What political blocs does France belong to? Military-political blocs. Military blocs during World War II

Illustration: OpenClipart-Vectors / pixabay

Recently, the council “NATO and regional military alliances 2018” was opened in Norfolk, USA, organized by the Advisory Committee on Defense Policy, the Command of the US Special Operations Forces and the Council for Consultations, Command and Control of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The main agenda of the event is devoted to the vectors of NATO development, taking into account the experience of current conflicts in the context of the growing dynamics of conflict situations in the alliance's areas of responsibility. The result of the work of the platform will be the development of a conceptual and analytical base for the NATO Consultation, Command and Control Council.

The key event was the presentation of the USA-NATO: Global Challenges and Prospects Program Special Representative of the Middle East Division of the US Department of Defense General Directorate of Military Evaluations and Analysis by Daniel Burch.

The document determined the status quo of the military-political bloc both in US foreign policy and in the "global design" (global design of world military alliances), i.e. in military-political and geopolitical analysis, and the applied methodological base and main provisions were accepted as the theoretical basis for the future development of the North Atlantic Alliance. De facto, the program provisions secured the transition of US-NATO relations and alliance allies to a qualitatively new level within the framework of the recently adopted new version of the American National Security Strategy.

“The modern world is multimodal and extremely dangerous, covered by a wide range of threats. Opponent states undermine our interests. In the Middle East and Asia, terrorists controlled by unstable transitional regimes occupy large territories. Under these conditions, our main task is to protect the sovereign rights of our citizens and national interests. But no less important for us is the safety of our permanent partners. Modern wars, like the world, have advanced considerably due to progress. They cannot be conducted by the same methods as 25 or 10 years ago. The conflict is asymmetrical and the threats are increasingly hybrid. Today there is a need for a qualitatively new military-political base capable of protecting our collective security and democratic foundations. Any potential conflict is our conflict, because it somehow poses a threat to our interests,” reads the preamble of the “US-NATO: Global Challenges and Prospects” program.

According to the authors of the document, the main problem for further ensuring global dominance (through factor systems) and at the same time for security is the policy-legal status of the bloc, namely, articles restricting operations outside the geographic areas of responsibility of the alliance. What with the current level of development of transport, telecommunications networks and the presence of "alternative resource bases" (formed when global alternatives appeared or as a result of the loss of control over areas of constant instability) and the growth of conflict zones leads to a decrease in the operational flexibility of the forces and means involved. The same problem, exacerbated by the need for the existence of complex logistics of both tactical and strategic levels, does not allow for the prompt establishment of the necessary interaction between the forces of NATO member countries and the US Strategic Command (STRATCOM) at the regional level, with the exception of the Alliance's Rapid Reaction Forces. As a result, a significant decrease in operational-tactical freedom. According to Daniel Birch, these conclusions were obtained as a result of a qualitative analysis of a number of characteristics of ongoing joint operations in Libya, Iraq and Syria.

In addition, the uncoordinated use of military, special, trade, economic and political methods of influence by individual NATO member states within the framework of the common goals of collective security leads to an imbalance in relations within the alliance itself and to a decrease in confidence on the part of regional allies.

In particular, the conflict over the spheres of influence of France and Italy on the Libyan-Sudanese border is given as an example, where both countries are fighting for control over the Sudanese tribal militias, which are a buffer for migratory flows coming from the Sahara. At the same time, both sides are striving to occupy the remote fields of the South-East of Libya. As a result, these processes create diplomatic barriers to expand US interaction with the regime of Khalifa Haftar, who controls the Libyan east and the main fields.

A similar block of examples is connected with the territories of Syria and Iraq, where disagreements arose between the US, Germany, France and Great Britain over the supply and training of the Kurdish militia, controlled by the Kurdish National Councils, and the Syrian Democratic Forces. As a result, the decrease in US influence on controlled groups, which required additional resource costs from both the Pentagon and the North Atlantic Alliance.

In this regard, according to analysts of the Defense Ministry and special departments of the United States, given the actual imbalance acquired within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the most promising direction in modern geopolitical conditions is the construction of factor systems of international coalition models. “This will ensure the most acceptable level of coordination of the interests of the member countries of the alliance and maintain partnerships with our regional allies. At the same time, the use of promising technologies will increase the legitimacy of the alliance in the face of the world community without prejudice to the military-political component,” said Daniel Burch.

Proceeding from this, the main military-political interaction is moving from the institutional to the non-institutional level with respect to the North Atlantic Alliance. Those. NATO ceases to play the role of an external control structure and transfers this function within the framework of geopolitical modeling to various coordinating centers and territorial headquarters of STRATCOM, interacting with which in certain theaters, the “coalition of states” and their territorial structures will act as the main actor. The alliance itself performs the role of "ensuring the territorial integrity" of the participating countries. Those. is used as a basic structure for the modernization of material, technical and technological bases, a single scientific space, solves issues of collective defense and budgeting, and also performs political functions to develop a collegial position on existing crisis systems.

The application of this approach removes questions about reforming the structure of NATO, since military-political subjectivity outside the bloc's areas of responsibility is abolished. At the same time, the rigid vertical structure of decision-making and coordination is replaced by a more flexible territorial structure. Such a construction of a block model at the same time allows you to optimize resources, combine the management of both the forces and means of the United States, as well as NATO member countries and their regional partners in a particular theater. As a result, there is an increase in operational flexibility and situational stability of the entire education.

The US-NATO: Global Challenges and Prospects program itself relies on a comprehensive factorial analysis of potential crisis systems through the closed Index of Current and Forecasted Dynamics of Military-Political Conflicts. Taking into account cross-border threats”. According to Daniel Birch, the methodological basis for ranking "crisis zones" is similar to BERI, but the full set of variables, as well as the methods for their classification, have not been presented.

As a result of applying the above methodology, the countries included in the subregional zone of the Greater Middle East were divided into 4 clusters:

1) Unstable areas or tending to instability - the need for external democratic control: Algeria/Morocco, Libya/Sudan, Egypt/Sudan, Iraq/Turkey, Syria/Turkey, Iraq/Syria, Saudi Arabia/Yemen;
2) Stable zones with a general increase in internal threats - systems with developed democratic ties: Israel, Turkey, Jordan, Saudi Arabia;
3) Zones acquiring stability or relatively stable - development of democratic ties: Armenia/Azerbaijan, Afghanistan/Fergana zone;
4) Counterparties seeking chaos: Iran, Pakistan.

Also, in the explanatory note to the study, experts from the US Army Command Institute fixed an additional category of sources of threats for NATO member countries and their allies - these are "Regional asymmetric military-political unions", the system core of which is "Counterparties" - the Russian Federation and China. In particular, we are talking about the CSTO and the emerging security policy within the SCO, as well as the alliance of Iran, Pakistan and China. According to analysts and the authors of the document, these organizations are not devoid of contradictions and are at the stage of their formation, however, they are the sources of "alternative resource bases", which were mentioned above.

Here, in the course of assessing threats, the most effective method of limiting the influence of such subjects is "substitution technology". Those. the admission of alternative forces to them in the zones of geostrategic interests of the NATO countries. As an example, the successful coordination of the United States and India, which is China's geopolitical opponent in the so-called "Afghan zone", is given.

Turning to the conclusions, it should be noted, firstly, that the program "US-NATO: Global Challenges and Prospects" was adopted as a theoretical and methodological basis for the analytical support of the NATO Consultation, Command and Control Council, which means that the methods described in it will used for the actual activities of the United States and its allies in these territories.

Secondly, the given geographical classification within the framework of the “Index of the current and predicted dynamics of military-political conflicts. Taking into account cross-border threats”, even taking into account the undisclosed methodology, de facto designated countries that in the near future will be subject to complex influence from the member countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and their allies, which in turn will become part of the systemic influence on “counterparties” - Russia, China, Iran and Pakistan.

Thirdly, it is possible to resist such a complex impact on counterparty countries through the construction of complex systems of multi-level unions and strengthening integration within the framework of the above asymmetric block models, which will increase the factorial stability of these countries.

Maxim Alexandrov

Military-political blocs. The desire of Western countries and the USSR to strengthen their positions on the world stage led to the creation of a network of military-political blocs in different regions. The largest number of them were created on the initiative and under the leadership of the United States. In 1949, the NATO bloc emerged. In 1951, the ANZUS bloc (Australia, New Zealand, USA) was formed. In 1954, the SEATO bloc was formed (USA, Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, Philippines). In 1955, the Baghdad Pact was concluded (Great Britain, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan, Iran), after the withdrawal of Iraq, it was called CENTO.

In 1955, the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD) was formed. It included the USSR, Albania (withdrew in 1968), Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia.

The main obligations of the participants in the blocs consisted in mutual assistance to each other in the event of an attack on one of the allied states. The main military confrontation unfolded between NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs. Practical activity within the blocs was expressed primarily in military-technical cooperation, as well as in the creation of military bases by the USA and the USSR and the deployment of their troops on the territory of the allied states on the line of confrontation between the blocs. Particularly significant forces of the parties were concentrated in the FRG and the GDR. A large number of American and Soviet atomic weapons were also placed here.

The Cold War triggered an accelerated arms race, which was the most important area of ​​confrontation and potential conflict between the two great powers and their allies.

Cold War periods and international crises. There are two periods in the Cold War. Period 1946-1963 characterized by growing tensions between the two great powers, culminating in the Cuban Missile Crisis in the early 1960s. 20th century This is the period of the creation of military-political blocs and conflicts in the zones of contact between the two socio-economic systems. Significant events were the French war in Vietnam (1946-1954), the suppression of the uprising in Hungary in 1956 by the USSR, the Suez crisis of 1956, the Berlin crisis of 1961 and the Caribbean crisis of 1962.

Berlin and Caribbean crises. The appearance of the Soviet Union at the turn of the 60s. 20th century intercontinental missiles contributed to the intensification of its foreign policy. The confrontation between the USSR and the USA then swept the whole world. The USSR actively supported the national liberation movements of various peoples and other anti-American forces. The United States continued to actively build up its armed forces, expand its network of military bases everywhere, and provide large-scale economic and military assistance to pro-Western forces around the world. The desire of the two blocs to expand spheres of influence twice in the late 50s - early 60s. 20th century brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.

The international crisis began in 1958 around West Berlin, after the West rejected the demand of the Soviet leadership to turn it into a free demilitarized city. A new aggravation of events occurred on August 13, 1961. At the initiative of the leadership of the GDR, a wall of concrete slabs was erected around West Berlin. This measure enabled the government of the GDR to prevent the flight of citizens to the FRG and strengthen the position of their state. The construction of the wall caused outrage in the West. NATO and ATS troops were put on alert.

In the spring of 1962, the leaders of the USSR and Cuba decided to place medium-range nuclear missiles on this island. The USSR hoped to make the United States as vulnerable to a nuclear strike as the Soviet Union was after the deployment of American missiles in Turkey. Receiving confirmation of the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba caused a panic in the United States. The confrontation reached its peak on October 27-28, 1962. The world was on the brink of war, but prudence prevailed: the USSR removed nuclear missiles from the island in response to US President D. Kennedy's promises not to invade Cuba and remove missiles from Turkey.

The Berlin and Caribbean crises showed both sides the danger of brinkmanship. In 1963, an extremely important agreement was signed: the USA, the USSR and Great Britain stopped all nuclear tests, except for underground ones.

The second period of the Cold War began in 1963. It is characterized by the transfer of the center of gravity of international conflicts to areas of the Third World, to the periphery of world politics. At the same time, relations between the US and the USSR were transformed from confrontation to detente, to negotiations and agreements, in particular, on the reduction of nuclear and conventional weapons and on the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The largest conflicts were the US war in Vietnam and the Soviet Union in Afghanistan.

War in Vietnam. After the war (1946-1954), France was forced to recognize the independence of Vietnam and withdraw its troops. The decisive event of the war took place near the town of Dien Bien Phu, where the Vietnamese People's Army in March 1954 forced the main forces of the French Expeditionary Force to capitulate. In the north of Vietnam, a government headed by the communist Ho Chi Minh (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) was established, and in the south - pro-American forces.

The United States provided assistance to South Vietnam, but its regime was in danger of collapse, since a guerrilla movement soon unfolded there, supported by the DRV, China and the USSR. In 1964, the United States began bombing North Vietnam, and in 1965 landed its troops in South Vietnam. Soon these troops were drawn into fierce fighting with the partisans. The United States used the tactics of "scorched earth", carried out massacres of civilians, but the resistance movement expanded. The Americans and their local henchmen suffered more and more losses. American troops were equally unsuccessful in Laos and Cambodia. Protests against the war around the world, including in the United States, along with military failures, forced the United States to enter into peace negotiations. In 1973, American troops were withdrawn from Vietnam. In 1975, the partisans took his capital Saigon. A new state appeared - the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

War in Afghanistan. In April 1978, a revolution took place in Afghanistan. The new leadership of the country concluded an agreement with the Soviet Union and repeatedly asked him for military assistance. The USSR supplied Afghanistan with weapons and military equipment. The civil war between supporters and opponents of the new regime in Afghanistan flared up more and more. In December 1979, the USSR decided to send a limited contingent of troops to Afghanistan. The presence of Soviet troops in Afghanistan was regarded by the Western powers as aggression, although the USSR acted within the framework of an agreement with the leadership of Afghanistan and sent troops at its request. Later, Soviet troops became embroiled in a civil war in Afghanistan. This negatively affected the prestige of the USSR on the world stage.

Middle East conflict. A special place in international relations is occupied by the conflict in the Middle East between the State of Israel and its Arab neighbors.

International Jewish (Zionist) organizations have chosen the territory of Palestine as a center for the Jews of the whole world. In November 1947, the UN decided to create two states on the territory of Palestine: Arab and Jewish. Jerusalem stood out as an independent unit. On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed, and on May 15, the Arab Legion, which was in Jordan, opposed the Israelis. The first Arab-Israeli war began. Troops sent to Palestine

Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq. The war ended in 1949. Israel occupied more than half of the territory intended for the Arab state and the western part of Jerusalem. Jordan received its eastern part and the western bank of the Jordan River, Egypt got the Gaza Strip. The total number of Arab refugees exceeded 900 thousand people.

Since then, the confrontation between the Jewish and Arab peoples in Palestine has remained one of the most acute problems. Armed conflicts arose repeatedly. Zionists invited Jews from all over the world to Israel, to their historical homeland. To accommodate them, the attack on Arab territories continued. The most extremist groups dreamed of creating a "Greater Israel" from the Nile to the Euphrates. The United States and other Western countries became Israel's ally, the USSR supported the Arabs.

In 1956, the nationalization of the Suez Canal announced by Egyptian President G. Nasser hit the interests of England and France, who decided to restore their rights. This action was called the triple Anglo-French-Israeli aggression against Egypt. On October 30, 1956, the Israeli army suddenly crossed the Egyptian border. English and French troops landed in the canal zone. The forces were unequal. The invaders were preparing for an attack on Cairo. Only after the threat of the USSR to use atomic weapons in November 1956, hostilities were stopped, and the troops of the interventionists left Egypt.

On June 5, 1967, Israel launched military operations against the Arab states in response to the activities of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), headed by Yasser Arafat, established in 1964 to fight for the formation of an Arab state in Palestine and the liquidation of Israel. Israeli troops quickly advanced deep into Egypt, Syria, Jordan. All over the world there were protests and demands for an immediate end to the aggression. Hostilities stopped by the evening of 10 June. For 6 days, Israel occupied the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the western bank of the Jordan River and the eastern part of Jerusalem, the Golan Heights in Syrian territory.

In 1973 a new war began. Arab troops acted more successfully, Egypt managed to liberate part of the Sinai Peninsula. In 1970 and 1982 Israeli troops invaded Lebanese territory.

All attempts by the UN and the great powers to achieve an end to the conflict were unsuccessful for a long time. Only in 1979, with the mediation of the United States, was it possible to sign a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. Israel withdrew troops from the Sinai Peninsula, but the Palestinian problem was not solved. Since 1987, the "intifada" - the uprising of the Arabs - began in the occupied territories of Palestine. In 1988, the creation of the State was announced

Palestine. An attempt to resolve the conflict was an agreement between the leaders of Israel and the PLO in the mid-1990s. on the creation of a Palestinian autonomy on part of the occupied territories.

Discharge. Since the mid 50s. 20th century The USSR came up with initiatives for general and complete disarmament. A major step was the treaty banning nuclear tests in three environments. However, the most important steps towards easing the international situation were made in the 1970s. 20th century Both in the USA and in the USSR there was a growing understanding that a further arms race was becoming pointless, that military spending could undermine the economy. The improvement in relations between the USSR and the West was called "detente" or "détente".

An essential milestone on the path of détente was the normalization of relations between the USSR and France and the FRG. An important point of the agreement between the USSR and the FRG was the recognition of the western borders of Poland and the border between the GDR and the FRG. During a visit to the USSR in May 1972, US President R. Nixon signed agreements on the limitation of anti-missile defense systems (ABM) and the Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Arms (SALT-1). In November 1974, the USSR and the USA agreed to prepare a new agreement on the limitation of strategic arms (SALT-2), which was signed in 1979. The agreements provided for the mutual reduction of ballistic missiles.

In August 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation of the Heads of 33 European countries, the USA and Canada was held in Helsinki. Its outcome was the Final Act of the Conference, which fixed the principles of the inviolability of borders in Europe, respect for the independence and sovereignty, territorial integrity of states, the renunciation of the use of force and the threat of its use.

At the end of the 70s. 20th century reduced tension in Asia. The SEATO and CENTO blocs ceased to exist. However, the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, conflicts in other parts of the world in the early 80s. 20th century again led to an intensification of the arms race and increased tension.

International relations in the late XX - early XXI century. Perestroika, which began in the USSR in 1985, very soon began to exert an increasingly significant influence on the development of international relations. Aggravation of tension in relations between East and West at the turn of the 70-80s. 20th century replaced by their normalization. In the mid 80s. 20th century the head of the Soviet Union MS Gorbachev put forward the idea of ​​a new political thinking in international relations. He stated that the main problem is the problem of the survival of mankind, the solution of which should be subordinated to all foreign policy activity. The meetings and negotiations at the highest level between MS Gorbachev and US Presidents R. Reagan and then George W. Bush played a decisive role. They led to the signing of bilateral treaties on the elimination of intermediate and shorter range missiles (1987) and on the limitation and reduction of strategic offensive arms (START-1) in 1991.

The completion of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1989 had a favorable effect on the normalization of international relations.

After the collapse of the USSR, Russia continued the policy of maintaining normal relations with the United States and other leading Western states. A number of important treaties were concluded on further disarmament and cooperation (for example, START-2). The threat of a new war with the use of weapons of mass destruction has sharply decreased. However, by the end of the 90s. 20th century only one superpower remains - the United States, which claims a special role in the world.

Serious changes took place at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s. 20th century in Europe. In 1991, the CMEA and the Department of Internal Affairs were liquidated. In September 1990, representatives of the GDR, the FRG, Great Britain, the USSR, the USA and France signed an agreement to settle the German issue and unify Germany. The USSR withdrew its troops from Germany and agreed to the entry of the united German state into NATO. In 1999, Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic joined NATO. In 2004 Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia joined NATO.

In the early 90s. 20th century changed the political map of Europe. A united Germany emerged. Yugoslavia broke up into six states, independent Czech Republic and Slovakia appeared. The USSR collapsed.

With the threat of global war reduced, local conflicts in Europe and the post-Soviet space intensified. Armed conflicts broke out between Armenia and Azerbaijan, in Transnistria, Tajikistan, Georgia, the North Caucasus, and Yugoslavia. Especially bloody were the events in the former Yugoslavia. Wars, mass ethnic cleansing, and refugee flows accompanied the formation of independent states in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. NATO actively intervened in the affairs of these states on the side of the anti-Serb forces. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, and then in Kosovo (an autonomous province within Serbia), they provided military support to these forces. In 1999, NATO, led by the United States, without UN sanction, committed open aggression against Yugoslavia, starting the bombing of this country. The leadership of Yugoslavia was forced to withdraw its troops from Kosovo, which was occupied by NATO forces. In 2008, with the support of the West, they illegally declared independence there.

Another hotbed of tension continued to exist in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. in the Middle East. The situation in the Palestinian territories occupied by Israel escalated sharply in 2000. The result of the terror of the Palestinians and the actions of the Israeli army is the death of many civilians. The efforts of the world community to resolve the Palestinian problem remain fruitless.

Iraq has become another troubled region in the Middle East. In 1990, he captured the small but oil-rich state of Kuwait. In response, the United States, in coalition with a number of states, sent troops to the Persian Gulf zone. In 1991, Iraqi troops were expelled from Kuwait. In 2003, the United States and Great Britain, under the pretext of fighting terrorism without a UN decision, invaded Iraq and overthrew its government. However, a struggle against the invaders unfolded in the country.

Relations between India and Pakistan remain complicated. In Africa, local wars periodically flare up between some countries, civil wars are not uncommon, accompanied by mass extermination of the population.

Since 2001, the United States has proclaimed the fight against international terrorism as its main goal. In addition to Iraq, American troops invaded Afghanistan, overthrowing the Taliban regime there with the help of local forces. The US is also threatening to use military force against North Korea, Iran, Syria and other countries. All this became possible due to the formation of a monopolar world dominated by the United States. The role and authority of the UN has diminished. However, it is quite obvious that even such a powerful state will not be able to solve global world problems. In addition, other constantly growing centers of power - the European Union, China, India - are dissatisfied with this situation. They, like Russia, advocate the creation of a multipolar world.

Military-political blocs are organizations that are treated rather ambiguously in society. Some people believe that their main task is to maintain peace and provide military protection to the members of the alliance, while others believe that such organizations are the main source of aggression in the world. Who is right here and is there a definite answer to this question? Let's find out what the military-political blocs are, and at the same time trace the history of their creation and development.

Definition

Let us establish what is meant by the definition of this organization. A military-political bloc is an alliance of several states created for collective defense or for conducting military operations against a common enemy. The creation of a block may also pursue the goal of cooperation on political and economic issues between its members. The degree of this cooperation and mutual integration for each such union is individual. Agreements may provide for joint action only in the event of a specific military threat, or else they may involve close cooperation in all areas, even in peacetime.

In some organizations, a collective decision is strictly binding, while in others it is advisory in nature, that is, each member has the right to refuse to comply with the decision without leaving the block. There are unions in which each member country is obliged to start military operations in the event of an attack on one of the members of the bloc. But far from all such organizations, this principle is mandatory. For example, if in NATO an attack on one of the members of the alliance means a declaration of war on the entire bloc as a whole, then in SEATO there was no such rule in the charter.

Military-political blocs can be created to perform a specific task and, after achieving the goal, be dissolved or act on an indefinite basis.

The history of the emergence of blocks

The forerunners of modern military blocs have been known since the days of the Ancient World. The very first military alliance of several states can be called a coalition of Greek policies that existed for 10 years in the legendary campaign against Troy in the 12th century. BC. But these were, rather, legendary times, and not historical ones, since the written annals of those events have not been preserved.

The first coalition in reliable history appears in 691 BC. e. It was an alliance of Media, Babylonia and Elam against Assyria. In addition, history knows such unions of Greek policies as the Peloponnesian, Delian, Boeotian, Corinthian, Chalkid. A little later, the Hellenic, Achaean and Aetolian unions were formed. At the same time, the Latin Union was formed in Central Italy, which later grew into the Ancient Roman state.

All these alliances were more like confederations than military blocs in their modern sense.

In the Middle Ages, alliances of states were most often limited to military support in case of war and almost did not touch on other areas of relations. Often it was an association against a specific enemy. Thus, the cementing basis of the Franco-Scottish (or Old) alliance, which was concluded in 1295, was the hostile attitude of both countries with England. It was during this period that England began its expansion into Scotland, and a few decades later the Hundred Years War with France began. It is noteworthy that the union between Scotland and France lasted as much as 265 years until 1560.

In 1386, an Anglo-Portuguese alliance arose, formalized by the Treaty of Windsor. He, in turn, was directed against the strengthening of Spain. However, formally it exists to this day, thus being the oldest military-political union, but still not a bloc in the modern sense.

At the dawn of the New Age, a number of military alliances of European states arose, striving to unite in coalitions against a common enemy. Such unions include the Holy and Catholic Leagues under the patronage of the Pope, the Protestant Union, which united Lutheran and Calvinist states, and other associations.

In 1668, the Triple Alliance of England, Sweden and Holland arose, directed against France, which had grown stronger under Louis XIV.

In 1756, two opposing alliances were formed at once - Anglo-Prussian and Versailles. The last associations included Russia, France and Austria. It was they who entered into confrontation in the Seven Years' War. In the end, the Russian Empire, as a result of the accession to the throne of Peter III, went over to the side of the Anglo-Prussian alliance.

From 1790 to 1815, a number of coalitions were formed to fight revolutionary and Napoleonic France. Moreover, often by force of arms and with the help of diplomacy, France forced some members of these coalitions to leave them, or even go over to the French side. But, in the end, the forces of the Sixth Coalition managed to defeat Napoleon.

In 1815, between Prussia, Russia and Austria, it was formed with the aim of consolidating the world order established after the Napoleonic Wars and preventing revolutions in Europe. However, in 1832, after another, this union broke up.

In 1853, a coalition was formed between France, England, the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Russian Empire. This alliance won the Crimean War.

Unions of a new type

Now it is time to describe the formation of military-political blocs closer to the modern type. The emergence of such organizations began in the second half of the 19th century and took shape in specific structures towards the end of the century. It was the formation of these associations that became the decisive factor that led to the outbreak of World War I.

The Triple Alliance (1882-1915) and the Franco-Russian Alliance (1891-1893) became the basis for the opposing blocs, later transformed into the Quadruple Alliance and the Entente.

Formation of the Quadruple Alliance

As mentioned above, the Triple Alliance, concluded in 1882 between the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy and Germany, served as the basis for the creation of the Quadruple Alliance. The countries of the Triple Alliance sought to assert their dominance in continental Europe, for which they united against France and the Russian Empire.

The conclusion of the Triple Alliance was preceded by the bilateral Austro-German treaty of 1879. It was Prussia, created on the basis of the kingdom, that took the initiative to create a military-political bloc directed against Russia and France. Germany was also the strongest economic and political state of the bloc.

It should be noted that before Austria-Hungary adhered to allied relations with the Russian Empire, and it was at enmity with Prussia because of the rivalry for the right of supremacy in the German world. But after the victory of Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1970, the situation changed radically. Prussia proved its dominance on the fragments of the former Holy Roman Empire, and Austria-Hungary was forced to ally with it by signing an agreement on mutual support in 1879 in Vienna, the validity of which was set at 5 years.

The agreement provided that in the event of an attack by the Russian Empire on one of the signatories, the second should come to his aid. If Germany or Austria-Hungary is attacked not by Russia, but by another country, then the second person involved in the treaty must at least remain neutral, but if the Russian emperor takes the side of the aggressor, then, again, the signatories must unite for mutual struggle. This bloc of two powers was called the Dual Alliance.

Italy joined Austria-Hungary and Germany in 1882. Thus the Triple Alliance was born. However, the signing of the treaty between these three countries was initially kept secret. As before, the term of the treaty was limited to five years. In 1887 and in 1891 he signed again, and in 1902 and 1912. automatically extended.

It should be noted that the union of the three countries was not very strong. So, for economic reasons, in 1902, an agreement was signed between Italy and France, which stated that in the event of a war between the French and the Germans, the Italians would remain neutral. Therefore, after the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy did not take the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1915, having signed an agreement in London with the countries of the Entente, Italy refused to participate in the Triple Alliance, and entered the war on the side of its opponents.

The tripartite alliance has come to an end. Germany and Austria-Hungary managed to create a new coalition. Instead of Italy, already during the World War, two states joined the union at once - the Ottoman Empire (since 1914) and Bulgaria (since 1915). Thus the Quadruple Alliance was born. The countries that were part of the association are usually called the Central Powers.

The Quadruple Alliance ceased to exist due to defeat in World War I. As a result, Austro-Hungarian and Germany and Bulgaria suffered significant territorial losses.

Entente

The military-political blocs of the First World War were not limited to the Quadruple Alliance. The second formidable force that entered the confrontation was the Entente.

The beginning of the formation of the Entente was laid by the Franco-Russian alliance, concluded in 1891. It was a kind of response to the formation of the Triple Alliance. Russia and France agreed that in the event of an attack by members of a hostile coalition on one of the countries, the second should provide military assistance. These agreements were valid as long as the Triple Alliance exists.

In 1904 an agreement was signed between Britain and France. It put an end to centuries of rivalry between these powers. Great Britain and France agreed on the colonial division of the world and became de facto allies. This agreement was given the name Entente cordiale, which is translated from French as "cordial consent". Hence the name of the bloc - the Entente.

In 1907, the Anglo-Russian contradictions were overcome. An agreement on the delimitation of influence was signed between the representatives of the states. Thus completed the formation of the Entente.

The military-political blocs in Europe - the Entente and the Quadruple Alliance - played a decisive role in unleashing World War I. After the attack of the German Empire on Russia and France, Great Britain, true to its allied duty, declared war on Germany. However, not all members of the Entente had the strength and resources to bring the war to a victorious end. So, in 1917, the Bolshevik revolution took place in Russia, after which the country made peace with Germany and actually withdrew from the Entente. However, this did not prevent other members of the coalition, with the help of the United States and other allies, to win the world war.

After the end of the war, the Entente countries (Great Britain and France) undertook an intervention in Russia in order to overthrow the Bolshevik regime. However, this time it was not possible to achieve great success.

Military blocs during World War II

The military alliance of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Imperial Japan and a number of other countries served as the main cause of the Second World War. The beginning of the creation of the bloc was the agreement signed in 1936 between Germany and Japan on joint actions against the spread of communism. It was called the Anti-Comintern Pact. Later, Italy and a number of other states, which are commonly called the Axis countries, joined this treaty. It was the powers of this block that showed aggression, starting the Second World War.

The coalition opposing the Axis countries was already formed only during World War II. It was formed from the USSR, Great Britain and the USA and took the name of the Anti-Hitler Coalition. The beginning of the formation was laid in 1941, after the entry into the war of the USSR and the USA. The key moment in the creation of a bloc directed against the fascist aggressors was the Tehran Conference of the Heads of Powers in 1943. Only after the creation of a strong coalition did the allies manage to turn the tide of the war.

NATO bloc

The creation of military-political blocs became an element of confrontation between the countries of the West and the USSR in the so-called Cold War. From them came the danger of unleashing a new world war, but at the same time they served as a deterrent.

The most famous was the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO). It was created in 1949 and united Europe, the USA and Canada. Its purpose is to ensure the collective security of the above countries. However, it is no secret to anyone that initially the North Atlantic Alliance was conceived with the aim of containing the USSR. But even after the collapse of the Union, the bloc did not cease to exist, but, on the contrary, was replenished with a number of countries from Eastern Europe.

Even before the formation of NATO in 1948, the Western European Union was formed. It was a kind of attempt to organize their own pan-European armed forces, but after the formation of NATO, the relevance of this issue has disappeared.

Establishment of ATS

In response to the formation of NATO in 1955, the countries of the socialist camp, on the initiative of the USSR, created their own military-political bloc, which became known as the Department of Internal Affairs. His goal was to oppose the North Atlantic Alliance. The bloc, in addition to the USSR, included 7 more states: Bulgaria, Albania, Hungary, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia.

The Department of Internal Affairs was liquidated in 1991, after the collapse of the socialist camp.

Small military units

The military-political blocs of the 20th century existed not only on a global, but also on a regional scale. Between the world wars, a number of local alliances were created to solve regional problems and ensure the Versailles world order. These included the Entente: Small, Mediterranean, Balkan, Middle Eastern, Baltic.

During the Cold War, a number of regional blocs were created, the purpose of which was to prevent the spread of communist regimes. These included SEATO (Southeast Asia), CENTO (Middle East), ANZUK (Asia-Pacific).

Formation of the CSTO

In 1992, a number of formed an alliance - the CSTO. This is a kind of military-political bloc of Russia, since it plays a dominant role in it.

The task of the CSTO is to ensure the security of its members and stability in the post-Soviet space. In addition to the Russian Federation, the bloc includes Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Armenia, and Tajikistan. Previously, it also included Uzbekistan, Georgia and Azerbaijan.

He who has allies is no longer completely independent.

Harry Truman

Military alliances and blocs have been and are being created for the purpose of joint action to solve common political, economic and military tasks. They are called upon to ensure the protection of their members from military threats and maintain political stability in their areas of responsibility.

The history of the creation of military alliances and blocs

Military alliances and blocs began to emerge in the ancient world.

So, in the middle of the VI century. BC. on the basis of separate agreements between Sparta and other policies, the Peloponnesian Union was formalized - the union of the ancient Greek policies of the Peloponnese. Sparta, creating the Peloponnesian Union, sought leadership in Greece and counted on the help of the allies in suppressing the uprisings of the helots. Other policies of the Peloponnese hoped for the military support of Sparta in case of external danger. In case of war, each member of the Union fielded 2/3 of its military force, but the supreme command belonged to the Spartans.

In the V-II centuries. BC e. there was a Phocis Union of tribal associations of Ancient Greece, the purpose of which was the collective defense of related policies.

During the Greco-Persian wars in the 5th century BC. The Delian League was created (the first Athenian maritime union), a union of ancient Greek coastal cities and islands of the Aegean Sea under the hegemony of Athens. Meetings of members of the union were held on about. Delos, in the sanctuary of Apollo. This union turned into the Athenian state (arche), which completely took control of the trade routes and markets in the northeast direction (in Macedonia and Thrace, as well as along the Black Sea coast). The alliance was dissolved after the defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War.

In 481 BC A military-defensive alliance of 31 Greek states led by Sparta was organized, which played a significant role in the struggle of the Greeks with the Persians.

In 338 BC Philip 11 of Macedon created the Corinthian Union, a union of Greek city-states, to assist his troops in the war against Persia.

In 224 BC. The Hellenic Union was formed - a political organization in Ancient Greece, which included Macedonia, Thessaly, the Achaean Union, Epirus, Acarnania, Boeotia, Phokis, Locris. The most important condition was the prohibition of the allies to pursue an independent foreign policy. The allies were allowed individual foreign policy actions as long as they did not interfere with the interests of the union as a whole. The foreign policy of the union was worked out on the basis of the general decision of the Sanhedrin in Corinth. The exclusive competence of the Sanhedrin included the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace.

In the Middle Ages, most often military alliances of states arose on the basis of dynastic ties, such as the Kalmar Union (1397-1523) - a personal union of the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, under the supreme authority of the Danish kings.

Among the numerous military alliances and blocs created in modern times, the following can be distinguished:

• ? Catholic League (1609) - the unification of the Catholic principalities of Germany on the eve of the Thirty Years' War;
• ? "Holy League" - an anti-Turkish coalition formed during the war of Austria and Poland against Turkey that began in 1683;
• ? Triple Alliance (1668) - the union of England, Sweden and the Republic of the United Provinces in order to counter the expansion of Louis XIV;
• ? Coalitions formed during 1792-1814 European states in order to protect against France;
• ? Holy Alliance - an alliance of Russia, Prussia and Austria created to maintain the international order established at the Congress of Vienna (1815);
• ? "Union of Three Emperors" - a set of agreements between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary, concluded in 1873, 1881 and 1884;
• ? The Triple Alliance is a military-political bloc of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, formed in 1879-1882, which marked the beginning of the division of Europe into hostile camps and played an important role in preparing and unleashing the First World War;
• ? The Entente is a military-political bloc of Russia, England and France, which took shape in 1904-1907. as a counterweight to the "Triple Alliance" and completed the delimitation of the great powers on the eve of the First World War.

In modern times, in 1936, the Anti-Comintern Pact was created - an international treaty concluded between Germany and Japan in order to prevent the further spread of communist ideology in the world. In 1937-1941. this pact was successively joined by Italy, Hungary, Manchukuo, Spain, Finland, Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, Denmark, and Slovakia. This pact played an important role in the preparation and unleashing of the Second World War.

During the Second World War, the Anti-Hitler Coalition was created - an association of states and peoples fighting against the countries of the Nazi bloc (Germany, Italy, Japan) and their satellites and allies.

In 1948-2011 For cooperation in the field of defense and security in Europe, the Western European Union functioned, which included 28 countries with four different statuses: member countries, associate members, observers and associate partners.

In 1949, the United States created the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Then 12 countries became NATO member states - the USA, Canada, Iceland, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Italy and Portugal. One of the declared goals of creating NATO was "protecting Europe from Soviet influence", as well as deterring and repelling aggression against any NATO member state.

In response to the creation of the NATO bloc in 1955, the USSR created a military alliance of European socialist states (the Warsaw Pact Organization), which lasted until 1991.

In 1955-1977. There was a military-political bloc of countries in the Asia-Pacific region (SEATO), which at various times included Australia, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the USA, Thailand, the Philippines, and France.

In 1955, at the initiative of the United States, Great Britain and Turkey, a military-political group in the Near and Middle East (CENTO) was created, which existed until 1979.

In 1971-1975, the ANZUK military-political union operated, named after the initial letters of the names of the three main participating countries: Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Currently, the main active military alliances and blocs are:

• ? The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which added Greece and Turkey (1952), Germany (1955), Spain (1982), Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic (1999), Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, to the 12 countries that created the treaty, Slovenia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia (2004), Albania and Croatia (2009). The total number of NATO member countries has increased to 28. At present, a number of countries are expressing their desire to join NATO;
• ? ANZUS is a military alliance of three countries - Australia, New Zealand, USA.
• ? The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) is a military-political union created by several states of Eurasia (Russia, Kazakhstan, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Belarus) on the basis of the Collective Security Treaty.
• ? The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a regional international organization founded in 2001 by the leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.

Other organizations that provide military security on a regional scale include the Organization of American States (OAS), the Organization of Central American States (OCAS), the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the Association of South Asian Nations East Asia (ASEAN), Commonwealth of Independent States - CIS (territory of the former USSR). Important elements in ensuring regional military security are bilateral treaties and agreements on mutual assistance and alliance in the military field (for example, between the US and Japan, the US and South Korea, Russia and Belarus).

Gordienko Dmitry Vladimirovich - Doctor of Military Sciences, Associate Professor, full member of the Academy of Military Sciences of the Russian Federation and the Academy of Security, Defense and Law Enforcement

July 12, 2008 President D.A. Medvedev approved the draft of a new Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation. Thus, almost two years of work on a document was completed, which is designed to formulate the ideology of modern Russia's foreign policy, corresponding to the qualitatively new state of Russian society and adequate to the challenges of the noticeably changed international situation.

An important place in the new Foreign Policy Concept is given to the problems of forming a new security system in Eurasia, Russia's participation in the work of various international organizations, and cooperation with the countries of this continent.

At the same time, the activities of military-political blocs and institutions for ensuring Eurasian security have a significant impact on the formation of such a system and determine Russia's political activity throughout the continent.

I. Military-political blocs and institutions for ensuring Eurasian security

International regional organizations occupy a leading place in ensuring security in Eurasia. At the same time, military-political blocs and institutions dominate the military-political sphere. They are, by definition, designed to protect their members from military threats and maintain political stability in their areas of responsibility.

Nevertheless, in Eurasia, despite the abundance of various military-political alliances and organizations, tension still persists, sometimes taking the form of open confrontation and even armed conflict. This makes it necessary to consider the activities of various military-political blocs and institutions for ensuring Eurasian security.

I.1. European military-political blocs and institutions for ensuring European security

The most important military-political blocs and institutions for ensuring European security are: NATO1 and organizations adjacent to it (NATO Parliamentary Assembly2, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC)3, the Atlantic Treaty Association, etc.), the Western European Union, the European Union, the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Council of Europe (CoE) and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, as well as various sub-regional organizations (Union State of Russia and Belarus, Euro-Asian Economic Cooperation (EurAsEC)4, Council of the Baltic Sea States5, Visegrad Group6, Vilnius group7, Cooperation of the Central European States (SENKOOP)8, Organization for Democracy and Economic Development (ODER-GUAM)9, Ohrid-Adriatic Group10, Quadrilaterale).

Describing the efforts of the North Atlantic Alliance to ensure European security, it should be noted that its military-political leadership is focusing its main efforts on implementing plans for transforming the bloc in the political sphere, continuing the process of expanding the organization, involving other states and international structures in its activities, and increasing the coalition military potential , as well as on the development of relations with Russia in a direction favorable to the West.

In order to bring the doctrinal foundations of the alliance's functioning in line with changes in the military-political situation in the world, the bloc's governing bodies began to revise the provisions of the NATO strategic concept (1999). The intermediate results of this work are reflected in the “Comprehensive Political Directive” (2006), which, based on an assessment of new threats to the security of Western countries, clarifies the goals and objectives of the organization, identifies key areas for the development of the bloc and prospects for the construction of the Joint Armed Forces for the next 10–15 years.

As threats to the security of the alliance are called: international terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and their means of delivery, political and economic crises in areas of vital interests of the bloc, the spread of modern technologies in the production of weapons and military equipment. At the same time, threats are considered in the context of their influence on the possibility of unimpeded access of NATO member countries to raw materials, primarily to sources of oil and gas.

To counter these threats, along with the use of political, diplomatic and economic measures, the possibility of pre-emptively using NATO's military potential, including nuclear weapons, both in the alliance's area of ​​responsibility and beyond it, was confirmed. At the same time, the text of the directive contains wording that allows, if necessary, to resort to the use of military force without the sanction of the UN Security Council.

In modern conditions, according to the leadership of the bloc, in the new version of the strategic concept, the scope of application of Article 5 of the Washington Treaty (1949) should be significantly expanded by using the coalition military potential not only to repel "military aggression" against NATO, but also in the interests of countering terrorist and other asymmetric threats, providing members of the organization with free access to energy resources.

One of the most important activities of the alliance to strengthen its influence and expand its area of ​​responsibility is the continuation of the "open door" policy. The plan for the implementation of this course provides for the involvement in the North Atlantic Alliance of states of strategic interest to the West. When considering the issue of admitting new members to this organization, it is not so much the criteria for the real readiness of countries that are candidates for joining the bloc that are taken into account, but their loyalty to US policy, demonstrating adherence to "Western values", the degree of participation in the current operations of the bloc, as well as their geostrategic position in terms of advancing the interests of the West.

Thus, at the Bucharest summit of the North Atlantic Alliance in April 2008, the leaders of the member states of the bloc announced an official invitation to Albania and Croatia to join NATO. At the same time, negotiations on the accession of these countries to the alliance are planned to be completed already in 2008. With regard to Macedonia, its compliance with the requirements for candidates for membership in the bloc was noted. However, due to the unresolved conflicts with Greece over the official name of the state, the foreign ministers were instructed, without waiting for the next NATO summit, to reconsider the issue of sending Skopje an invitation to join this organization, subject to the settlement of Greek-Macedonian differences.

As for relations with Georgia and Ukraine, the military-political leadership of the bloc assured that "they will be members of NATO." At the same time, support was expressed for the Euro-Atlantic orientation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro.

In accordance with NATO's guidelines for maintaining and developing the potential of existing partnership programs, its leadership is taking measures to improve the mechanisms for implementing the Partnership for Peace (PfP) program, to deepen partnerships with the Mediterranean Dialogue countries (Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco , Tunisia), the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf11, the African Union, as well as with the European Union and the OSCE.

In 2006, Bucharest hosted a presentation of a new alliance project - the Euro-Atlantic Strategy for the Black Sea Region, which defines the most important areas of NATO activity in the Black Sea region.

The leadership of the North Atlantic Alliance pays great attention to the creation of potential in the field of Air and Missile Defense (ABM). Thus, in accordance with the decisions of the Riga summit of the alliance (November 2006), in February 2008, an experimental complex was opened in the Netherlands, on the basis of which experimental research is being carried out in the interests of interfacing air defense and missile defense systems to ensure the protection of the troops of the participating countries in their areas of application. from short and medium range missiles. At the Alliance's Bucharest summit, the heads of state and government expressed support for US plans to deploy elements of the US missile defense system in Eastern Europe.

At the same time, the leadership of the North Atlantic Alliance was instructed to develop proposals for the next summit meeting (2009) on the architecture and composition of the future NATO missile defense system, after discussion of which it is supposed to make a final decision on the advisability of creating a missile defense system for the bloc.

In accordance with NATO's policy of expanding its zones of influence beyond the Euro-Atlantic space, the bloc's participation in settling crises in various regions of the world is becoming more active. The military formations of the alliance countries are currently involved in five different operations and missions (Afghanistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraq, Kosovo, the Mediterranean Sea), in which more than 50,000 military personnel participate.

The leadership of the North Atlantic Alliance attaches no less importance to building up NATO's presence in the Black Sea, the Transcaucasus and Central Asia and gradually ousting Russia from these regions.

For this purpose, the political, financial and military-technical capabilities of the bloc are used, and bilateral contacts of the member countries of the organization with the leadership of the former Soviet republics are being intensified. Within the framework of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) and the PfP program, new initiatives are being implemented to develop cooperation with them.

The NATO missions deployed in Transcaucasia and Central Asia direct their main efforts to support internal "democratic" transformations and military reforms in the countries of the regions, to expand military-technical cooperation with the West.

The priority direction of the alliance's policy is also the involvement of Georgia, Azerbaijan and other countries of the Transcaucasus and Central Asia into its sphere of activity.

The Western European Union (WEU)12 is a military-political organization closely linked to NATO and the European Union. In accordance with the Maastricht Treaty (1991) on the establishment of the EU, the coordination of the activities of the members of the European Union in the military sphere was entrusted to the WEU, which began to act as a power component of the European Union.

After the change in the military-political situation in the world in the early 1990s, the countries of Western Europe took a course towards expanding their independence within NATO. To this end, they made attempts to increase the role of the WEU in the European security system. This was expressed in the signing by the members of the Union of the Petersberg Declaration (1992), which provides for the conduct of autonomous (without the participation of the United States and Canada) peacekeeping and humanitarian operations, the creation of their own military formations: the Joint Army Corps (“Eurocorps”), the operational formation of ground forces (“Eurofor”) , operational connection of the Navy ("Evromorfor"), data processing center for space intelligence. Under the auspices of this organization, several operations were carried out in the Balkans and in the Persian Gulf zone.

In the course of the large-scale reform of the entire system of ensuring the European security system, which began after the conclusion of the Maastricht Treaty, a decision was made on the gradual integration of the WEU with the European Union. At the European Council held in June 1999 in Cologne, it was announced that the functions of the WEU in the field of peacekeeping activities would be transferred to the European Union.

As the military-political functions of the WEU are transferred to the European Union, the significance of this organization continues to decline, and the functioning of its institutions has assumed a formal character.

In modern conditions, the military-political course of the European Union (EU)13 is determined by the desire of its leadership to turn the organization into a world center of power, comparable in its potential to the capabilities of the United States. Based on this, the priority areas of the EU's activity are to strengthen the political and economic foundations of the organization and to form its own potential for conflict prevention and resolution.

At present, the leadership of the European Union is cautiously approaching the assessment of the prospects for a further increase in the composition of the organization. After the adoption in 2004-2007. twelve new countries, the European Union has taken a course to slow down the pace of its expansion, which is due both to internal problems and to the achievement of the geographical borders of Europe, advancing beyond which is not included in the tasks of the union. The countries with high chances to join the European Union are Croatia and Turkey. Croatia is seen as the most likely candidate for EU integration: the admission of this state to the union is possible in the coming years, subject to the intensification of Zagreb's cooperation with the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. In the course of consultations with the Turkish side, the EU leadership developed recommendations that Ankara will have to implement in the next 10-15 years. At the same time, options are being discussed for Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia, and Montenegro to join the EU without determining specific terms for the implementation of their European integration plans. In addition, the possibility of concluding a stabilization and association agreement with Kosovo after determining its independent status is being considered.

Attempts by the European Union to extend its influence to Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia are caused by the desire of this organization to gain access to the hydrocarbon resources of the Caspian region, bypassing Russia. In this regard, the EU leadership attaches particular importance to the decisions of the “energy summit” held in Vilnius (October 2007), which resulted in the signing by Azerbaijan, Georgia, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine of an agreement on the creation of the Baltic-Black Sea-Caspian transport corridor, considered in as an alternative to the Russian route of oil and gas supplies to Europe. At the same time, the EU encourages the actions of the Georgian leadership and other anti-Russian forces that contribute to the weakening of the positions of the Russian Federation in the Transcaucasus.

The development of relations with the Central Asian states of the CIS is carried out in accordance with the concept “EU and Central Asia: a strategy for a new partnership” adopted in June 2007, which determines the most promising directions for the development of EU relations with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. As the main areas of cooperation between the EU and the countries of the region, the concept defines: counteracting security threats; economic development, primarily in the field of energy and transport; democratization, internal security and justice; environmental protection; culture and education.

With regard to the Russian Federation, the European Union is pursuing a policy that aims, on the one hand, to increase Russia's interest in establishing a closer dialogue with the West, and on the other, to gradually deprive it of levers of influence on the CIS countries. In order to solve these problems and concretely fill the “foreign policy and security space” common with Russia, the European Union relies on the strategy towards the Russian Federation for 2007-2013 (approved at the meeting of the EU Council in May 2006).

At present, the European Union, in order to clearly define the doctrinal foundations of its foreign policy activities, has begun to develop a new version of the "European Security Strategy", adopted in 2003.

At the same time, the leadership of the organization actively uses the main provisions of the accepted and developed concepts for ensuring security in various fields: military, combating international terrorism, economic (including energy), socio-political, informational, environmental.

In particular, as part of the implementation of the New Neighbors concept, the focus is on establishing “good neighborly” relations with the countries of the post-Soviet space, which, according to the EU leadership, should become a barrier to external threats.

For the uninterrupted supply of Europe with all types of energy, it is planned to focus on the development of partnerships with countries that produce and transport hydrocarbon raw materials, diversify energy sources, introduce energy-saving technologies, and expand the use of alternative energy sources.

Within the framework of this course, in particular, a program of assistance to the Central Asian countries is being implemented, according to which 719 million euros will be allocated for the implementation of joint projects in 2007-2013. At the same time, the main attention is drawn to the prospects for the implementation of projects for the supply of Turkmen and Kazakh gas to Europe through the Trans-Caspian (under the Caspian Sea) gas pipeline and the accession of Turkmenistan to the Nabucco gas pipeline system.

The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)14 is a military-political organization whose goal is to ensure security in the post-Soviet space. The efforts of the CSTO are aimed primarily at ensuring security in the three regions of collective security: European, Caucasian and Central Asian.

The Union of Independent States (CIS)15 brings together most of the states of the former Soviet Union. At the same time, the main goal of the CIS activities in the field of security is the cooperation of the former republics of the USSR in various fields: political, military, economic, cultural, etc.

Cooperation in the military sphere takes place within the framework of the CIS Joint Air Defense System (CIS Air Defense OS)16, as well as the Collective Security Treaty Organization.

The Council of Europe (CE)17, being an intergovernmental consultative political organization designed to promote integration processes in the field of human rights based on the principles of pluralistic democracy and the rule of law, often becomes a forum for anti-Russian and anti-Belarusian speeches regarding restrictions on these rights, which provokes discrimination against individual states Europe and maintaining the dividing lines on the continent.

In the context of reforming the European security system, Western countries, led by the United States, are persistently pursuing a policy of turning the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)18 into an instrument for achieving their foreign policy goals, which leads to a further decrease in its role and authority as a political forum. dialogue and decision-making on the whole range of European policy issues.

Recently, the OSCE has been striving to intensify its participation in resolving "frozen" conflicts on the territory of the CIS. In order to “internationalize” the formats for resolving such conflicts, where the leading role belongs to Russia, scenarios are persistently imposed on the OSCE for involving the European Union and NATO in conducting joint “peace guarantee” operations under the auspices of this organization in Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Nagorno-Karabakh and Transnistria.

Thus, NATO and the European Union seek to play a leading role in resolving crisis situations affecting the interests of the West, including with the use of military force, both under the auspices of international organizations (UN, CE, OSCE) and independently. The leadership of the North Atlantic Alliance is stepping up the process of transforming the bloc into a global military-political structure by expanding the composition of the alliance and increasing its capabilities for the forceful settlement of crises in the zones of its vital interests in Eurasia. The approaches taken by the leadership of the alliance to the revision of the Strategic Concept of NATO testify to the desire to continue the course aimed at building up the capabilities of this organization to respond to modern threats to Eurasian security.

The results of the analysis of the EU security policy also testify to the growing military-political ambitions of this organization. The European Security Strategy is able to create the necessary prerequisites for their implementation and confirms the intentions of the EU military-political leadership to use the changes in the geopolitical situation in the world to secure the status of one of the leading institutions of the emerging system of European and Eurasian security for the European Union.

The activities of NATO, the European Union, the Council of Europe and the OSCE are aimed at preventing the consolidation of the former republics of the Soviet Union around Russia within the framework of the Union of Independent States and its further weakening, as well as removing Russia, the CSTO and the CIS from participating in the process of resolving crises in the post-Soviet space.

I.2. Military-political blocs and security institutions in Central Asia, the Middle East and the Asia-Pacific region

The most important military-political blocs and security institutions in Central Asia, the Middle East and the Asia-Pacific region are: NATO, the CSTO, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the League of Arab States, the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Persian Gulf, the Organization of the Islamic Conference, the Association of States of the South -East Asia (ASEAN), the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), as well as various collective security agencies and bilateral military-political alliances with the participation of the United States, China, Iran, Japan, the Republic of Korea and India.

The main areas of cooperation between the countries participating in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)19 are politics, security and economics. The Declaration on the Establishment of the SCO, in particular, states that the goals of the organization are "strengthening mutual trust, friendship and good neighborliness between the participating states, ensuring and maintaining peace, security and stability in the region, building a new, democratic, just and rational political and economic international order. ".

The countries that are members of the organization or participate in its work, first of all, set themselves the task of increasing their level of protection from manifestations of all types of extremism. However, it is becoming more and more obvious that ensuring regional security and stability is possible only if counter-terrorism activities are combined with work to eradicate the socio-economic roots of extremism and terrorism. Related to this is the "economic focus" of this organization.

The basis for the unification of states in the League of Arab States (LAS)20 is their national-ethnic and confessional community. From these positions, the activity of this organization to ensure security in the Middle East, which concerns primarily political and economic aspects, is carried out.

The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC)21 is also called upon to ensure the security of the member states of the organization on the Arabian Peninsula. Initially emerging as a regional political and economic organization, the GCC is increasingly shifting the priorities of its activities to the sphere of military-political integration of the organization's members. At the same time, the Council pays considerable attention to cooperation with NATO.

The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)22 aims to strengthen Islamic solidarity, ensure the development of versatile ties between Islamic states, as well as the maintenance of peace and international security.

The countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)23 tend to pursue a foreign policy of regional security that does not tie them too closely to one or another center of power in Asia. Given this factor, most of these countries maintain beneficial political and economic ties with the United States, Japan, China and Russia.

The ASEAN member states recognize that the most effective way to ensure stability and security in the Asia-Pacific region, which does not contradict the political and economic interests of various countries, is the creation of international multilateral dialogue mechanisms. In this regard, ASEAN members are taking certain steps to form the foundations of such collective security bodies.

At present, the leading place among them belongs to the ASEAN Regional Forum on Security (ARF)24, which unites 25 states of the region. However, the activities of the ARF are hampered by significant differences in the foreign policy interests of Asian and non-Asian member countries. In particular, the leadership of the majority of ASEAN members considers it necessary to preserve the principle of "non-interference in the internal affairs" of sovereign states. In this regard, it does not agree to consider the ARF as a structure that has the right to make decisions that are binding on all its members. In addition, ASEAN is wary of the idea of ​​forming an international security system with the leading role of the United States, Japan or China.

The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC) 25, which unites 21 countries of Asia, America and the Pacific Ocean, also plays a significant role in establishing multilateral cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region. APEC is an important mechanism for strengthening regional cooperation in the trade, economic and investment fields and thus has a stabilizing effect on the overall situation in the region. However, the efforts made by some influential powers (primarily the United States) to give APEC the authority to develop decisions in the field of regional security are opposed by other countries (in particular, China, as well as some ASEAN members).

Of great importance for ensuring regional security in the Asia-Pacific region is multilateral cooperation in the formats of "ASEAN plus one" (ASEAN plus Russia), "ASEAN plus three" (ASEAN plus Japan, China and the Republic of Korea), as well as the East Asian Community ( ASEAN+3, India, Australia, New Zealand).

Its effectiveness is due to the high degree of mutual understanding between neighboring Asian states and the historical ties between them.

A significant place in ensuring regional security in South Asia also belongs to the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)26.

Thus, for most of the leading military-political alliances, collective bodies and security institutions in Central Asia, the Middle East and the Asia-Pacific region (Shanghai Cooperation Organization, League of Arab States, Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Persian Gulf, Organization of the Islamic Conference, ASEAN, APEC Forum, SAARC) is characterized by an increase in the importance of the economic component.

This corresponds to the general trend in the formation of economic communities of states in these regions of the world, the security of which will be ensured not only by military means, but also by the interest of each country in the well-being of its economic partners and a stable economic situation.

I.3. Russia's participation in military-political blocs and institutions for ensuring Eurasian security

Russia's participation in military-political blocs and international regional political organizations occupies a significant place in ensuring Eurasian security.

Russia's cooperation with NATO takes place within the framework of several organizations and programs. At the same time, the Russia-NATO Council (NRC)27 is the main instrument here. The Rome Declaration (2002) identifies nine priorities for such cooperation between the parties.

The first is the fight against terrorism. The basis for cooperation in this area is the CPH Action Plan on Terrorism.

The second is crisis management. Within this priority, the imperative of interoperability plays a key role. In June 2005, at a meeting of defense ministers of the countries of the NRC, the "Military-Political Guidelines for Strengthening Interoperability between the Forces of Russia and the NATO States" were adopted. Their goal is to ensure the ability for effective joint action at the strategic, operational and tactical levels.

The third is the fight against the proliferation of WMD.

The fourth is arms control and confidence-building measures.

Fifth - missile defense on TVD. Several joint exercises have already been conducted in this area; there is a special working group of CPH.

Sixth - search and rescue at sea.

The seventh is cooperation in the sphere of military reforms. Since 2002, a joint project has been developing in the field of retraining and employment of Russian servicemen leaving military service.

Eighth - joint action in case of civil emergencies.

Finally, the ninth priority is scientific and technical cooperation and cooperation in air traffic control.

Unfortunately, the implementation of most priorities is currently frozen due to NATO's anti-Russian campaign in connection with the Georgian-South Ossetian conflict. However, the prospects for the development of the military-political situation allow us to hope for the possibility of realizing the potential of cooperation between Russia and NATO.

The results of the RF-EU summit held in Mafra (Portugal) (October 2007), as well as the change in the position of the new Polish government, made it possible to resume the search for ways to further develop contacts between Russia and the European Union within the four so-called common spaces of cooperation: foreign policy and security ; economic; scientific research, education and culture; freedom, internal security and justice. A new agreement on strategic partnership between the EU and the Russian Federation was signed in June 2008 at the RF-EU summit in Khanty-Mansiysk.

Russia is actively in favor of reforming the OSCE in the direction of giving this organization the status of a more effective mechanism for ensuring security in Europe. Russia's cooperation with this organization consists primarily in the participation of Russian delegations in the work and in ensuring the immunity of OSCE missions and observers.

Russia is the main initiator and consistent supporter of the implementation of the process of strengthening the CSTO. The creation of the Russian-Belarusian and Russian-Armenian groupings of troops (forces), Collective Rapid Deployment Forces in the regions of collective security is an important factor in ensuring stability in the European, Caucasian and Central Asian regions.

We can say with full confidence that the period during which the CIS was a kind of civilized divorce has ended. Recent years have been marked by Russia's active steps towards economic and political integration of the entire CIS space, which to a large extent ensures security in the post-Soviet space.

Cooperation between Russia and the SCO, as well as with the observer countries of this organization, takes place on the basis of a joint fight against terrorism and extremism in the direction of implementing joint projects of political, economic, military-technical and military integration.

The Russian Federation has traditionally been one of the main players in the process of ensuring regional security in the Middle East. At the same time, Russia's cooperation with the countries of the League of Arab States, the Union of Arab States of the Persian Gulf, the Organization of the Islamic Conference, as well as with other states of the region is carried out mainly on a bilateral basis. Russia is one of the main mediators in the settlement of conflicts between Israel and Palestine,28 as well as between Israel and Lebanon, Israel and Syria.

Russia's principled position with regard to Iran's energy program also restrains manifestations of aggression against this country by Israel and the United States.

Russia traditionally attaches particular importance to the development of relations with the states of the Asia-Pacific region. Such attention is due to Russia's direct belonging to this dynamically developing region of the world, the need for the economic upswing of Siberia and the Far East. In this regard, Russia seeks to intensify its cooperation with the main integration structures of the region.

Cooperation between Russia and ASEAN is carried out in the formats of "ASEAN plus one" (ASEAN plus Russia) and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ASEAN plus Australia, EU, India, Canada, China, North Korea, Republic of Korea, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea , Russia, Timor - Leste, USA, Japan).

In addition, the concept of Russia's participation in the work of the APEC Forum was developed and approved by the President of the Russian Federation, which is being successfully implemented. In 2012, the APEC summit is planned to be held in Vladivostok.

Thus, Russia occupies a significant place in ensuring Eurasian security. Russia's participation in military-political blocs and international regional political organizations, as well as its cooperation with the states of this region of the world on a bilateral basis, are the most important factors in maintaining stability and strengthening confidence-building measures in Eurasia.

II. Formation of a new security system in Eurasia

The need to form a new Eurasian security system is determined by a number of factors, the main of which are:

The aggravation of the military-political situation in a number of regions of Europe and Asia, accompanied by armed conflicts of varying degrees of intensity, which, in turn, demonstrated the inadequacy of the existing system of Eurasian security;

The desire of the United States to consolidate its global dominance in politics and economics, to revive the phantoms of the Soviet Union and the Iron Curtain, to play the role of a mega-regulator of the world economy; as well as

Strengthening geopolitical rivalry in the post-Soviet space and its final transformation from the "near abroad" of the Russian Federation into the arena of international competition in politics and economics.

This, in particular, was said on October 8, 2008 by our President D.A. Medvedev at the Conference on World Politics, held in the French city of Evian. The speech of the President, which was of a programmatic, strategic nature, contained a fairly tough assessment of the existing world system and a call for building a new, more just, multipolar world.

II.1. New security system of Eurasia: essence, components and principles of formation

The recent political and economic crises testify that the existing world order necessitates its serious modernization. It is becoming more and more obvious, including in the West, that there is a growing contradiction between the global nature of modern challenges and threats (international terrorism, drug trafficking, organized crime, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery, regional conflicts, demographic problems, global poverty, illegal migration, climate change, etc.), which require a response through the joint efforts of the entire world community, and the existence of a unipolar (in other words, neo-imperial) international system, which implies a unilateral response to the entire wide range of international problems.

After the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, Russia and many other countries extended a helping hand to the Americans. A historic chance has arisen to de-ideologize international life and begin building a truly democratic world order.

But this chance was missed due to the fault of the United States. Following the overthrow of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, the Americans began to take steps that were not coordinated either with the UN or even with their NATO allies (withdrawal from the ABM treaty, sending troops to Iraq). Acting within the stereotypes of the last century, the United States is building military bases along the perimeter of Russian borders, discussing the next expansion of NATO through the admission of Ukraine and Georgia, and taking a hard line against the expansion of the UN Security Council and the G8.

In this regard, Russia's proposals for the formation of a new security system, in particular, provide for the construction of a more just and democratic multipolar world both in the field of geopolitics and international security, and in the economic sphere.

In the field of security policy, a resolute renunciation of war as an instrument of policy by all states and observance of the norms of international law with the coordinating role of the UN is necessary.

In the field of economics, it is necessary to improve the world financial system. Moreover, the system of measures taken should not be limited to the G8, but also cover such countries as China, India, Brazil, Mexico and South Africa.

The main principles of the formation of a new system should be:

The primacy (primacy) of international law, based primarily on the provisions of the UN Charter and defining equal and partnership relations between states and civilized peoples;

The multipolarity of the world, which implies the establishment of a just and democratic world order based on collective principles in solving international problems;

The absence of confrontation and isolationism between countries, which leads to the search for agreement and coinciding interests in the process of solving common problems by them, the creation of a system of bilateral and multilateral partnerships;

Ensuring the security of the countries of the world, providing for the preservation and strengthening of their state sovereignty and territorial integrity, the protection of the legitimate interests of citizens; as well as

Formation of good neighborly relations with neighboring states, protection of the interests of states in the world regions of their traditional influence.

Thus, recognizing the new quality of the modern era, Russia declares its readiness to reformulate its global mission in accordance with the requirements of the time. Russia is interested in a stable system of international relations based on the principles of equality, mutual respect and mutually beneficial cooperation between states and based on international law.

The strategic stability that Russia is forced to continue to maintain in the interests of the whole world is a residual function of the old times, when without our country it was impossible to maintain a balance in either European or global Eurasian politics.

The program of building a new security system in Eurasia causes the refusal of all states from self-isolation, the implementation of bloc policies and prejudices of the past.

II.2. Russia and the formation of a security system in the post-Soviet space

The development of bilateral and multilateral cooperation with the CIS member states is a priority area of ​​Russia's foreign policy in ensuring security in the post-Soviet space.

Russia is continuously building up cooperation with its CIS partners in the field of ensuring mutual security, including joint counteraction to common challenges and threats, primarily international terrorism, extremism, drug trafficking, transnational crime, and illegal migration. The primary tasks here are to neutralize the terrorist threat and the threat of the spread of drugs coming from Afghanistan in the CIS territory, and to prevent destabilization of the situation in Central Asia and the Transcaucasus.

Russia continues to actively promote the peaceful resolution of conflicts in the CIS space on the basis of international law, respect for the agreements reached earlier and the search for agreement between the parties involved, responsibly realizing its mediation mission in the negotiation process and peacekeeping. Already achieved, with the mediation of Russia, progress in the negotiation process between Armenia and Azerbaijan on the issue of Nagorno-Karabakh. Russian peacekeepers remain in Transnistria, Abkhazia and South Ossetia.

The CSTO is the key instrument for shaping the system of ensuring military security in the post-Soviet space and maintaining stability. Russia is making efforts to adapt the CSTO as a multinational integration structure to the changing military-political situation, focusing on reliably ensuring the ability of the CSTO member states to take timely and effective joint actions. The CSTO should become a pivotal institution for ensuring military security in its area of ​​responsibility.

In the economic sphere, Russia's priority in ensuring security in the post-Soviet space is the development of trade and economic ties with the CIS member states, taking into account the level of cooperation achieved.

Russia initiated the development of the CIS Economic Development Strategy for the period up to 2020, which was adopted at the Bishkek Summit of the Commonwealth Heads of State (2008). The strategy is aimed at turning the Commonwealth of Independent States into a significant participant in the system of international economic relations, strengthening the place of the CIS in the world economic system. The CIS-2020 strategy includes the introduction and liberalization of a full-scale free trade regime, the abolition of existing restrictions (creation of the Customs Union)29, the development of an agreed line for the use of energy resources, the regulation of labor migration; formation of a network of international transport corridors, increase in the efficiency of the tariff policy (creation of the Transport Union)30, development of military-economic cooperation, formation of the Common Economic Space of the CIS31.

The main instruments for the formation of a system for ensuring economic security in the post-Soviet space are the Union State and the EurAsEC. At the same time, the EurAsEC became the core of the economic integration of the Commonwealth countries.

Russia actively contributes to the development of interaction between the CIS member states in the humanitarian sphere on the basis of preserving and enhancing the common cultural and civilizational heritage, which in the context of globalization is an important resource for the CIS as a whole and for each member state individually.

Russia pays special attention to supporting compatriots living in the post-Soviet space, to harmonizing, on the basis of agreements, on the protection of their educational, linguistic, social, labor, humanitarian and other rights and freedoms.

Thus, Russia is taking active measures to form a new security system in the post-Soviet space.

The new security system covers the military, economic, humanitarian, environmental, social and other spheres, ensuring the security of the CIS countries from a wide range of external and internal threats.

The most important instruments for ensuring the security of the CIS countries are organizations with the participation of Russia: the Union State, the CSTO and the EurAsEC.

II.3. Russia's initiatives to form a new security system in the Euro-Atlantic region

The main goal of Russian foreign policy in the European direction is the creation of a truly open, democratic system of regional collective security and cooperation, ensuring the unity of the Euro-Atlantic region - from Vancouver to Vladivostok, preventing its new fragmentation and reproduction of the old bloc approaches, the inertia of which remains in the current European architecture during the Cold War era.

This is precisely what Russia's initiative to conclude a European Security Treaty is aimed at.

Russia consistently stands for the achievement of true unity of Europe, without dividing lines, by ensuring equal interaction between our country, the European Union and the United States. This would help strengthen the positions of the states of the Euro-Atlantic region in global competition. Russia, as the largest European state with a multinational and multi-confessional society and a long history, can play a constructive role in ensuring the civilizational compatibility of Europe, the harmonious integration of religious minorities, including taking into account migration trends.

Realizing the role of NATO, Russia proceeds from the importance of progressive development in the format of the Russia-NATO Council in the interests of ensuring predictability and stability in Europe, maximizing the potential of political dialogue and practical cooperation in addressing issues of responding to common threats - terrorism, WMD proliferation, regional crises, drug trafficking, natural and man-made disasters.

The Russian Federation considers the development of relations with the European Union as one of the main trade, economic and foreign policy partners as a top priority. Russia stands for the comprehensive strengthening of interaction mechanisms, including the consistent formation of common spaces in the spheres of external and internal security, the economy, education, science and culture. It is in Russia's long-term interests to agree on and sign a Strategic Partnership Agreement with the EU, which establishes special, maximally advanced forms of equal and mutually beneficial cooperation with the European Union in all areas with the prospect of achieving a visa-free regime.

Russia stands for cooperation of European states within the framework of the Council of Europe, considering this organization as an independent universal pan-European body that determines the level of legal standards from all member states of the Council of Europe, without discrimination and privileges for anyone, as an important tool for the integration of European countries in the international legal sphere.

The Russian Federation is interested in the OSCE conscientiously fulfilling the role entrusted to it - a forum for an equal dialogue between the OSCE participating States and the collective development of consensus decisions based on a comprehensive and based on a balance of interests approach to security in its military-political, economic and humanitarian aspects. In particular, in the military-political sphere, Russia will seek to correct the imbalances that have developed in the field of limiting conventional arms and armed forces in Europe and to implement new confidence-building measures.

Russia's initiatives to form a new security system in the Euro-Atlantic region also concern the development of mutually beneficial multilateral (within European sub-regional organizations) and bilateral relations with Germany, France, Italy, Spain, the USA, Finland, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway and other European countries.

Thus, in the interests of forming a new security system in the Euro-Atlantic region, Russia is developing progressive practical cooperation with international European regional and sub-regional organizations, and is also strengthening its bilateral ties with a number of European and North American states.

The formation of a new security system concerns primarily the military-political, economic and humanitarian spheres.

The most important mechanisms for ensuring the security of the European-Asian region are organizations with the participation of Russia: the Council of Europe, the OSCE, as well as the Union State, the CIS, and the CSTO. A notable role here is also assigned to the Russia-NATO Council, Russia's interaction with the European Union, the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and other subregional organizations.

II.4. Russia's participation in the formation of a security system in Central and South Asia

Of fundamental importance for Russia is the general improvement of the situation in Central and South Asia, where sources of tension and conflict remain, and the danger of the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction is growing.

Russia, in cooperation with the CSTO, the SCO and other multilateral institutions for ensuring military security in Central and South Asia, will make consistent efforts to prevent the export of terrorism and drugs from Afghanistan, to resolve the situation around Iran's nuclear program, and to resolve the contradictions between India and Pakistan, India and China .

In the field of ensuring economic security, the Russian Federation gives priority to economic integration and cooperation with the interested countries of Central and South Asia.

The development of joint economic projects makes it possible, under favorable conditions, to begin the formation in the Eurasian economic space of a zone of joint economic development with the states of the CIS and Asia, as well as the European Union and China, including various forms of economic cooperation and integration. In the future, it is possible to form a "Eurasian Schengen" on the basis of the CSTO, the EurAsEC, the CIS and the SCO, as well as the "gas OPEC".

Deepening its strategic partnership with India, Russia will pursue a principled line towards strengthening bilateral cooperation on topical international and regional problems. In addition, Russia shares the interest of India and China in establishing effective foreign policy and economic cooperation in the Russia-India-China trilateral format.

Thus, Russia is interested in the formation of a new security system in Central and South Asia. At the same time, the formation of a new security system in this region of the world concerns, first of all, the military-political and economic spheres.

The most important instruments for ensuring the security of Central and South Asia are organizations with the participation of Russia: the SCO, the CIS and the CSTO. Russia's interaction with various UN organizations and sub-regional organizations, as well as bilateral cooperation with India, China, Iran and Pakistan, is also important here.

II.5. Russia's role in shaping the security system in the Middle East

Russia will make a significant contribution to stabilizing the situation in the Middle East, using its status as a permanent member of the UN Security Council and a member of the quartet of international mediators. At the same time, the main goal of forming a new security system in the Middle East is to mobilize collective efforts to achieve, on an internationally recognized basis, a comprehensive and long-term settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict in all its aspects, including the creation of an independent Palestinian state coexisting in peace with Israel.

The Russian Federation stands for stepping up collective efforts to end the violence and achieve a political settlement in Iraq based on mutual respect for the opposing sides, national reconciliation and the restoration of full-fledged statehood and the economy of this country.

In order to further expand interaction with the states of the Middle East, Russia will use the opportunities of its participation as an observer in the League of Arab States and the Organization of the Islamic Conference, pursue an active line within the framework of the G8 Partnership Initiative with the Middle East region, develop bilateral ties with the Arab states of the Persian bay.

Priority attention will also be given to mutually beneficial economic cooperation (primarily in the field of energy and transportation of energy carriers) with the states of this region of the world, which is important for Russia's national interests.

Thus, the Russian Federation is an active participant in the formation of a new security system in the Middle East region. The formation of a new security system in this region concerns primarily the military-political and economic spheres.

The most important instruments for ensuring security in the Middle East are the organizations where Russia is an observer: the Arab League and the Organization of the Islamic Conference. Russia is also of particular importance here as a mediator in resolving conflicts in this region of the world. Bilateral cooperation with Syria, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and other countries completes the list of measures aimed at ensuring regional security in the Middle East.

II.6. The processes of formation of the security system in the Asia-Pacific region and Russia

In the context of the multi-vector foreign policy of the Russian Federation to ensure security in Eurasia, the Asia-Pacific region is of great and ever-increasing importance.

Russia will continue active participation in the main integration structures of the Asia-Pacific region - the APEC Forum, partnership mechanisms with ASEAN, including the ASEAN Regional Forum.

A special place is given to further strengthening the SCO, promoting its initiative to create a network of partnerships between all integration associations in the Asia-Pacific region.

The most important direction in building a new security system in this region of the world is also the development of friendly relations with China, Japan and the Republic of Korea. Russia will build up its strategic partnership with these countries in all areas of ensuring regional security and stability on the basis of the coincidence of principled approaches to key issues of world politics. The main task of bilateral cooperation here is to bring the volume and quality of economic cooperation in line with the high level of bilateral political relations.

Russia's efforts will be focused on finding a political solution to the Korean Peninsula nuclear problem, on maintaining constructive relations between the DPRK and the Republic of Korea, and on encouraging dialogue between Pyongyang and Seoul.

The Russian regional security policy is also aimed at building up the positive dynamics of relations with the states of Southeast Asia, primarily at developing a strategic partnership with Vietnam, as well as multifaceted cooperation with Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, Singapore and other countries of the region.

Thus, Russia gives one of its main priorities to the formation of a new security system in the Asia-Pacific region. At the same time, the formation of a new security system in this region concerns, first of all, the military-political and economic spheres.

The most important security instruments in the Asia-Pacific region are the organizations where Russia is a member: the SCO, ASEAN+One, the ASEAN Regional Forum, the APEC Forum.

Bilateral cooperation with China, Japan, the Republic of Korea and other countries of the region significantly complement the efforts of the Russian Federation to form a new security system in this region of the world.

The formation of a new security system in Eurasia is a long process of creating reliable mechanisms, as President D.A. Medvedev, "blocking the erroneous, selfish, and sometimes simply dangerous decisions of some members of the world community." Under these conditions, Russia is fully aware of its responsibility for maintaining peace and stability on this continent.

The Russian Federation is ready for joint actions with all states and organizations to ensure and form an effective system of Eurasian security. If the partners are not ready for joint action or do not want to realize the full potential of cooperation in the interests of ensuring regional security, then Russia will be forced to act independently to protect its national interests in Eurasia, but always on the basis of international law.

Russia will not allow itself to be drawn into a costly confrontation, including a new arms race that is destructive to the economy and harmful to the internal development of our country.

1 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO) is an organization of 12 countries (originally) that signed in Washington (USA) on April 4, 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty. The founding countries of NATO were: Belgium, Great Britain, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Canada, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the USA and France. Greece and Turkey joined NATO in 1952. Germany joined NATO in 1955. Spain joined NATO in 1982. In 1990, as a result of the reunification of Germany, the territory of the former GDR becomes part of the North Atlantic Alliance. In 1999, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic joined NATO. In 2004, Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Estonia joined NATO.

2 The NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA) was established in 1955 (until 1966 it was known as the Conference of NATO Parliamentarians, then, until January 1, 1999, it was called the North Atlantic Assembly). It is an interparliamentary organization. NATO PA members are 26 states of the alliance. 21 states have the status of associate members: Austria, Azerbaijan, Albania, Armenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Macedonia, Moldova, Russia (since April 1992), Serbia, Ukraine, Finland, Croatia, Montenegro, Switzerland, Sweden, and Algeria , Mauritania, Morocco, Israel and Jordan, which are part of a separate Mediterranean Group of Associate Members. The membership of Belarus was terminated in 2000.

Australia, Kazakhstan, Japan, as well as Egypt, Palestine and Tunisia participate as observers in the work of the organization.

3 EAPC was established in December 1991 (until 1997 - the North Atlantic Cooperation Council - NACC) to maintain and develop relations with the Eastern European and Central Asian states. The organization unites 49 countries: 26 NATO members and 23 partner states, which include Austria, Azerbaijan, Albania, Armenia, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Ireland, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Macedonia, Moldova, Russia, Serbia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Finland, Croatia, Montenegro, Switzerland, Sweden.

4 EurAsEC was established in 2000. The members of the organization are Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan. Moldova and Ukraine have observer status with this organization.

The main tasks of the Community include: completion of the formalization of the free trade regime in full; formation of a unified customs tariff and a unified system of non-tariff regulation measures; establishing common rules for trade in goods and services and their access to internal markets; introduction of a unified procedure for currency regulation and currency control; creation of a common unified system of customs regulation; development and implementation of joint programs of social and economic development; creation of equal conditions for industrial and entrepreneurial activity; formation of a common market for transport services and a unified transport system; formation of a common energy market, etc.

Security issues are reduced to cooperation in the protection of external borders in accordance with the agreement "On Cooperation in the Protection of the External Borders of the Member States of the Eurasian Economic Cooperation" (2003).

5 The Council of the Baltic Sea States includes: Germany, Denmark, Norway, Finland, European Commission, Russia, Sweden, Estonia, Iceland, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania.

6 The Visegrad Group includes Poland, Hungary, Slovakia and the Czech Republic.

7 The Vilnius Group includes Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.

8 SENKOOP (“Central European Initiative”) includes Austria, Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary, Italy, Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Croatia, Czech Republic, Montenegro.

9 ODER-GUAM - an interstate association of Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova, was established in 1997. ODER-GUAM includes Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova. After Uzbekistan joined it in 1999, it was named GUUAM. In May 2005, Uzbekistan withdrew from this interstate association due to the lack of economic feasibility.

10 The Ohrid-Adriatic Group was formed in September 2003 in the city of Orchid (Macedonia) at an organizational meeting with the participation of the US Ambassador to Macedonia and the foreign ministers of Albania, Macedonia and Croatia in order to implement the "package principle" of these countries' accession to NATO. The summit participants approved the Joint Declaration, which, in particular, refers to the possibility of other states of the region joining it.

11 Cooperation between the Arab states of the Persian Gulf and NATO has been carried out since 2004 in the framework of the so-called Istanbul Cooperation Initiative (ICI). The ICI includes Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and the UAE. Saudi Arabia and Oman may join the ICI in the near future.

12 WEU (Western European Union) is a military-political organization created to ensure joint military security and political unification of the member states of the union.

Participating States: Belgium, United Kingdom, Germany, Greece, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, France.

Associate Member States: Hungary, Iceland, Norway, Poland, Turkey, Czech Republic. Observer states: Ireland, Denmark, Austria, Sweden, Finland. Associated partner states: Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia. The issue of possible gradual integration into the EU and the acquisition of a "European defense identity" is being considered.

13 EU (European Union) is the largest political and economic integration association in Europe. The Treaty on the European Union was signed in Maastricht in December 1991. One of the activities of the EU is the formation of the foundations of a common foreign policy and policy in the field of military security.

The participating States are: Austria, Belgium, United Kingdom, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Finland, France, Sweden, Cyprus, Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. Candidates: Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania, Turkey.

14 The CSTO was established in April 2003 at a joint meeting of the Council of Foreign Ministers (CMFA) and the Council of Defense Ministers (CMO) of the countries that signed the Collective Security Treaty of May 15, 1992 - Russia, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan , Tajikistan.

The treaty provides for military-political cooperation between the signatory states and the provision of necessary assistance, including military assistance, in the event of an act of aggression against any of them. The CSTO is designed to ensure the security, territorial integrity and sovereignty of the participating countries. Among its tasks is also the fight against international terrorism and drug trafficking. At present, the CSTO Joint Headquarters is functioning, units of the Collective Rapid Deployment Forces (CSRF) have been formed.

On August 21, 2006, a protocol was signed on joining the CSTO of Uzbekistan (Uzbekistan withdrew from the CSTO in 1999). The issue of joining the CSTO of Abkhazia and South Ossetia is being considered.

15 The CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) is a political organization created to coordinate relations between members of the Commonwealth and ensure security in the territory of the former USSR.

The fundamental legal documents of the CIS are the Agreement on the establishment of the CIS (December 8, 1991, Minsk), signed by Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, and the Protocol to this Agreement (December 21, 1991, Alma-Ata), according to which the Commonwealth included eight more countries - the former republics of the Soviet Union: Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. In December 1993, Georgia joined the Commonwealth, which in August 2008 announced its withdrawal from the CIS. In 2005, Tajikistan declared that it is an associate member of the CIS.

16 The CIS air defense system includes 10 countries that signed a special agreement on February 10, 1995 in Alma-Ata: Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine. Only Armenia, Belarus, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan conduct active cooperation in this area. In 1997, Georgia and Turkmenistan actually curtailed their participation in the CIS air defense system, while Ukraine and Uzbekistan cooperate with Russia exclusively on a bilateral basis. In November 2008, Russia and Belarus de jure plan to create a unified regional air defense system of the Union State by signing an appropriate agreement.

17 CE was created in 1949. Open for entry by any European country that accepts the principles of the rule of international law and guarantees its citizens human rights and fundamental freedoms.

The CE includes Austria, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Andorra, Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Great Britain, Hungary, Germany, Greece, Georgia, Denmark, Ireland, Iceland, Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg , Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia (since 1996), Romania, San Marino, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Turkey, Ukraine, Finland, France, Croatia, Czech Republic, Switzerland , Sweden, Estonia.

18 The OSCE (Organization for Security & Cooperation in Europe, OSCE), since 1973 called the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, was established in January 1995 as an early warning and conflict prevention and crisis management tool. The organization has 55 member states and 9 partner countries: it brings together all the countries of Europe, as well as Canada and the United States, under the broad concept of ensuring security in the European region. Under Chapter VIII of the UN Charter, the organization has the status of a "regional organization".

The purpose of the OSCE is to promote respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms, democracy and the rule of law. The Organization should act as a tool for conflict prevention and crisis management, as a conventional arms control and confidence-building framework. Nevertheless, the OSCE at the present stage is most actively manifesting itself as an observational missionary in elections.

19 The Shanghai Five formed in 1996 by Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan became the prototype of the SCO. In June 2001, Uzbekistan joined the Shanghai Five. Mongolia, India, Pakistan and Iran (which have the status of observers) show a certain interest in participating in the SCO.

20 LAS (The Arab League) is a regional international intergovernmental organization of the Arab countries. Created March 22, 1945 at a conference in Cairo. The Arab League includes 22 states: Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Yemen, Qatar, Comoros, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia and State of Palestine. Russia has an observer status.

The main goal of the organization is to form a closer union of Arab states and promote their political and economic cooperation. The agreement on collective defense and economic cooperation between the member states of the organization was signed in 1950.

21 SSPPZ was established in 1981. Includes Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, UAE and Saudi Arabia. The military-political leadership of the GCC member states pays considerable attention to the creation of a military-political bloc and unified armed forces on the Arabian Peninsula.

22 OIC was founded in 1969. 57 states are members of the OIC. Russia has observer status with the OIC.

23 ASEAN was established in 1967. Includes Brunei Darussalam (since 1984), Vietnam (since 1995), Indonesia, Cambodia (since 1999), Laos (since 1997), Malaysia, Myanmar (since 1997), Singapore, Thailand , Philippines. Papua New Guinea has special observer status.

24 The ARF has the status of an advisory body for developing confidence-building measures and determining directions for joint activities to create a comprehensive system of collective security in the Asia-Pacific region. ARF members are ASEAN countries, as well as Australia, the EU, India, Canada, China, North Korea, Republic of Korea, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Russia, Timor-Leste, USA, Japan.

25 The APEC Forum was established in November 1989. Currently, 21 countries are participants of the Forum: Australia, Brunei, Vietnam, Hong Kong (as a special zone of China), Indonesia, Canada, China, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Russia (since 1998 d.), Singapore, USA, Thailand, Taiwan, Philippines, Chile, Japan..

26 SAARC members are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.

27 The NRC was established in 2002 as a mechanism for consultation, cooperation and decision-making and action on security matters. Particular attention is paid to areas of mutual interest, as defined in the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security between Russia and NATO of 1997, as well as new threats (counter-terrorism, crisis management, non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction).

28 Russia, in particular, is one of the developers of the "Road Map" - an international plan for the settlement of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. Other developers of the Roadmap were the United States, the United Nations and the European Union. The plan provides for Palestinian and Israeli renunciation of the use of force against each other; the liquidation of Jewish settlements on the West Bank of the Jordan River, the formation of an independent Palestinian state.

The resolution proposed by Russia and unanimously adopted in November 2003 by the UN Security Council makes the Road Map obligatory for both conflicting parties. After its approval by the UN Security Council resolution, the "Road Map" became part of international law.

29 Currently, the Customs Union unites Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan. In 2007, in Dushanbe, at a meeting of the Interstate Council of the EurAsEC, a decision was made "On the formation of the legal framework of the Customs Union within the framework of the Eurasian Economic Community" and the Action Plan for the formation of the Customs Union was approved. At present, the Common Customs Tariff of the EurAsEC is being formed, the implementation of the Agreement on Common Measures of Non-tariff Regulation in the Formation of the Customs Union is underway. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan intend to join the Customs Union in the future.

30 The Transport Union was established in 2006. In the same year, the General Principles for the Formation and Application of Railway Tariffs for Carriage of Goods between Railway Stations of the EurAsEC Member States, as well as the Procedure for Setting Reducing Coefficients and Northern Tariff Rates for Carriage of Goods were approved.

31 The formation of the Common Economic Space (CES) of the CIS countries is taking place within the framework of the Regional Integration Organization (RII), which includes Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine. The ORI is an interstate association formed in accordance with the statement of the presidents on the creation of the Common Economic Space in order to overcome difficulties and ensure the freedom of movement of goods and capital within its framework, as well as to synchronize accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO).