Self-development 

Conditions have been created in Kyrgyzstan for the emergence of a one-party parliament. The state in a market economy What created the conditions for the emergence in the country

Using social science knowledge and facts of public life, give three evidence of the need to create the most favorable conditions for business development in the country.


Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

A firm is a subject of economic activity (or, in other words, an economic entity), whose main function is to produce goods or provide services. Like households, firms come in all shapes and sizes. At one extreme are small workshops, shops and restaurants owned by one person or family business; on the other - giant corporations with a staff of hundreds and even thousands of people, and a huge number of co-owners-shareholders. The field of finance dealing with financial decision making at the firm level is called enterprise finance, or corporate finance.

In order to produce goods and provide services, any firm, regardless of its size, needs to have capital. Buildings, facilities, machinery and other necessary resources used in the production process are called the firm's physical capital. Stocks, bonds, and loans that allow firms to finance the purchase of physical capital are called financial capital.

The first step for any firm is to determine what kind of business it would like to do, and this process is called strategic planning. Since strategic planning is associated with the evaluation of costs and revenues taking into account the time factor, it is largely referred to as financial decisions. It is not uncommon for a firm to have a core business defined by its product line, while at the same time engaging in some other activity that is related to the former. For example, a computer hardware firm may at some point decide to also produce computer programs and provide computer maintenance services.

Over time, a company's strategic goals can change, sometimes dramatically. Some corporations quite often operate in areas of business that are in no way interconnected with each other. Moreover, it is not uncommon for a company to cease to engage in its original activities altogether, as a result of which the name of the company completely ceases to correspond to its modern functions and goals ... Having finally determined the scope of the company, managers need to develop a plan for the construction and acquisition of factories, machinery, research laboratories, showrooms, wholesale warehouses and other long-term assets, as well as to prepare a training project for the personnel who will manage it all. This process is called investment planning.

The unit of such analysis is an investment project. Investment planning consists in determining the main ideas for each new investment project, evaluating them, choosing the most profitable ideas and developing ways to implement them ...

(3. Body, R. Merton)

Explanation.

A correct answer may contain the following confirmations, for example:

1) business development contributes to the creation of jobs;

2) business development contributes to the production of a mass of consumer goods and services;

3) business development contributes to the receipt of taxes in the budget;

4) business development contributes to political stability in society.

Other confirmations may be given.

At present, the probability of emergency situations at explosive and fire hazardous facilities remains quite high. This is primarily due to the depreciation of fixed production assets 1 and the lack of opportunities for their renewal. In addition, the problem of ensuring the safety of the operation of pipelines (oil pipelines, gas pipelines and product pipelines) has recently become more acute due to the expansion of work on the extraction and transportation of oil and gas in Russia.

The threat of accidents in the transportation of a large number of flammable and explosive goods by various modes of transport (railway, road and water) is not reduced. And this poses a serious threat to the life and health of people living in the areas of transport routes.

Recall that objects where dangerous situations associated with explosions and fires can occur belong to the class of explosive and fire hazardous objects. Obviously, the damage from the consequences of accidents at such facilities depends on the amount of explosive and flammable substances located on them. In this regard, in the Federal Law "On Industrial Safety of Hazardous Production Facilities" (adopted by the State Duma on June 20, 1997), all hazardous production facilities were divided into 2 categories and the maximum standards for hazardous substances at the facility were determined.

  • flammable substances (gases which, at normal pressure and when mixed with air, become self-igniting);
  • oxidizing substances (substances supporting combustion);
  • combustible substances (substances capable of spontaneous combustion, as well as ignite from an ignition source and burn after its removal); explosives.

Co. second category of hazardous production facilities include objects using equipment under high pressure (more than 0.07 MPa) or with a water temperature of more than 115 ° C. Such explosive and flammable objects can be not only industrial, but also vehicles with explosive cargo.

In addition, the law defines the limit norms for hazardous substances, the presence of which at an explosive and fire hazardous facility is the basis for the mandatory development of an industrial safety declaration (see table). Declaration is carried out in order to ensure control over compliance with safety measures, assess the sufficiency and effectiveness of measures to prevent and eliminate emergencies at hazardous production facilities. At present, in order to increase the stability of the operation of economic facilities in emergency situations, in almost all constituent entities of the Russian Federation, special commissions (republican, regional, facility) have been created to ensure the safety of the operation of economic facilities, and plans for major events have been developed.

    Attention!
    The EMERCOM of Russia includes the State Fire Service, mobile and efficient, aimed at combating emergencies and fires, as well as eliminating their consequences.
    To receive messages about emergencies, including those caused by fires, single numbers 01 and 112 are installed in the telephone networks of settlements, by which you can call both firefighters and rescuers of the Russian Emergencies Ministry.

At present, it is planned to carry out a number of effective measures to improve the safety of the operation of hazardous production facilities.

For these purposes, it is planned:

  • transfer of potentially dangerous objects of the economy to modern, safer technologies and their withdrawal from settlements;
  • introduction of modern control and management systems for hazardous technological processes;
  • improvement of the system for training production personnel and the population in emergency situations and a number of other measures.

To ensure the safety of facility personnel and the population living near fire and explosion hazardous facilities, specialists from the Russian Emergencies Ministry have developed practical recommendations for behavior in emergency situations caused by an accident.

If you live near a fire and explosion hazardous facility, be careful. Sirens and intermittent beeps of the enterprise (vehicles) mean the signal “Attention everyone!”. When you hear it, turn on your loudspeaker, radio, or TV immediately. Listen to the information message about the emergency and act according to the instructions of the territorial Department of Civil Defense and Emergencies.

How to deal with a sudden collapse of a building

If you hear an explosion or find that the building is losing its stability, try to leave it as quickly as possible, taking documents, money and essentials. When leaving the room, go down the stairs, not the elevator, as it can fail at any time. Once outside, do not stand near buildings, but move to open space.

If you are in a building, immediately turn off the water, electricity and gas. If it is not possible to leave the building, take the safest place: the openings of the main internal walls, the corners formed by these walls, under the frame beams. If possible, hide under a table - it will protect you from falling objects and debris.

Open the door from the apartment to secure an exit if necessary. Don't panic and stay calm. Stay away from windows, electrical appliances.

If a fire breaks out, try to extinguish it immediately. Don't go out to the balcony. Do not use matches as there is a risk of gas leakage and explosion.

How to act in the rubble

Breathe deeply, don't panic, and don't lose heart. Focus on what's most important. At the moment of collapse, it is important to choose a place and position that does not crush any part of the body, especially the limbs, as this will lead to a loss of blood circulation. Try to survive at any cost, believe that help will come for sure. Give yourself first aid if necessary.

Try to adapt to the situation and look around, look for a possible way out. Try to determine where you are, if there are other people nearby: listen, give a voice.

    Attention!
    A person is able to withstand thirst for up to three days, and hunger is much longer if he does not waste energy uselessly.

Look in your pockets or nearby for objects that could help to make light or sound signals (for example, a flashlight, a mirror, and metal objects that can be tapped on a pipe or wall and thereby attract attention, such as a mobile phone, if you have one). you have a). If the only way out is a narrow hole, try to squeeze through it. To do this, you need to relax the muscles of the body and move, pressing the elbows to the body.

Of course, you understand that it is impossible to give advice for all occasions, and these recommendations 2 are made for adults. However, you should study them in order to choose something useful that can be useful to you at a critical moment in your life.

Questions

  1. What factors are responsible for maintaining a high degree of probability of an emergency at fire and explosion hazardous facilities?
  2. Into what categories and on what grounds are explosive objects divided?
  3. Under what conditions is it necessary to develop an industrial safety declaration at a fire and explosion hazardous facility?
  4. What created the conditions for the emergence of the State Fire and Rescue Service in the country?

The task

Carefully study the recommendations of the specialists of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia on the rules of safe behavior in an emergency situation that arose due to an accident at a fire and explosion hazardous facility. Think about how you would behave if you were in one of these situations. Record your findings in a safety diary.

1 Production assets are a set of means and objects of labor necessary for material production. The main production assets are machinery and equipment, tools and fixtures, industrial buildings and structures, means of moving goods, means of communication and information.

This article was produced by our experienced team of editors and researchers who reviewed it for accuracy and completeness.

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Are you tired of crazy politicians, state interference or social permissiveness? Taxes have become so big that you can't stand it? Have you ever thought that things would change for the better if people trusted you? Then we have good news: you can start your own microstate! It's not easy, but it's possible, and we'll tell you how. We will also give you good and bad examples and show you the very real future of nation building. Read on!

Steps

    Learn about your country. Before you start creating a new country, it makes sense to learn more about your own.

    Develop a plan. Come up with the name of the country, districts, capital, language. Think about it.

    Get familiar with the rules. As Bob Dylan said, "To live outside the law, you have to be honest." The same thought is true in the formation of a microstate: in order to create your own rules, you must follow the already established rules and norms. The main foundation on which modern states are built is the 1933 Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, also known as the Montevideo Convention. Here are the basic rules set out in the first article of the Convention:

    The state as a subject of international law must have the following features:

    • permanent population.
    • Certain territory.
    • Government.
    • The ability to enter into relations with other states.
    • The result of the first ten articles is the explanation that the existence of the state does not depend on whether other countries recognize it, it is free to act on its own behalf, and that no state has the right to interfere in the affairs of another.
    • Note that these are not laws in the conventional sense. Of course, you can declare your country anytime, anywhere. However, no one will take you seriously. It all comes down to a simple truth: you will not have legitimacy as a state.

  1. Find territory for your microstate. This is the hardest part. All existing lands have already been appropriated by the existing states. With one exception. What's the exception? Antarctica. But even if you manage the weather and the lack of "popular appeal", Antarctica is claimed by the most powerful countries in the world and it is unlikely that they will simply let you put up a flag and say: "Mine!" Nevertheless, there are still options for how to find a suitable place on our Planet:

    Build an island. The ocean, as they say, is the last frontier. International waters do not belong to any people, this spurs interest and activity in them.

    Invite your friends. One of the key requirements for the state, in addition to the territory, is the population. If the land you have conquered or created does not have an indigenous population, you will have to assemble the company yourself. Enlist your friends and family to join you in this venture and you will have a small but loyal population.

    • These days, if you're serious about anything (and creating a microstate can actually be serious), then you need a website. Use it to find like-minded people and give them good reasons to populate your new Republic. It could be: work and money, the freedom to have multiple marriages, or just the chance to be part of the birth of a nation.
    • You must decide what requirements will be placed on your citizens. Will I be required to take a citizenship test or comply with certain laws? What will be the form for their identification: passport, driver's license, subcutaneous RFID tag?

  2. Establish a government and a constitution. The success or failure of your enterprise largely depends on leadership in management. For example, the success of the United States lies in the Constitution, which clearly stipulates everything, and at the same time it is open to interpretation and development. Without it, perhaps the country would cease to be a single entity and would fall apart due to unrest into dozens of small nation-states. Your government and your constitution should be guided by principles that should be established at the outset. Here are some examples of different microstates and their founding principles:

    Develop a legal system. Every good country has a system by which laws are made. A couple of examples:

    • Referendum. Citizens vote for decisions on issues of national importance or local self-government. Referendums are held in Switzerland.
    • True democracy. People vote for literally everything. In a large country, such a system is difficult to implement, but within a micronation it is quite possible.

  3. Announce your independence. Now that you have a territory, a population, and a government with a constitution, it's time to make your mark. Depending on what you have prepared for the world, one of three things will happen:

  4. Create an economy. If you do not trade in rubles, dollars, euros or other currencies, you will have to create your own financial system. Will the wealth of your people be built on gold, on securities, or only on your word of honor? While your word may be enough in a circle of friends, in order to get a government loan, you need strong guarantees. Even if you stick to the established currency, you still need to decide how to fund your government. The best way to do this is taxes. Those same taxes, because of which you decided to create your own state. Through taxation, your government will be able to provide basic services such as electricity, running water, the necessary officials (as few as you like), and an army.

    • The main duty of every state (large or small) is the ability to protect its citizens from enemies. Whether it be regular troops, the national guard, conscription, or some other defensive solution, this is an important point to consider when creating a constitution.

  5. Get recognized by the global community. To eliminate the adverse factors that led to the creation of your country (read above), you will need to become a global player. To do this, the recognition of other countries is necessary. You will need a solid background in international law, politics and diplomacy. If you do not have such experience, it would be advisable to organize a cabinet of qualified politicians who can take on this burden.

    • This is perhaps the most difficult step of all. Some countries, such as Palestine, Taiwan and Northern Cyprus, seem to have done everything necessary, but are still not recognized by many countries. There are no rules here - each country has its own standards by which they decide on recognition. The result can be influenced by such things as: belonging to Al-Qaeda, communism or capitalism. It also matters how you feel about human rights or the control of natural resources. For example, in the United States, the decision to recognize a nation is made by the President. The decision on your request will depend on who currently occupies the White House, their policies and preferences change every four years.
    • In addition, to join the UN, none of the five powers - the US, Britain, China, Russia and France - must veto your membership. In other words, you will have to be neutral on issues such as territorial disputes, including with Palestine, Taiwan and Crimea.
    • If you live in close proximity or in Europe itself, try applying to join the European Union. So you will ensure your country's sovereignty in world politics.

  6. Create your symbols. Every country needs a flag and yours is certainly no exception. This is the most well-known national symbol, but there are other symbols that can help create your national identity:

    • Money. What will your currency look like? Will the gold coins and the 3D hologram on paper banknotes feature your profile, or will you use symbolic icons like the Statue of Liberty or Charlton Heston? Will you go the modern way, or will you cut every detail by hand in the old fashioned way?
    • National emblem. You can come up with a national motto and translate it into Latin. There are many free online translators. Add some ornate graphics to your shield to make everyone think you're royalty. Or you can state your mission in plain native language by asking a designer to create a logo. A good logo can be worth more than the crown jewels of England!
    • Official correspondence. All letters you will write to the President, the UN, the Prime Minister and other heads of state will need high quality paper with your seal embossed on it.
    • National anthem. Don't forget about the national anthem, which will be played at important events.

The origins of consumer cooperation and the first cooperatives in Russia

2. England is the birthplace of consumer cooperatives

3. Pre-cooperative forms of associations in Russia

4. The "Big Artel" of the Decembrists, its significance in the development of the cooperative movement in Russia

1. Causes and prerequisites for the emergence of cooperatives

Consumer societies as competitive enterprises with a specific social focus on meeting the needs of their shareholders first appeared in Western Europe. The study of the prerequisites and the history of the emergence of the first consumer societies in England allows a deeper understanding of the history of consumer cooperation in Russia.

Cooperatives, as specific organizational and legal forms of enterprises engaged in entrepreneurial activities to meet the needs of their members, were created in the conditions of the formation and development of capitalist relations.

Under the conditions of the formation of capitalist relations, socio-economic contradictions between various social strata of the population became more acute. Workers, employees, peasants began to need to protect their consumer interests, especially in the field of acquiring goods and services. Private merchants unreasonably inflated the prices of goods, often sold low quality goods and did not serve consumers politely. It was the need to purchase quality goods at an affordable price that brought consumer societies to life, that is, was the reason for their emergence.

Under capitalism, prerequisites were created for the emergence of various types of cooperatives, including consumer societies, which, like other cooperatives, can satisfy the needs of the united persons through entrepreneurial activity (trade). That is why cooperatives could arise only under capitalism, which ensured the development of entrepreneurial activity.

Of course, with the development of capitalism, favorable conditions were gradually created for the development of various types of cooperatives as specific entrepreneurial organizations.

Consumer societies, as varieties of consumer cooperatives, arose simultaneously with other types of cooperatives, merging into the general cooperative movement. Therefore, it makes sense to consider the general prerequisites for the emergence and development of cooperatives of various types.

All prerequisites, as necessary conditions for the development of cooperatives, can be grouped into three groups:

    socio-economic background;

    legal (legal) preconditions;

    ideological (theoretical) premises.

Socio-economic background. This group of prerequisites includes the formation of the social base of cooperatives, the creation of conditions for the accumulation of funds of the population and the creation of a credit and banking system.

Formation of the social base of cooperatives. The change in relations under capitalism led to changes in the social structure of society. According to the economic situation, the middle social stratum of the population stood out, including workers, artisans, handicraftsmen, employees, peasants, farmers, who, in order to protect themselves from exploitation, needed to create their jointly owned enterprises, including cooperatives. From what has been said, it follows that only under capitalism was the social base of cooperatives formed, that is, the social strata of the population who needed different types of cooperatives to protect themselves from exploitation: in the field of labor application (production cooperatives), when obtaining a loan (credit cooperatives), when buying products and other goods from private traders (consumer cooperatives - consumer societies).

Creation of conditions for the accumulation of funds by the population. A cooperative of any kind can be created if citizens can accumulate funds for the formation of cooperative property. Under capitalism, the development of commodity-money relations reached such a high level that labor power became a commodity. Therefore, workers and employees, receiving money for their work, could accumulate money and invest it in the creation of joint ventures - cooperatives, including consumer societies.

Small proprietors (handicraftsmen, artisans, peasants, farmers), selling products produced at their enterprises for money, could use some of this money for accumulation and investment in the form of contributions to joint ventures - cooperatives (sales and supply, credit, consumer societies) .

Thus, capitalism has created an economic prerequisite for creating the economic basis of cooperatives - joint cooperative property.

Creation of a credit and banking system. The high level of development of commodity-money relations led to the creation of a credit and banking system, which replaced usurers (private money capitalists). Borrowed funds (credits) became cheaper. If moneylenders set an annual interest rate for the loan they issued in the amount of 200-400%, then banks - in the amount of 16-20%.

As mentioned above, cooperatives mainly unite the middle social strata of the population, which have insufficient own funds to create their own private competitive enterprises. Therefore, cooperatives are in great need of borrowed funds for the purchase of goods in large quantities (consumer trade cooperatives), raw materials and equipment (production cooperatives of handicraftsmen and artisans), seed grain, breeding stock, machinery (agricultural cooperatives of peasants and farmers). Banks, which offered much cheaper borrowed funds, contributed to the development of cooperatives. Using their own and cheap borrowed funds, cooperatives could significantly expand their activities and thereby increase their profits. Such conditions for the development of cooperatives allowed them to gain a foothold in a market economy and become equal partners with other market entities (partnerships, joint-stock companies).

The establishment of cooperatives requires legal prerequisites, that is, laws that allow state bodies to register each cooperative as a legal entity.

Only the bourgeois-democratic states created under capitalism ensured democratic freedoms: freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of association of workers in their organizations and enterprises: trade unions (public organizations), parties (political organizations), cooperatives (economic enterprises).

It should be emphasized that under capitalism, before they created cooperatives, workers achieved freedom of speech and freedom of the press, so they were able to conduct propaganda and agitation (including about the advantages of cooperatives over other enterprises).

The working people have learned to jointly defend their interests through trade unions and parties. The joint efforts of trade unions, parties and cooperatives made it possible to include normative provisions on cooperatives in laws and, thus, cooperatives became equal subjects of the market economy along with joint-stock companies and partnerships.

The English cooperators made special efforts to pass laws on cooperation. Therefore, it was in England in 1852 that the first cooperative law was passed.

The inclusion of provisions on cooperatives in the laws of the country and the creation of cooperative laws provided the conditions for the development of charters for cooperatives of various types.

The creation of legal prerequisites has significantly accelerated the creation of various types of cooperatives and their associations.

In the emergence and development of cooperation under capitalism, an important role belongs to the ideologists of cooperation. Ideologists of cooperation are competent people who understood the essence of cooperatives, were able to draw up cooperative laws and charters, were able to convey to other people the special properties of cooperatives, and were able to help create cooperatives and cooperative associations.

The greatest cooperative ideologists of the 19th and early 20th centuries were Robert Owen and Vansitart Neal in England; Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc and Charles Gide in France; Friedrich Raiffeisen and Hermann Schulze-Delitzsche in Germany; Nikolay Chernyshevsky, Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky and Alexander Chayanov in Russia.

Cooperative ideas were supported by public organizations (trade unions), political parties, government agencies at the federal and local levels. Society began to understand the advantages of cooperatives and to promote their development. All this testifies to the fact that ideological prerequisites for the development of cooperatives and their associations have been formed in society.

The cooperative movement has developed in different countries. Cooperative ideas of interethnic cooperation led to the creation of an international cooperative movement.

Thus, in the conditions of the formation and development of capitalism, socio-economic, legal and ideological prerequisites were formed that contributed to the emergence and development of cooperatives and cooperative associations of various types (consumer, credit, agricultural, production), the creation of a powerful socio-economic cooperative movement.

In relation to a market economy, the state performs the following functions:

  • issue of banknotes and control of their circulation;
  • collection of taxes and other obligatory payments;
  • protecting the interests of private owners.
The state regulates the market economy through:
  • creation of a legal framework for all subjects of economic relations;
  • maintaining competition by counteracting monopolies;
  • redistribution of income between participants in economic relations;
  • control of the labor market, pricing, economic growth rates;
  • financing of scientific activity;
  • taking measures to protect the environment;
  • optimization of the production process in order to more efficiently allocate resources;
  • subsidizing marginally profitable sectors of the economy or organizing the production of public goods and services.
The state not only regulates the private sector of the economy through various instruments, but is also a participant in economic relations, acting as a producer and buyer of goods and services.

Public sector in a market economy

The public sector includes socially significant areas of production, as well as sectors of the economy that are not of interest to private investors due to low profitability.

The public sector includes the following areas of the economy:

  • mining;
  • energy;
  • construction of roads and railways;
  • water supply;
  • healthcare;
  • education and science;
  • aerospace industry.

The influence of the state on the market economy

The regulation of the economy by the state in the conditions of a commodity economy is carried out with the help of a system of standard measures of a legislative, supervisory and executive nature implemented by authorized state institutions.

According to the objects of influence, regulation is distinguished:

  • resources;
  • production;
  • finance.
Focusing on the territorial structure, public administration is divided into federal and regional.

The influence of the state on the market economy is carried out using direct and indirect methods.

Direct methods are implemented through administrative and legal methods of influence: measures of restriction, prohibition, permission. Indirect regulation involves the use of the state's monetary policy.

Administrative-legal and monetary methods of influence are the main instruments of state regulation of the economy. A change in one element in the economic structure of the state affects other elements.