functions). Therefore, communication is called bridging process.

Types of information exchange:

a) between the firm and the external environment;

b) between the hierarchical levels of management of the company (vertically);

c) between units of the same level (horizontally);

d) between the leader and subordinates (makes up 2/3 of the total);

e) informally between employees of the firm (rumors, the level of accuracy of which can be quite high).

To exchange information in the company, various means are used: business conversations, discussions, meetings, telephone conversations, meetings, memos, reports, certificates and similar documentation circulating within the company, which is often a reaction to opportunities or problems created by the external environment.

Communication should: be carried out at the right time (on time), be reliable (word and deed should not diverge), be complete enough (excessive communication is harmful).

Effective leaders are people who are effective in business communication. They understand the essence of the communication process, have a developed ability of oral and written communication, and understand how the environment affects the exchange of information.

Effective communication implies that the meaning given by the source of the message and the meaning perceived by the recipient are practically the same.

If communication is poor, then decisions may turn out to be erroneous, people may misunderstand what management wants from them, and finally, interpersonal relationships may suffer from this.

By subject and means, types of communications in the organization there are: interpersonal, communication using technical means, communication using information technology.

By types, communicative behavior is: written - oral, official - unofficial, indirect (indirect) - direct (direct).

Consider two-way communication process. A two-way communication process is the way in which a sender's message reaches the recipient.

The main elements of the communication process are the sender, the message, the channel and the recipient. Any individual (employee) who has certain ideas, intentions, information and purpose of communication is a sender. The information that the sender transmits to the desired recipient is formed as a result of encoding, there is a message. The person who receives the sender's message is the recipient. Communication channel is the path along which the message is transmitted.

The communication process includes eight steps.

THE BIRTH OF AN IDEA. Step 1- the birth of an idea that I would like to convey to the recipient without it there can be no message itself.

CODING. On the second step the idea is encrypted (transformed into a form convenient for transmission) with the help of suitable words, diagrams, and other symbols used to convey information. At this stage, the sender also determines the method of transmission, the most adequate order of words and symbols.

BROADCAST. Step 3 After determining the form of the message, it is transmitted. The sender chooses a communication channel and transmits the message, taking into account the time factor.

RECEIVING. Step 4 Transmitting allows the recipient to receive the message. At this stage, the initiative passes to the recipient, who must tune in to the perception of the message. If it is a verbal message, the recipient must be a good listener. In cases where the addressee is not ready to receive the message, its content is largely lost.

DECODING. Step 5 The process of turning a message into a meaningful form is called decoding. The sender strives to ensure that the recipient adequately perceives the message exactly as it was sent.

For example, if the sender "transmits a square, and after decoding it turns out a circle, the message was received, but understanding could not be reached."

Understanding can only be realized in the mind of the recipient. The communicator can get the other party to listen to his message, but has no ability to make him understand it. Understanding the received message is the exclusive prerogative of the recipient. Communication cannot be considered successfully completed until there is understanding, this process is known as "bringing the message to the recipient.

ADOPTION. Step 6 Once the recipient has received and decrypted the message, they can accept or reject it. The sender, of course, would like the addressee to accept the message and respond adequately to it, but acceptance is a matter of choice and inclination; so it is the recipient who decides whether to accept the message in whole or in part. USAGE. Step 7- the use of information by the recipient, who may not respond to the message in any way; complete the task as directed; save the information for the future or do something else. This step is decisive and depends primarily on the addressee.

FEEDBACK (step 8) is a message sent by the recipient (receiver) back to the sender. It reflects how a person feels about something said or done by another. Demonstrating a reaction to a received message is feedback.

Feedback characteristics: intention, specificity, descriptiveness, usefulness, timeliness, readiness, clarity, reliability, constructiveness, clarity of expression, understandability to the recipient.

Types of communications in an organization are classified according to the following criteria: by the subject and means of communication, by the form and channels of communication, by the direction of communication, by the spatial arrangement of channels.

According to the form of communication, types of communications in the organization there are: verbal (words), non-verbal (gestures).

By communication channels types of communication in the organization distinguish between formal and informal.

On an organizational basis, the types of communications in an organization are distinguished: vertical, horizontal and diagonal.

According to the direction of communication, the types of communication in an organization are distinguished: descending and ascending.

Communication between people in situations "face to face" and in groups using words and non-verbal means of communication is interpersonal communications.

Factors influencing interpersonal communications: competence and compatibility, trust and status, feedback and socio-cultural environment, expectations.

Communications carried out by employees of departments and subdivisions of various levels of the hierarchy are diagonal.

Communications aimed at coordinating and integrating the activities of employees of various departments and divisions at the same levels of the hierarchy to achieve the goals of the organization are horizontal.

Communication directed from the bottom up from subordinates to the leader is ascending.

Top-down communication from the leader to subordinates is top-down vertical.

Complex problems are best solved by teams using a common channel communications network.

The prerequisites for an effective approach to communications in an organization are as follows. First, managers must develop a positive attitude towards communications; convince themselves that this is the most important part of their job. Secondly, it is necessary to work on obtaining information that will be of interest to employees. Third, managers must consciously plan communications. And also managers are called upon to gain trust, which is the most important condition for communications of all kinds.

2. Communication barriers and symbols of communication. Even if the recipient receives the message and honestly tries to decode it, understanding may be limited by a number of interferences or barriers that may arise either in the physical environment or in the emotional realm of the person involved in the communication process.

Everything that distorts the communication process is called noise, i.e. it is any interference that disrupts the transmission of a message and interferes with the communication process. There are 6 sources of "noise": 1) physical distortions; 2) semantic problems - poor choice of words or their inappropriate use, as well as the use of mixed messages, and here it is necessary to apply KISS (keep it simple and short) - the principle of communication; 3) mixed messages - take place in cases where the words "say" one thing, and non-verbal signals - another; 4) lack of feedback; 5) status-MUM effects - the effect is that people are unwilling to report bad news; 6) cultural differences.

Communication interference, obstacles, any interference in the communication process in any of its sections, distorting the meaning of the message, there are barriers. Communication hindrances arise depending on the following factors: organizational barriers, difference in status and unwillingness to share information, cultural and temporal barriers, communication overload.

Communication interference arising from the language differences between the sender and the recipient are language barriers. Communication interference arising from a misunderstanding of the meaning of the symbols used in communications are semantic barriers. Communication interference due to the personal characteristics of the sender and/or recipient are personal barriers.

Communication interference that occurs in the material environment of communications are physical barriers.

SYMBOLS OF COMMUNICATION. There are three symbols of communication: words, actions, drawings. Communications carried out with the help of speech as a coding system are verbal communications. Words are the main communicative symbol used in the labor process. The main problem with the use of words is their ambiguity, due to the fact that we are trying to "reflect" the infinite complexity of the world using a limited number of words. Many of the meanings of the words are completely different. The complexity of the language increases when people with different levels of education, ethnic traditions or culture try to make contact.

Context allows you to clarify the meaning of words with the help of signals that a person receives from the external social environment. Social signals can carry both positive and negative information that affects the reactions of communication participants. Social positions include positions, clothing, or the meaning of words adopted in a particular region or ethnic group. Our susceptibility to the influence of such signals varies depending on the degree of trust in the source, the level of familiarity with the issue, the nature of the signal, and individual differences (such as cultural traditions). Prior knowledge of social cues is important because using certain words in an inappropriate context creates a semantic that, like the real thing, irritates our senses and negatively affects the accuracy of sensations.

DRAWINGS. Communication symbols also include drawings used to explain verbal messages - projects, work schedules, samples, diagrams, maps, visual aids in training programs, scale drawings, etc. Drawings can provide a powerful visual means of depicting (once see than hear a hundred times. However, to achieve maximum effectiveness, they must be combined with carefully chosen words and actions.

ACTION (NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION). The third type of communicative symbols is actions or non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communications are messages sent to the sender without using words as a coding system, using gestures, postures, facial expressions, looks, mannerisms, and the like. Body language is an essential addition to verbal communication.

Very important in working situations is the expression of the interlocutor's eyes, eye contact, their movements, smiles, as well as eyebrow movements.

Non-verbal signals can be either involuntary or intentional, which greatly complicates the communication process. Body language also includes physical touch, hand movements, tilting the body forward or backward, crossing arms or legs, wadoh or yawning. Non-verbal signals are useful, but their interpretation is subjective and carries the possibility of error in advance.

The methods of communication between individuals are: reaction, facial expressions and gestures, listening.

Non-verbal means of communication include: kinesics, prosody and extralinguistics, proxemics and takesics.

Visually perceived movements of another person, performing an expressive-regulative function in communication (expressive movements, visual contact) are kinesic means. Kinesics is the study of the interlocutor by his gestures, facial expressions, postures, gait, looks. Dynamic touches stand out here: a handshake, a kiss, a pat.

Prosodic and extralinguistic (voice and speech characteristics) features are: intonation, loudness, timbre, speech rate, rhythm, diction, modulation, pitch, tonality, pauses.

Visual contact (gaze): direction, length of pause, frequency of contact.

The spatial structure of communication is distinguished, which includes: the orientation and angle of communication of partners and the distance.

In the process of communication, attraction techniques are used to convince the interlocutor of something.

Persuasion is carried out through informing, proof, clarification, refutation.

Communication is one of the ways to influence the interlocutor. The ability to influence other people, their behavior, relationships in various ways is called influence.

Features of communications in the organization.

The manager's external communications appear in relationships with: partners and suppliers. The manager's internal communications appear in relationships with: employees subordinate by status, senior management and colleagues - managers and leading specialists.

The center of the manager's communication space is the position.

In addition, we can distinguish such processes in the organization as communicative overload and communicative needs.

1. COMMUNICATION OVERLOAD. Sometimes managers pass huge streams of information to employees until employees discover that having huge arrays of various kinds of data does not contribute to understanding at all. This situation is called communicative overload, when the volume of communicative inputs significantly exceeds the possibilities of their real needs. The conditions for effective communication are time and quality of information.

2. COMMUNICATION NEEDS.

It is customary to refer to the communicative needs in the organization: work briefing, feedback on the results of activities, news, social support. Let's consider each need separately.

WORKING INSTRUCTION. One of the communicative needs of the employees of the organization is briefing on the performance of work tasks, which implies, within the framework of objective requirements, the formulation of instructions by managers. The consequences of inadequate work instructions are dire. Managers must relate the communications they carry out to the nature of the work tasks they supervise.

PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK. In addition, employees are in dire need of management feedback on the results of work assignments. Sustained feedback allows them to assess the correctness of the chosen direction and track the movement towards their own goals, shows how interested other people are in the results of their activities. If positive indicators are achieved, feedback increases the employee's self-esteem and his sense of his own competence. In general, performance feedback leads to both improved performance and improved relationships between employees and managers.

NEWS. Downlinks should be breaking news, not belated confirmations of information received from other sources.

SOCIAL SUPPORT. The communicative needs of employees of the organization also include social support, i.e. the desire of the individual to feel cared for and respected by others, their high appreciation. It does not matter whether such communications are about work assignments, promotions, or personal matters. In any case, employees feel an increased level of social support.

Ways to improve the exchange of information that the leader must learn to use in their daily activities.

1. The manager must evaluate the qualitative and quantitative aspects of his information needs and the needs of his subordinates and colleagues.

2. The leader must regulate the flow of information through personal meetings, meetings, etc.

3. The leader must check the awareness of his subordinates to determine their awareness of the goals of their activities.

4. The manager should promote the publication of newsletters that contain information for all employees.

Lecture 4. Communicative behavior in the organization (Continued).

Formal communicative behavior in the organization.

2. Informal communicative behavior in the organization.

3. Business communication.

Formal communicative behavior in the organization.

The flow of messages from lower levels to higher levels is called upward communication. And vice versa.

If the two-way information flow weakens due to limited upward communication, the company's management begins to experience a lack of data necessary for making informed decisions, loses an understanding of the needs of employees, and therefore loses the ability to ensure the effective performance of its functions and social support.

The implementation of upward communications is associated with overcoming specific difficulties. The first is delays, i.e., the slow ascent of information to high levels of organizations. Managers do not risk raising problems, because they are afraid of the negative reaction of management. The second is filtering, i.e. some form of "censorship" from below. And finally, in upward communications, distortions or deliberate changes in the message are possible in such a way that it contributes to the achievement of someone's personal goals.

METHODS OF UPCOMING COMMUNICATIONS. The starting point for improving bottom-up communication is the formulation of policy principles for the treatment of employees, which may include areas of responsibility of senior management, controversial topics, issues that require management opinion or recommended changes.

QUESTIONS FOR EMPLOYEES. One of the practical methods is the questions of managers to employees, demonstrating the interest of management in the opinions of employees, its desire to obtain additional information, and an assessment of the role of subordinates.

ABILITY TO HEAR. The ability to actively listen, not just hear. Effective "receivers" master the art of perceiving not only "pure" information, but also the emotional message of the sender. It is equally important that a manager who listens attentively to an employee regularly sends signals on the air about his interest in the subject of conversation.

EMPLOYEE MEETINGS. One of the most effective methods for developing upward communication is holding meetings of managers with small groups of employees, where employees have the opportunity to speak out on current work problems, management methods, and talk about their needs.

OPEN DOOR POLICY. The open door policy assumes that the appeals of the company's employees to their immediate superiors (primarily) or higher-ranking managers on any issues that concern them are encouraged by the top management of the organization, which allows you to unblock upward communications.

PARTICIPATION IN SOCIAL GROUPS. Informal, often entertaining events provide exceptional opportunities for “extra-scheduled” upward contacts. This spontaneous exchange of information allows managers to understand the real situation in the company much faster than in formal communication.

Lateral communications coordinate problems, needs, consultations, feedback.

Communication can be divided into formal and informal. Formal communications allow you to streamline and limit information flows, based on the organizational structure and regulations on departments and services. Informal communications are social interactions between people, an expression of the human need for communication.

Groups within an organization exhibit different interactive models and use different communication networks.

Communication networks. In some organizations, work involves the creation of interactive teams whose members work on tasks side by side and are characterized by coordination of activities. Such a model of interaction leads to the emergence of a decentralized communication network in which all members of the group communicate directly with each other and freely exchange information. Sometimes such a structure is called a common channel or communicative network of the "star" type.

The second scheme for organizing work is collaborative teams, whose members work on the task independently, although they are connected to each other through central coordination. Information flows to the central figure and then is distributed among the members. This creates a centralized communication network, the central figure of which acts as the "axle of the wheel". Sometimes such a figure is called an information network built like a wheel or chain. The central communications network links group members through a central control point.

Limited communication networks link opposing subgroups that are at odds with each other on some issue.

OTHER FORMS OF COMMUNICATIONS.

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS.

EMAIL.

TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS. Research shows that the benefits of telecommunications for workers include the absence of distractions, reduced communication time and money, the ability to reduce the cost of work clothes, and the ability to spend more time with or care for family members. Benefits for corporations include increased productivity (sometimes by I5-25%), reduced need for workspace, the ability to attract talented people who live in remote cities, increased employee loyalty, since the employer has "went the extra mile", by setting up a system to provide employment to disabled or chronically ill people Benefiting communities - reduced traffic and emissions, fewer unemployed people who do not have opportunities to work outside the home. Moreover, in "exchange" for the comforts of home, some individuals increase their working hours and work intensity.

As a result of physical isolation, telecom workers often feel disconnected from conventional (social) networks. They are deprived of intellectual stimuli from peers, informal channels of communication and feel isolated from most sources of social support. Emotional costs may turn out to be unacceptably high, so the task of the employer is to support the “teleworkers”, provide them with up-to-date information, encourage active contacts, and participate, to the extent possible, in the events held by the company. It is obvious that technological progress in the field of communications is inevitably associated with certain costs and organizational efforts.

VIRTUAL OFFICES. Technological progress in communication processes has both positive and negative consequences. Some companies are creating virtual offices that don't require space or desktops. The BASIC means of production are compact means - e-mail, cell phones, voice mail recorders, laptop computers, facsimile machines, modems and video conferencing systems. Employees "armed" with them can perform work not only at home, but practically anywhere - in cars, restaurants, customer offices or airports. Communication through electronic means allows employers to significantly reduce the working space per employee. However, we should not forget about the risk of losing opportunities for social interactions, because employees need to communicate in an informal setting, exchange ideas and experiences in person, and identify new areas of teamwork.

2. Informal communicative behavior in the organization. An informal communication system is often referred to as a "vine" - conveys information through a network of friends and acquaintances. This term applies to any informal communications. Informal information is usually disseminated orally, but there are also communications in written form. Sometimes handwritten or typed notes are used, but in today's electronic office these messages are usually displayed on computer screens, creating a new era of "electronic vine" that greatly increases the speed of information dissemination. However, it will never replace the "face-to-face vine" for two reasons: (1) not every employee has access to a personal computer network, and (2) many employees prefer face-to-face social interactions.

"VARIETIES OF GRAPES". Often, managers get the impression that the "vine" is organized according to the principle of a chain in which A tells B, who breaks the news to C, who passes it on to D, and so on until after 28 people the information reaches Z - with a significant delay and in a very distorted form. There are several varieties of grapes: 1) clustered chain because each link in the chain seeks to inform colleagues, and not one of them.

2).One-way chain. 3). Gossip. 4). Probabilistic chain.

In each specific case of dissemination of information in the "vine" only a certain part of the employees actively participates. Of the 87 employees, no more than 10-15 employees. People who are actively involved in the transmission of information through the "vine" are called messengers.

ACTIVITY OF "GRAPEVINE"

The Vine is the product of a situation rather than a personal initiative. This means that in a certain situation and with the appropriate motivation, any employee can take part in it. Both men and women participate equally in it.

GOSSIP. The main problem of the "vine" is the transmission of rumors. Rumor is information carried by the "vine" that spreads without providing generally accepted evidence of authenticity. Sometimes it is confirmed, but in most cases it turns out to be false.

The possibility of rumors is determined by two factors - interest and uncertainty. Usually the rumor is filtered, by which it is reduced to a few basic points that are easy to remember and pass on to others. Often, in order to express their own feelings and thoughts, messengers add new “details” to the rumors that completely distort the original meaning, this process is called addition.

TYPES OF HEARINGS. Some of the rumors have historical roots and are easy to explain, as they indicate an attempt by individuals to reduce the degree of uncertainty they are faced with. Others are more spontaneous, action oriented. Sometimes rumors are negative, driving a wedge between individuals or groups. The existence of different types of rumors reminds managers not to curse them en masse, even if they sometimes create managerial problems.

HEARING MANAGEMENT.

Eliminate the causes of rumors.

Pay particular attention to countering serious rumors.

Refute rumors with facts.

Start countering rumors as early as possible.

Pay special attention to personally presenting the facts, if necessary, in writing.

Provide facts from reliable sources.

Refrain from retelling the rumor when refuting it.

Encourage the help of informal and trade union leaders if they express a desire to cooperate.

Listen to all the rumors to see what they might mean.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

"SAINT PETERSBURG STATE

ECONOMIC UNIVERSITY (SPbGEU)

Abstract

Discipline: Organization Theory and Organizational Behavior

Completed:

Evtushenko Oleg

Petrov Anatoly

Saint Petersburg 2014

• 2.1 Positions of the manager and leader in the organization. Key competencies of a leader and manager
• 2.3 Leadership theory
• 2.4 Behavioral approach
• 2.5 Situational theories
• 2.6 Charismatic leadership
• 2.7 Influence strategies (dominance, authority and leadership)
• 3.1 Maslow's motivational hierarchy of needs
• 3.2 Aldorfer's ERG Motivational Theory
• 3.3 McClelland's motivational theory of learned needs
• 3.4 Herzberg's motivational theory of two factors
• 3.5 Motivational expectancy theory by V. Vroom
• Topic 4. Person and organization
• 4.1 Formal and informal groups in the organization: characteristics, reasons for formation, stages of development
• 4.2 Team and group: similarities and differences, levels of development
• 4.3 Types of conflict in an organization
• 4.4 Styles of conflict resolution
• Topic 5. Analysis of SAMSUNG
• 5.1 History
• 5.2 SAMSUNG in Russia
• 5.3 About the company
• 5.4 Organizational behavior and management approaches
• 5.5 Power and leadership
• 5.6 Motivation
• 5.7 Personality theory
• 5.8 Communications
• 5.9 Team and group science
• 5.10 Organizational culture
• 5.11 Conflicts

Topic 1. Communications in management

communication manager motivation conflict

1.1 Communication process structure, feedback requirements

The simplest communication model looks like this:

Even Aristotle singled out such components of communication: speaker-speech-audience. Today we would say: "communicator - message - communicant". This triad is present in all models of communication, constituting its core.

Consider the structure of communication. It includes the following elements (components):

* source (or sender);

* message;

* recipient;

* Feedback.

A source. This is the creator of the message, the person who communicates the information and transmits it. The source could be:

* organization;

* individual;

* group of individuals.

Message - This is the information that the source conveys to the recipient. Most messages are transmitted in a verbal (verbal) form, but the message can also be non-verbal (gestures, facial expressions, graphic images). The idea that the sender wants to convey is encoded, i.e. converted into words, gestures, intonation. Coding turns an idea into a message.

Channel - This is the means by which a message is transmitted from a source to a recipient. Well-known channels - speech and written materials, e-mail, videotapes, etc. It is important to choose the right channel for communication to be effective. The channel should be consistent with the idea that was born in the first stage, be compatible with the type of characters used for encoding.

Recipient - The person to whom the information is intended. For the sake of the recipient, communication takes place. The recipient decodes the message. Decoding is the translation of the sender's characters into the recipient's thoughts. If the characters chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning for the recipient, then he will know exactly what the sender meant. If the recipient has demonstrated understanding of the idea by performing the actions that the sender expected from him, the exchange of information is effective. These actions are feedback.

Feedback - This is the recipient's reaction to the source's message. This and taking into account the source of the recipient's reaction to the message. Feedback makes communication a dynamic two-way process. The more actively feedback is used in the communication process, the more effective it is.

Positive feedback informs the source that the desired outcome of the message has been achieved. Negative feedback informs the source that the desired outcome of the message was not achieved.

Effective feedback must have a number of characteristics.

1. Orientation. The purpose of effective feedback is to improve the quality of work of each individual employee, increasing his value. It should not humiliate self-respect or affect the reputation of a person.

2. Concreteness, constructiveness. Effective feedback should provide recipients with specific information about the state of affairs, through which they can understand how to correct the current situation.

3. Descriptive. Effective feedback should not evaluate the performance of the employee, but objectively describe what he actually did.

4. Usefulness. Effective feedback provides information that an employee can use to improve the quality of their work.

5. Timeliness. The sooner the feedback is provided, the better for the cause.

6. Desire and willingness of employees to accept feedback. If feedback is forced on employees, it is much less effective.

7. Clarity, clarity of expression, intelligibility to the recipient. The recipient of the feedback must clearly understand it, for example, with visual contact, the sender can follow the facial expression of the recipient.

8. Reliability and reliability characterize how much the recipient trusts the information received through feedback and how accurately it reflects the real state of affairs. Distortion during transmission can lead to both an incorrect reaction of the leader and subsequent incorrect changes in the actions of the subordinate.

Communications in the organization are divided into formal (official) and informal.

Formal communications are determined by the policies, rules, job descriptions of the organization and are carried out through formal channels. Formal communications include:

vertical, when information moves from one level of the hierarchy to another;

· horizontal - between different departments, intended to coordinate the activities of various departments.

Vertical communications, in turn, are divided into:

o ascending, when information is transmitted from the bottom up (from lower levels to higher ones). This type of communication contains the information that managers need to assess the area of ​​activity for which they are responsible;

o descending, carried out from top to bottom. This type of communication is directly related to the management and control of employees.

Informal communications do not follow the general rules of a given organization and are carried out through informal channels that exist due to personal relationships between members of the organization.

The existence of informal communications is associated with the problem of rumors in the organization.

Rumors are any information that is received through unofficial channels of communication. Rumors arise if employees experience a lack of information provided through formal communication channels, if information is supplied irregularly, with a delay.

1.2 Barriers to communication, principles of dialogue, roles in contact

Communication barriers are factors that cause or contribute to ineffective interaction, conflicts. From a psychological point of view, such factors include differences in temperaments, characters, manners of communication and emotional states of communicating partners.

The temperamental barrier arises as a consequence of the meeting of two people with different types of nervous system. Temperament is the foundation of character, which determines the characteristics of the response of the nervous system to the environment. The type of temperament depends on the innate type of higher nervous activity. In the nervous system, as is known, two main processes alternate - excitation and inhibition. The type of temperament depends on their interaction. The interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition in each person is characterized by the strength, mobility and balance of the nervous system.

Communication of people who are different in their temperamental structure can form barriers to interaction and even lead to conflict.

Character is an individual combination of the most stable personality traits that manifest themselves in human behavior and in a certain respect:

1) to oneself (demanding, critical, self-esteem);

2) to other people (individualism - collectivism, egoism - altruism, cruelty - kindness, indifference - sensitivity, rudeness - politeness, deceit - truthfulness, etc.);

3) to the task assigned (laziness - industriousness, accuracy - slovenliness, initiative - passivity, perseverance - impatience, responsibility - irresponsibility, organization - disorganization, etc.).

The manner of communication, formed on the basis of temperament, character and type of personality accentuation, can also create a barrier in the communication of people who have differences in this manner. Therefore, it is important to know the techniques for entering a communicative situation when communicating with different partners.

The main subjects of communication, from a psychological point of view, are:

Dominant,

non-dominant,

mobile,

Rigid,

· Extraverted and introverted subjects of communication.

The dominant subject of communication seeks to turn to any person, without caring about the appropriateness or expediency of communication. He wants to seize the initiative in communication, to influence others, to suppress the activity of a communication partner. His attitude to this can be caught by his posture, facial expressions, gestures, look, and remarks. In communication, he raises his voice, interrupts his partner, repeats the same thing over and over, and is distinguished by assertiveness.

The non-dominant subject of communication constantly feels insecure, afraid to once again take the initiative, ask a question, express his point of view. He is very sensitive to external signs of intelligence, strength, emotional partner. Indecisive in disclosing his own knowledge. Sometimes he lets himself be confused; yielding, easily lost; he never interrupts his partner himself and patiently demolishes when he is interrupted.

A mobile subject of communication easily enters into communication, switches attention, quickly draws in his mind the image of a communication partner (often too superficially). His speech is hurried, phrases easily replace each other; sets the pace for communication; often interrupts. In the course of verbal communication, he actively expresses his attitude to what the partner says, inserts remarks and remarks. He tries to catch the meaning of speech, without delving into the "verbal vestment". Always strives to add variety to communication, changing superficially discussed topics, jumping from one to another.

The rigid subject of communication is not immediately included in the communicative activity. He needs to study the partner, understand his intentions in communication. He usually listens carefully. Slowly speaks, expresses his thoughts in detail, carefully choosing words and expressions, building phrases. He does not like to be interrupted; does not tolerate hasty presentation of thoughts from others. Communication with such a person can be painful for the impatient.

An extraverted subject of communication is openly disposed to interaction. Communication is his element. Regardless of his state of mind, he is always aimed at partnership. He is confident in his own ability to understand any person, is inquisitive, shows genuine interest in people. He wants to be useful to others, attentive to them, tries to express his sympathies and wants the same attitude towards himself. To draw attention to his person, he is often eccentric in his statements, using fashionable novelties. Able to speak openly and sincerely.

An introverted subject of communication is not prone to external dialogue. Most of all, he focuses on a dialogue with himself (autocommunication). Shy, touchy, not inclined to discuss personal topics. However, he has a well-managed system of psychological protection of "personal zones".

Taking into account the above characteristics of the subjects of communication makes it possible for each person to form the skills of understanding the characteristics of the personality of another person, recognizing its merits. Only then do conditions arise for effective communication of people in a team.

1.3 Communication networks, matrix of personal contacts

At enterprises, communication channels are combined into networks that connect the elements of the management structure into a single whole. They combine formal and informal communication channels, both duplicating and complementing each other. Based on domestic and foreign experience, three main types of communication networks can be distinguished: open, closed and combined.

In open networks, the movement of a command or information can be stopped, as it gets into a dead end, i.e. to the control structure element at the end of the channel. At the same time, the movement may encounter an obstacle in the form of an intermediary or controller, but which, for some reason, prevents this movement (stops, distorts, directs in the other direction) and which cannot be bypassed. In closed networks, dead ends and controllers are either absent or can be bypassed. Combined networks combine both principles of construction and are inherent in large multi-level enterprises.

Let us consider in more detail each of the types of networks, their advantages and disadvantages, while remembering that we are talking about their schematic diagrams, and not about "portraits" of certain real organizations or departments.

The simplest type of open communication network is a linear one, called a snake (Scheme 1). It characterizes the elements of the control structure of A and B, which, when connected, are at dead ends, and C plays the role of not only an intermediary of communications, but can control them. Such a network connects employees of the same level of management, most often of an informal nature, or is an element of a more complex network.

Networks consisting of two or more levels are primarily inherent in formal hierarchical structures and have a central link that serves as the starting point for vertical communication channels.

If the number of links belonging to the lower level of the hierarchy of the management structure does not go beyond the range of control, the most suitable for it is a communication network called a star (Scheme 2) allows you to quickly receive information, concentrate it in the central link A and send it to performers as soon as possible B, C, D. It is easy for link A to maintain order in management, since there are no intermediaries and informal channels in communications, which makes it impossible for various kinds of "disturbances" to appear.

However, for large administrative structures, such a communication network is unsuitable. The central link A is no longer able to independently develop all decisions and bring them to the executors. In this case, an assistant (intermediary) B appears, concretizing commands and distributing information between performers C, D, E. Being a representative of the middle level of management and playing de jure secondary roles, in fact, he receives enormous power, since he controls information and can impose his will first person. Such a network is called a spur (Scheme 3).

In star and spur networks, the number of communication channels converging to a central element can, in practice, grow indefinitely and eventually exceed the ability of an individual to control them. This circumstance puts a natural limit to the development of managerial structures, therefore, prevents the expansion of the enterprises themselves, due to the growth in the scale of production.

Therefore, for large multidisciplinary functional structures, other communication networks are characteristic, for example, an awning (Scheme 4) and its modifications. The essence of these modifications, called the tent and the house (Scheme 5), is the official admission, along with vertical, horizontal communication channels, through which subordinates can directly solve many minor problems on their own, which allows management not to be distracted by them and focus on the main thing.

In the "tent" one level of horizontal communication is allowed - between the second persons; in the "house" such channels are possible at all levels of the management structure, which gives it the character of a closed network. Practice shows, however, that due to the relatively free use of communication channels, certain purposeful deformations can occur here, with the help of which individual subjects of the management structure can first be turned off from the communication system and then removed from it.

In general, open communication structures are inherent in bureaucratic structures, where there is a strict subordination of some links to others and formal ties predominate. However, within the framework of such enterprises, there may also be flexible structures - consulting and advisory (committees, commissions, special creative groups), which are based mainly on informal or semi-formal internal communications and principles of self-government. Communication here is carried out through closed networks, in which intermediaries play the role of not controllers, but liaisons, facilitating interaction between the participants in these structures.

The basis of closed networks is a "circle" type network (Scheme 7)

In large enterprises, it can be complex, involving additional communication channels that connect everyone to everyone. The "circle" is characteristic of structures with a favorable moral and psychological climate. It helps to bring people together, facilitate the exchange of information and ideas, stimulates creative processes.

1.4 Types of non-verbal communication, types of interpersonal distances

Non-verbal communication is a human behavior that signals the emotional states and nature of the interaction of communicating personalities. Non-verbal means of communication are expressed in clothes, hairstyle, facial expressions, posture, objects surrounding a person. Recognition and understanding of such behavior contributes to the achievement of the highest degree of mutual understanding. Such information allows us to understand the mood, feelings, expectations, feelings, intentions, as well as the moral and personal qualities of communicating people.

Knowing the types of non-verbal communication, one can better understand the ways of their expression, since communication of this type is carried out by all sense organs, from which the communication channel is actually formed.

Consider the main types of non-verbal communication:

· Kinesics - this element represents a set of body movements, gestures and postures, used to complement the expressive means of communication. The main elements of kinesics are facial expressions, postures, gestures and attitudes that have a physiological or sociocultural origin. The gestures used must be understood unambiguously, since if the gestures are misinterpreted, unpleasant circumstances may arise;

· Tactile behavior - it was found that when communicating, all people use a variety of types of touch to those interlocutors who are in close proximity. Different types of touch are of a different nature and have a different, different efficiency and significance. Tactile behavior can conditionally be divided into the following types: professional, ritual, friendly and love. Each type of touch is necessary for a person to weaken or strengthen the process of communication. However, there are a number of factors that are undoubtedly worth considering, since non-verbal elements have different designations in different cultures;

· Sensory - is one of the types of non-verbal communication, which is based on sensory perception by all cultures. Attitude towards a partner is formed on the sensation of the sense organs: smells, taste sensations, perception of sound and color combinations, sensations of the body of the interlocutor and the warmth emanating from him. Thanks to all this, non-verbal communication with this partner is built;

· Proxemics is a type of non-verbal communication based on the use of spatial relationships. This type of communication implies the direct influence of distances and territories on the manifestation of interpersonal relationships between people. As a result of some studies, four zones of non-verbal communication of a spatial type were identified: intimate, personal, social and public;

Chronemics - this type implies the use of time in non-verbal communication;

· Paraverbal communication - the meaning of communication depends on the manifestation of the level of rhythm, intonation and timbre of the voice, which are used to directly convey the utterance.

The interpersonal space that is usually preserved between people during communication, according to K. Izard, may be based on sociocultural norms that regulate tactile contacts. Therefore, interpersonal distance can be considered as a means of communication, which is derived from the tactile channel of communication. The space between people carries semantic, psychological meanings, which is why the anthropologist Edward Hall (1966), probably the most authoritative specialist in the field of research on interpersonal distance, gave it the name “psychology of space”. He also compiled the most well-known today classification of distances, or zones of interpersonal interaction. True, it mainly reflects the cultural norms that exist among North Americans, since it was created on the basis of observations of the behavior of Americans.

Hall identifies four main distances that serve as an indicator of what kind of relationship connects interacting people, and which received names accordingly:

intimate,

personal,

social,

official (public).

The intimate zone is the distance between people from direct contact to 0.5 meters. Such a distance indicates a very close relationship between the interlocutors. Of course, with the exception of those cases when strangers are crowded against their will in public transport, in shops, at stadiums, etc. Such a forced decrease in interpersonal space usually causes a person to feel discomfort, since close physical contact occurs in the crowd with complete strangers.

Personal zone - is set in the range from 0.5 to 1.25 meters. It is typical for communication between people who have friendly relations, or between closely familiar individuals.

Social zone - it is more extended and extends from about 1.25 to 3.5 meters. This distance is maintained by people, for example, in business relationships or other social interactions. This distance is maintained, say, during the interaction of a buyer and a seller, a student and a teacher, etc. Moreover, the extreme limit of this zone indicates either very formal or rather tense relations.

The official (public) zone - it ranges from 3.5 to 7.5 meters. This distance testifies to the completely official nature of communication. These can be distances during public speaking, communication with officials, solemn ritualized events.

1.5 Types of communication in the organization

Communications carried out in organizations can be classified according to a number of criteria:

Classification of communications in the organization

Communications carried out with the help of technical means, information technologies, in modern conditions are of paramount importance. They are carried out using e-mail, telecommunication systems, management information technologies (MIS). Managers, using MIS, can, for example, contact other employees for information needed to solve problems, and can also study the literature on current developments in any area of ​​interest to them.

Interpersonal communications. Interpersonal communications - communications carried out between people in situations "face to face" and in groups using words and non-verbal means of communication. They are the most important for the study of organizational behavior. Various factors influence interpersonal communication

The effectiveness of interpersonal communications largely depends on feedback. With its help, the sender understands whether the message was transmitted, whether it was received and whether it was correctly understood and received by the recipient.

Factors affecting interpersonal communications

Topic 2. Power and leadership in the organization

2.1 Positions of a manager and leader in an organization Key competencies of a leader and manager

The manager-leader is a key figure in the management of the organization, and leadership is the crown of managerial activity. A manager is a member of an organization that carries out managerial activities and solves managerial tasks. With full responsibility it can be argued that managers are the key people in the organization. However, not all managers play the same role in the organization, not all managers occupy the same position in the organization, the tasks performed by different managers are far from the same, and, finally, the functions performed by individual managers are also not identical. This is due to the fact that there is a hierarchy in the organization, that various functions are performed in the organization, and, finally, that there are various types of management activities. An organization cannot exist without managers.

Organizations that achieve success differ from those that do not, mainly in that they have more dynamic and effective leadership. In modern Russian, leadership, from the point of view of the owner, means either an individual (leader) or a group (leading staff), or a process, that is, a way of managing an organization that has individual characteristics. Synonyms for the words leadership and leader are the words leadership and leader.

The nature of leadership can be better understood by comparing it with management itself. Being a manager and being a leader in an organization are not the same thing. The manager in his influence on the work of subordinates and building relationships with them, first of all, uses and relies on the official basis of power and the sources that feed it. Leadership as a specific type of management relationship is based more on the process of social impact, or rather, interaction in the organization. This process is much more complex, requiring a high level of interdependence among its participants. Unlike management itself, leadership involves the presence of followers in the organization, not subordinates. Accordingly, the “boss-subordinate” relationship, characteristic of the traditional view of management, is replaced by the “leader-follower” relationship.

Being a manager does not automatically mean being considered a leader in an organization, since leadership is largely informal. You can hold the first position in an organization, but not be a leader in it. To understand the difference between a leader and a manager, below are their competencies.

Key competencies of a manager:

* planning (setting goals and objectives, determining the sequence of actions and preliminary calculation of resources);

* management of subordinates (formation of the organizational structure, determination of the positions of each, the establishment of a control system);

* implementation of control (monitoring of activities, identification of problems and their elimination).

Key competencies of a leader:

* determination of the direction (general vision of the goal, strategy, formation of organizational culture);

* uniting people (formation and management of communication, coalition building, networking);

* motivation and motivation (stimulating activity and creativity, maintaining values ​​and emotions, learning).

2.2 Power and its main forms

Power - means the ability (opportunity) to influence the behavior of other people, in order to subordinate them to one's will.

Power allows the leader to control the actions of subordinates, direct them in line with the interests of the organization, encourage employees to work more efficiently, and prevent conflicts that arise in the team. Without power there is no organization and no definite order in activity.

The definition of power as an organizational process implies the following:

· Power exists with those who can potentially use it, i.e. it exists not only when it is used.

· Power is a function of interdependence, i.e. there is an interdependence between the one who uses power and the one to whom it is applied.

· Power is not absolute; the one to whom the power is applied has some freedom of action.

The main types of power:

Power based on coercion. Influence through fear.

Reward-based power. Positive reinforcement, but limited resources when issuing a reward.

· Expert -- reasonable faith. The performer believes that the leader has exceptional knowledge that can satisfy the need. This type of power is less stable than charismatic.

· Charismatic power. Blind faith in the personal qualities of the leader. The properties of a manager may simply be attractive to the performer (he wants to be the same, the power of example).

· Legitimate authority - the executor believes that the leader has the right to give orders. It is based on tradition. May harm the organization. Subordinates do not want to change the way of leadership, the structure.

· The power of the position does not arise from the position itself, but delegates to its owner by those to whom he is accountable. The main forms of manifestation of power in this case will be coercion, reward, power over resources, power of connections.

· Personal power is the degree of respectful, good and loyal attitude towards its owner by subordinates, based on the proximity of their goals. The main forms of personal power can be expert power, the power of example, the right to power.

Formal power is the power of the position, due to the official place of the person occupying it in the management structure of the organization, and is measured either by the number of subordinates who are directly or indirectly obliged to obey his orders, or by the volume of material resources that this person can dispose of without coordination with others. In this case, power and leadership, presented in the form of a service hierarchy, permeate the entire management system of any organization.

· Real power is power, both positions and influence and authority. It is determined by a person's place not only in the official, but also in the informal system of relations and is measured either by the number of people who are voluntarily ready to obey this person, or by the degree of his dependence on others.

2.3 Leadership theory

The theory of leadership qualities (“great people”, “charisma”) proceeds from the possibility of defining a universal set of leadership qualities (physiological, psychological, intellectual and personal), which allow forming groups of followers to solve problematic problems. This theory is based on the deification of leaders, but it does not explain the success of leaders with a different set of qualities.

Leadership theory reflects the earliest approach to the study and explanation of leadership. The first studies attempted to identify the qualities that distinguish the great men of history from the masses. The researchers believed that leaders had some unique set of qualities that did not change over time. Based on this, scientists tried to determine leadership qualities, learn how to measure them and use them to identify leaders. This approach was based on the belief that leaders are born, not made.

Subsequent study led to the identification of the following four groups of leadership qualities: physiological, psychological, intellectual and personal (Table 1).

Quality group	Characteristics of qualities
Physiological qualities	Pleasant appearance (face, height, figure, weight), voice, good health, high working capacity, vigor, representativeness
Psychological qualities	Personality type: extrovert, introvert. Temperament: phlegmatic, sanguine, choleric. Power, ambition, aggressiveness, superiority, balance, independence, courage, creativity, creativity, self-affirmation, perseverance, courage
Intellectual qualities	High level of intelligence: mind, logic, memory, intuitiveness, encyclopedic knowledge, breadth of outlook, insight, originality, quick thinking, education, prudence, conceptuality, sense of humor
Business and personal qualities	Business qualities: organization, discipline, reliability, diplomacy, thriftiness, flexibility, commitment, initiative, independence, responsibility, riskiness. Personal qualities: benevolence, tact, compassion, honesty, decency, vigilance, conviction, attentiveness, sociability, adaptability

2.4 Behavioral approach

The behavioral approach focuses on the style of leadership, which is understood as a set of characteristic techniques and methods used by the leader in the management process.

Leadership style reflects:

degree of delegation of authority by the head to his subordinates

used type of power

Methods of working with the external environment

Ways to influence staff

habitual manner of behavior of the leader in relation to subordinates.

The main behavioral models of leadership include the theory of "X" and "Y" by D. McGregor, the theory of leadership by K. Levin, the continuum of leadership styles by R. Likert, the management grid of R. Blake and D. Moutan, the theory of E. Fleishman and E. Harris and etc.

Major leadership theories distinguish between two possible behaviors of a leader:

behavior oriented towards human relations (respect for the needs of employees, concern for the development of personnel);

Behavior focused on the performance of production tasks at any cost (ignoring the needs and interests of subordinates, underestimating the need for personnel development).

In general, behavioral leadership theories have contributed to increased attention to the issues of teaching effective forms of behavior. The task of the organization was not only to recognize an effective leader in the personnel selection process, but also to teach him the skills of successful people management.

The behavioral approach laid the foundation for the classification of leadership styles, directed the efforts of managers to find the optimal style, but already in the early 1960s. began to be regarded as limited, since it did not take into account a number of other important factors that determine the effectiveness of managerial activity in a given situation.

2.5 Situational theories

Situational factors play a decisive role in effective management, while not rejecting the importance of personal and behavioral characteristics.

The main situational theories of leadership are the leadership model of F. Fiedler, the “path-goal” approach of T. Mitchell and R. House, the life cycle theory of P. Gersey and C. Blanchard, the decision-making model of V. Vroom and P. Yetton, etc.

Most situational models are based on the proposition that the choice of an adequate leadership style is determined as a result of analyzing the nature of the managerial situation and determining its key factors.

Fiedler's leadership model

One of the first theories of the situational approach was the leadership model of F. Fiedler. She focused on the situation and identified three factors that influence the behavior of the leader:

The relationship between the leader and subordinates (degree of trust and respect);

the structure of the task (labor regulation);

The power of the leader (the amount of official authority).

Fiedler's theory established two important facts related to the provision of effective leadership.

Task-oriented leaders ensure that the group performs better in both favorable and unfavorable situations. Relationship-oriented leaders ensure higher group performance in intermediate states;

The effectiveness of the leader's work depends both on the degree of favorable situation and on the style of leadership.

The decisive factor is the appropriateness of the leadership style and the situation in which the team works. This can be achieved in two ways:

adapt the leader to the situation (through his selection, stimulation, training, retraining, in extreme cases - replacement);

change the situation (by giving the manager additional powers).

The condition for optimal management styles is the focus on solving production problems and establishing favorable relationships in the team. This theory argues that an effective leader must demonstrate both styles and apply them depending on the nature of the current managerial situation.

It is also important to conclude that every situation in which leadership is manifested is always a combination of the actions of the leader, the behavior of his subordinates, time, place and other circumstances. And this combination is more often unfavorable than favorable.

Theory of the life cycle of P. Ghersi and C. Blanchard

Of great importance is the theory of the life cycle of P. Ghersi and C. Blanchard. It is based on the position that an effective leadership style depends on the "maturity" of the performers. Maturity is determined by the qualifications, abilities and experience of employees, the willingness to bear responsibility, the desire to achieve the goal, i.e. is a characteristic of a particular situation.

Analyzing various combinations of focus on work tasks and human relationships, P. Ghersi and C. Blanchard identified the following leadership styles: command, training, participation in management (supportive) and delegation, corresponding to the levels of development of employees.

The theory establishes four leadership styles corresponding to the level of maturity of the staff:

high task orientation and low people orientation (to give directions);

equally high orientation to the task and people (to sell);

low task orientation and high people orientation (participate);

Equally low task and people orientation (to delegate).

This theory states that an effective leadership style should always be different depending on the maturity of the performers and the nature of the managerial situation.

Decision-making model by V. Vroom and P. Yetton

The decision-making model of V. Vroom and P. Yetton focuses on the decision-making process. She identifies five leadership styles that represent a continuum, from autocratic decision-making style (AI and AI), consultative (CI and SI) to group (full participation style) (GII):

A1 - the manager himself solves the problem and makes a decision using the information available to him;

A2 - the manager himself solves the problem, but the collection and primary analysis of information is carried out by subordinates;

C1 - the manager makes a decision through individual consultations with individual subordinates;

C2 - similar to style C1, but consultations are held in a group form;

· G2 - the decision is made by the group in which the manager plays the role of "chairman".

The application of each of these styles depends on the situation (problem), for the evaluation of which seven criteria are developed that are consistently used in the decision-making process: the value of the quality of the decision; the manager has sufficient information and experience to make an effective decision; the degree of structure of the problem; the importance of the involvement of subordinates for making an effective decision; the likelihood of supporting the leader's autocratic decision; the degree of motivation of subordinates in solving the problem; the likelihood of conflict between subordinates when choosing an alternative.

Like other situational theories, the Vroom-Yetton model has received the support of many management theorists, but at the same time has been seriously criticized. Many note that the model explains how to make and execute a decision, and not how to achieve efficiency and satisfaction of subordinates.

2.6 Charismatic leadership

The first to put forward the idea of ​​a charismatic type of leadership was Max Weber. Charismatic leadership is defined by Max Weber as "based on a devotion to exceptional holiness, heroism or the exemplary character of the individual and the normative attitudes or order determined by him." He defines Charisma (Charisma) as “a certain quality of an individual personality, thanks to which it stands out from the environment of ordinary people and is perceived as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least exceptional abilities or qualities. These are qualities that are not available to an ordinary person, but are considered to be of divine origin, and on their basis the individual is perceived as a leader. How the analyzed quality will ultimately be considered from an ethical, aesthetic or other point of view is irrelevant from the point of view of definition.

Charismatic people have an exceptional ability to communicate complex ideas in the form of simple messages (“I have a dream”); they engage in dialogue through symbols, analogies, metaphors, and stories. Moreover, they like risk and need it, they are great optimists and rebel against conventionality.

There are two opposite positions in the formation of the leader's image. One denies any influence of the leader on organizational effectiveness at all, and the other leads to leadership charisma and an attempt by followers to ascribe to the leader almost magical, and in some cases divine qualities.

Charisma is a form of influencing others through personal attraction that elicits support and recognition of leadership, which gives the owner of charisma power over followers. As a source of leadership power, charisma refers to the power of example, associated with the leader's ability to influence subordinates by virtue of their personal qualities and leadership style. Charisma gives the leader the advantage to more effectively influence his subordinates. Many believe that gaining charisma is associated with the leader's ability to find his admirers and admirers and even change their composition depending on the situation. Others define charisma as a set of specific leadership qualities. The latter formed the basis of the concept of charismatic leadership discussed below, which is, in fact, a continuation of the concept of attributive leadership and is based on a combination of the qualities and behavior of a leader.

A charismatic leader is one who, by virtue of his personal qualities, is able to have a profound impact on his followers. Leaders of this type have a high need for power, have a strong need for action, and are convinced of the moral rightness of what they believe. The need for power motivates them to become leaders. Their belief in their rightness in action conveys to people the feeling that he is capable of being a leader. These qualities develop such traits of charismatic behavior as role modeling, image creation, simplification of goals "focus on simple and dramatic nature of the goal", emphasis on high expectations, manifestation of confidence in followers of the impulse to action.

Research suggests that charisma has a negative side associated with the usurpation of personal power or a leader's complete focus on himself, and a positive one associated with an emphasis on shared power and a tendency to delegate part of it to followers. This helps to explain the difference between leaders like Hitler, Lenin, Stalin and the likes of Sakharov, Martin Luther King and the like. In general, a charismatic leader is credited with having self-confidence, high sensitivity to the external environment, a vision of solving a problem outside the status quo, the ability to reduce this vision to a level that is understandable to followers and encourages them to act; extraordinary behavior in realizing their vision.

Models of charismatic leadership differ in the number of stages in the development of charisma itself and relationships with followers. It is believed that it is first necessary to develop sensitivity to discovering a problem that could be attacked with criticism. Then you need to develop a vision of idealized ways to solve this problem. Something new must be included in the vision, something that no one has previously proposed and that seems to be able to immediately advance the solution of the problem.

2. 7 Influence strategies (dominance, authority and leadership)

Influence is the process of influencing the thoughts and behavior of others.

There are several types of influence strategies:

· The nudge strategy is to influence people through punishment or the threat of punishment. The disadvantage of this strategy is the demotivation of personnel, the decrease in efficiency, the likelihood of destructive conflicts and hidden disobedience.

· The luring strategy is to influence people through rewards. The disadvantage of this strategy is that not every person is suitable for what the leader can offer him. The baiting strategy must be used very carefully, because if people feel that the leader is unfair, this can cause jealousy or resentment, which will eventually cause a decrease in motivation and conflicts.

· The use of persuasion is a way of influencing people based on a call to reason. The disadvantage is that not everything that seems reasonable and acceptable to the leader does not necessarily appear as such to other people. When persuading, you need to remember that other people can see the world differently.

· Preparatory strategies consist of preparing the ground for influencing people.

· Preventive strategies consist of influencing people by preventing any action or decision. Disadvantage - exposure of covert activities can lead to poor communication and conflicts.

Topic 3. Motivation of activity

3. 1 Maslow's motivational hierarchy of needs

Motivation is the process of encouraging oneself and others to act in order to achieve personal and organizational goals. The effectiveness of motivation is related to a specific situation.

Motivation has been around for a long time. The carrot and stick method (one of the first methods of motivation) has been used since the dawn of civilization. However, during the F. Taylor period, managers realized that wages were on the verge of starvation - stupid and dangerous. As the well-being of the population improves, the carrot does not always make a person work better.

An important role in this area was played by the works of Z. Freud on psychology, which introduced the concept of the unconscious. The scientists put forward the thesis that people do not always act rationally. E. Mayo's experiments revealed a decrease in staff turnover due to an increase in the prestige of the profession, social, group relations.

Of interest from the point of view of highlighting motivating factors is the theory of human needs, proposed in

40s CC in. A. Maslow.

Hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow

human need

A need is a physiological and psychological lack of something. Needs serve as a motive for action. Maslow said that the next need in the hierarchy is satisfied after the need of the previous level is completely satisfied. Although this is not necessary in life, and a person may seek, for example, satisfaction of the need for status before his need for housing is fully satisfied.

F. Herzberg proposed two groups of factors in the 50s. CC in.

hygienic (external in relation to work), which remove dissatisfaction with work;

motivation factors (internal, inherent in work).

The first group includes normal working conditions, sufficient wages, respect for superiors. These factors do not automatically determine motivation. The second group of factors suggests that each person can be motivated to work when he sees a goal and considers it possible to achieve it.

The law of result (P. Lawrence and J. Lorsch) states that people tend to repeat the behavior that they associate with the result, the satisfaction of needs (on the example of the past).

D. McClelland singled out three needs: power, success, involvement. Success is not just a result, but a process of bringing to success. Involvement is a sense of belonging to something, the possibility of social communication, a sense of social interaction. He believed that at the present time, when all primary needs have already been satisfied, the enumerated needs of a higher order begin to play a decisive role.

Alderfer agrees with Maslow that individual needs can be placed in a hierarchy. However, his proposed hierarchy includes only three categories of needs and is named ERG - after the initial letters of these categories:

1) existence (existence) - needs satisfied by factors such as food, air, water, wages and working conditions;

...

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Government of the Russian Federation
Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution

Higher professional education

National Research University -

"High School of Economics"

St. Petersburg branch

department management

discipline program

PART 1. ORGANIZATION THEORY

For the direction 080200.62 "Management" of bachelor's training

Course 2.3

St. Petersburg
I. Explanatory note.
Requirements for students: the course "Theory of Organization and Organizational Behavior" is intended for second and third year students of the specialty "Organization Management", "State and Municipal Administration". The course program is based on the knowledge gained by students in the following disciplines: philosophy, sociology, psychology, history of economics, history of economic thought, institutional economics, marketing, management.

Annotation.

The program is based on the requirements of the State Educational Standard for Higher Professional Education.

"Theory of Organization and Organizational Behavior" combines two relatively independent, but interconnected areas of professional knowledge, in which scientific research and special studies are widely conducted related to the phenomenon of organization, the impact of organizations on the life and behavior of people, factual material on the development of organizations, their transformation and corresponding change in the activities of managers and employees.

Purpose of the course– to form in students a holistic view of organizations, the main patterns of their existence and development, the features of managing organizations. And also to determine the role of a person in an organization, the influence of the main organizational characteristics on the behavior of employees, to highlight organizational, sociocultural, interpersonal and other methods of understanding, predicting and managing the behavior of people in an organization, to give basic skills in applying these methods.
The training course consists of two complementary parts.

Part 1. Theory of organization. Read to 2nd year students. Within the framework of this part of the course, a holistic evolutionary approach to understanding the organization is implemented, the main components of the organization, their role in management, the evolution of the organization as a system, classical and modern types of organizations, methods of designing and managing an organization are considered. The main task- to form basic knowledge about the organization as a special social system, highlight its functions, specific features and characteristics. To give ideas and basic skills of theoretical understanding of the organization, to master the elements of organizational design, to conduct a comparative analysis of various approaches to working with the organization.

Learning objectives and expected results of studying the discipline
As a result of studying the discipline in Part 1 "Organization Theory", the student must:

know:

Functions and essential features of the organization;

• 
  basic approaches to the study of organizations;
• 
  basic concepts that make it possible to describe the process of functioning and development of an organization (organizational structure, mission, vision, strategy, life cycle, etc.);
• 
  basic laws of organizational design and development of organizations;

be able to:

Development of a goal tree for the organization.

4. Control work - 10 points(admission to offset)

5. Work - 10 points(admission to offset)

Total seminars - 13

150 -145 points --10

144-140 points --- 9

139-135 points --- 8

134-117 points --- 7

116 - 100 points ---6

99-81 points -- 5

80-61 points ---- 4

60-30 points ---- 3

29- 0 points -- 2

"2" and "3" - unsuccessful.

II. CONTENT OF THE DISCIPLINE.
Topic 1. Theory of organization as a science.

The theory of organization in the system of sciences. Organizations as a subject of interdisciplinary study. The system of sciences about organization. The contribution of various sciences to the theory of organization: management, psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, economic sciences, legal sciences, computer science.

Models of organizations based on a historical and systematic approach, classical and modern views on the organization. The specifics of understanding the organization in various management schools, the features of the approaches of M. Weber, J. Odiorne, N. Smelser. Tectology of A.A. Bogdanov as a general organizational science. Theory
systems and chaos theory in understanding the organization. Modern perspectives on organization. Functions of the organization as part of society. Tasks of the organization in the external and internal environment. Hierarchy of organizational models.
Topic 2. Organization as a system.

Organization definition. Formal and informal organizations.

Management approaches. Approach from the standpoint of identifying different schools in management. Process approach. Systems approach. situational approach.

System concepts. History of systems theory. System definition. Features of the system: integrity, structure, hierarchy. Hierarchy levels of systems: living and non-living systems. social systems. Open and closed systems. Subsystems. Management as a system. Management based on a systematic approach.

Topic 3. Development of the organization.

Stages of the life path of the organization of the L. Greiner model. Theory of life cycles of the organization I. Adizes. The practical importance of the theory of Adizes. The life path of an organization in business from a sociocultural point of view by E. Emelyanova and S. Povarnitsyna . The specifics of the organization's work at different stages. Organization development management.

Topic

4.1. Principles of organizational design and organizational design.

The essence of organizational design. Sequence of organizational design. Stages of implementation of the organizational project. Organization design directions: structuring, composition, regulation, orientation.

4.2. Vertical constructs: goal tree, work with organizational structure.

Classification of the goals of the organization. Stages of designing the goals of the organization. Mission, vision, strategy as the basis for designing an organization. Formation of quality goals. Goal assessment. Building a tree of goals. Research and formation of quantitative goals. Assessment of the degree of achievement of qualitative and quantitative goals.

Designing the structure of the organization based on the goal tree. Types and features of the use of structures of various types.

Clarification of the concept of "business process". Modeling of business processes. Technologies for describing business processes. Technologies implemented in business processes. Evaluation of the effectiveness of business processes. Benchmarking.

Topic

Two directions for evaluating the effectiveness of an organization: evaluating the effectiveness of all its subsystems and evaluating the effectiveness of an organization's development in the external environment. Personnel, organizational, informational potential. Organization performance indicators. Criteria for assessing the effectiveness of the organization. Approaches to the definition of performance criteria. Problems in assessing the effectiveness of the organization.

Topic 6. Pathologies of the organization.

Disclosure of the term "organizational pathology". Growing pains in the organization. The difference between pathologies and diseases of growth.

Types of organizational pathologies. Pathologies in the structure of organizations. Pathologies in managerial decisions. Pathologies in organizational relations. Fight against pathologies. Innovation as a way to overcome the crisis. The danger of innovation is the possibility of the formation of new pathologies.
Topic

organic organizations. Their goals. Problems of organic organizations. Construction principles. Organizational learning. Characteristics of companies with long-term activities. "Live" and "economic" companies. Principles of learning organizations. Trends in harmonization and innovation in the development of organizations.

III. TOPICS OF TASKS ON DIFFERENT FORMS OF CONTROL.

3.1. Preparation of an abstract (analytical work) "Comparative analysis of organizations

In preparing the analytical work, the materials of the joint home-classroom work of a microgroup of students on the design of the main elements of some imaginary organization are used.

The created project is compared by each member of the group with any real organization - a potential “competitor” in terms of the main stages of design and expected effectiveness.

A reasonable conclusion is made about the features, competitiveness, efficiency of a real and designed organization.

3.2. Questions to prepare for the final control on the course of organization theory:

1. 
   Organization as a special system of interaction between people. The value of the organization for society.
2. 
   Forms of existence of organizations.
3. 
   Functions of organizations in the modern world.
4. 
   Modern and traditional organizations: similarities and differences.
5. 
   Characteristics of the organization as a system.
6. 
   System properties of organizations: synergy, emergence, holism, non-additivity and others.
7. 
   System processes in the organization.
8. 
   Stages of development of the organization. Their features and significance.
9. 
   Organization goals. Their importance for its functioning and development.
10. 
    The main subsystems of the organization and their role in the life of the organization.
11. 
    Communication of goals, processes and structure of the organization as a manifestation of systemic laws.
12. 
    The formal structure of the organization. History of development and significance for the activities of the organization.
13. 
    Modern understanding of types of structures and their meaning.
14. 
    The influence of information and communication factors on the structure of the organization.
15. 
    Position as the basis of the structure of the organization.
16. 
    The size of the organization and its importance for life.
17. 
    Designing an organization: main tasks and principles.
18. 
    Designing vertical constructs: goal tree, structure.
19. 
    The role of the mission, vision, strategy in the design of the organization.
20. 
    Designing horizontal constructs: business processes and technologies.
21. 
    Features of business processes: basic, auxiliary, managerial.
22. 
    Organization efficiency: main approaches and criteria.
23. 
    Pathologies of the organization: types and causes.
24. 
    Relationship of violations of the development of the organization with the stage of development and the main characteristics of the organization.
25. 
    Methods of working with pathologies: prevention and correction.
26. 
    Organization and innovation: principles and main problems.
27. 
    Organization culture. Value for work efficiency.
28. 
    Modern trends in the development of organizations.
29. 
    Training organization: basic principles and specifics.
30. 
    Innovative organizations: problems and opportunities.
31. 
    Virtual organizations: features, limitations.
32. 
    Requirements for management in modern organizations.

IV. Educational and methodological support

Literature

Basic Tutorial

1. 
   Vesnin V.R. Organization theory. M., TK Velby, Prospect Publishing House, 2008.
2. 
   Daft R. Theory of organization. M., UNITY-DANA, 2006
3. 
   Milner B.Z. Organization theory. M., INFRA-M, 2009.

Main literature

1. 
   Gibson J.L., Ivantsevich J.M., Donnelly D.H. - ml. Organizations: behavior, structure, processes. M., 2000.
2. 
   Gunjar F.J., Kelly J.N. Organization transformation. – M.: Delo Publishing House, 2000.
3. 
   Kaplan R., Norton D. Balanced Scorecard. From strategy to action. M., Olymp-Business, 2006
4. 
   Lafta J. Effectiveness of the management of the organization. M., 2007.
5. 
   Prigogine A. I. Methods for the development of organizations. M.: MTsFER, 2003.
6. 
   Prigogine A.I. Disorganization: causes, types, overcoming. M., 2007.
7. 
   Senge M. Peter. The fifth discipline is the art and practice of the self-learning organization. M., CJSC "Olimp-Business", 1999
8. 
   Organization Theory: An Anthology. Comp. V.L. Semikov. M.: Academic project Gaudeamus, 2005
9. 
   Hall R. Organizations: structures, processes, results. - St. Petersburg, Peter, 2001
10. 
    Shemetov P.V. Organization theory. M.: INFRA-M, 2004

additional literature

1. 
   Becker J. et al. Process management. M., 2008.
2. 
   Bovin A.A., Cherednikova L.E., Yakimovich V.A. Innovation management in organizations. M.. Publishing house Omega-L., 2011.
3. 
   Vikhansky O. S., Naumov A. And Practicum on the course "Management". – M.: Gardariki, 2002.
4. 
   Vlasov P.K. Psychology of organization design. Kharkov, 2003.
5. 
   Vudyuk M., Francis D. Unfettered manager: Per. from English. - M., 2003.
6. 
   Daft R. Management. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008.
7. 
   Dawson R. Confidently make decisions: Per. from English. - M: Culture and sport. UNITY, 1996.
8. 
   Duncan DW Fundamental ideas in management. Per. from English. - M.: Delo, 1996.
9. 
   Mescon M., Albert M., Hedouri F . Fundamentals of management. / Per. from English. - M.: Case LTD, 2000.
10. 
    Mintzberg G. Structure in a fist: creating an effective organization. - St. Petersburg, 2001.

IV. Thematic calculation of hours.
4.1. Calculation of hours for the direction Management

No. p / p	Name of sections and topics	classroom hours			Self work	Total hours
		Lectures	Seminars	Total
1	1. Organization theory as a science	2	2	4	10	14
2	2. Organization as a system.	4	4	8	12	20
3	3. Development of the organization.	4	4	8	12	20
4	4. Organization design. 4.3. horizontal constructs: business processes and technologies.	4	4	8	20	28
5	5. The effectiveness of the organization. Criteria for evaluation.	4	4	8	12	20
6	6. Pathologies of the organization.	4	4	8	10	18
7	7. Modern trends in the development of the organization: learning organizations	4	4	8	12	20
8	Preparation for the final test				4	4
	Total hours:	26	26	52	92	144

4.2. Calculation of hours for the direction Management, specialization State and municipal management.

No. p / p	Name of sections and topics	classroom hours			Self work	Total hours
		Lectures	Seminars	Total
1	1. Organization theory as a science	2	4	6	16	22
2	2. Organization as a system.	4	4	8	16	24
3	3. Development of the organization.	2	4	6	16	22
4	4. Organization design. 4.1. Principles of organizational design and design. 4.2. vertical constructs: goal tree. Working with the organizational structure. 4.3. horizontal constructs: business processes and technologies.	4	4	8	26	34
5	5. The effectiveness of the organization. Criteria for evaluation.	4	4	8	16	24
6	6. Pathologies of the organization.	4	4	8	16	24
7	7. Modern trends in the development of the organization: learning organizations	4	4	8	16	24
8 2012 -> Program of the discipline Theory and methodology of modern psychology for the direction 030300. 68 Psychology for master's programs 2012 -> Research program (preliminary version) Moscow, Las, January 2012 2012 -> Possible leaders: Shlyago nn., Balashov A. I., Kotlyarov I. D., Tarasova Yu. A., Kozlova Yu. A., Rannya N. A., Smirnova E. E., Korchagina E. V. ., Chulanova G. Yu., Sokolova A. A. and others 2012 -> Course program Political Anthropology of Russia (elective course) For direction 030200. 62 Political Science 2012 -> The program is intended for teachers leading this discipline, teaching assistants and students for the direction 030300. 68 "Psychology" 2012 -> The program is intended for teachers of this discipline, teaching assistants and students of the direction of preparation 030600. 62 "Journalism"

The subject of organization theory and its place in the scientific system

Definition 1

Organization theory- the science of the principles and patterns of the organization's activities, the mechanisms of its work, the interaction of its elements with each other and with the external environment.

The subject of organization theory is organizational relationships. Organization theory studies the interaction of people within an organization, revealing the patterns of its development.

Knowledge in the field of organization theory makes it possible to manage the organization at a more professional level, making informed decisions when setting organizational goals and choosing methods for achieving them.

There are many sciences that accept the organization as the object of their study - this list can include management, sociology, organizational psychology, economics, etc. Each of these areas of science tend to consider some aspects of the processes occurring in the organization.

Organization theory, in contrast to the listed scientific fields, is an attempt to systematize knowledge about the organization. Within the framework of the theory of organization, a company is considered as an integral system of formal and informal relationships between people.

Remark 1

Organization theory is one of many management sciences based on a more general theory of management.

The subject and goals of the analysis of organizational behavior

Definition 2

Organizational behavior- a scientific direction in management that studies the organizational aspects of the activities and behavior of people and their associations.

The emergence of organizational behavior as a scientific direction is associated with the desire of management specialists to apply the knowledge of sociology and psychology in managing the behavior of employees of an organization. The behavioral school of management provided organizational behavior with the initial knowledge and understanding of human behavior. In accordance with these ideas, any human action is a reaction to external stimuli. This allows us to suggest that human behavior can be controlled using appropriate incentives. The primary task of organizational behavior as a science was to identify such incentives and the mechanisms of their influence on people's behavior.

At present, the science of organizational behavior is quite developed and is aimed at solving the following problems:

• Identification of patterns in people's behavior within various organizational processes;
• Determination of cause-and-effect relationships of people's behavior in the organization and situational conditions;
• Prediction of behavioral responses;
• The study of the mechanisms of influence on people's behavior and ways to manage it in order to solve various organizational problems and problems.

Interdisciplinary Status of Organizational Behavior Theory

Human behavior is the object of study of various social sciences - sociology, psychology, etc. Organizational behavior differs from such sciences in that it considers the behavior of people in a specific context - within the organization.

The study of organizational behavior is impossible not only without knowledge in the field of sociology and clinical psychology, but also without ideas about the functioning of the organization as a system, as well as without knowledge of the basics of organization management. Organization theory and organizational behavior are complex scientific fields that combine concepts from many different sciences, which confirms their interdisciplinary nature.

Remark 2

The theory of organization systematizes and uses various concepts and ideas of other social sciences, the application of which in practice is realized through the methods and tools of organizational behavior.