The most important social sciences. Social (humanitarian) sciences that study society and man - Document. Spiritual life of society

What does social studies study?

The object of study of social science is society. Society is a very complex system that is subject to various laws. Naturally, there is no one science that could cover all aspects of society, so several sciences study it. Each science studies one aspect of the development of society: economics, social relations, development paths, and others.

Social science - a general name for sciences that study society as a whole and social processes.

Every science hasobject and subject.

Object of science - a phenomenon of objective reality that science studies.

Subject of science - A person, a group of people cognizing an object.

Sciences are divided into three groups.

Sciences:

Exact sciences	Natural Sciences	Public (humanitarian)
Mathematics, computer science, logic and others	Chemistry, physics, biology, astronomy and others	Philosophy, economics, sociology and others

Society is studied by social sciences (humanities).

The main difference between social sciences and humanities:

	Social Sciences	Humanities
Main object of study	Society

Social (humanitarian) sciences that study society and man:

archaeology, economics, history, cultural studies, linguistics, political science, psychology, sociology, law, ethnography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics.

Archeology- a science that studies the past from material sources.

Economy– the science of the economic activities of society.

Story- the science of the past of humanity.

Cultural studies- a science that studies the culture of society.

Linguistics- the science of language.

Political science- the science of politics, society, the relationship between people, society and the state.

Psychology– the science of the development and functioning of the human psyche.

Sociology- the science of the laws of formation and development of social systems, groups, individuals.

Right – a set of laws and rules of behavior in society.

Ethnography- a science that studies the life and culture of peoples and nations.

Philosophy- the science of the universal laws of social development.

Ethics- the science of morality.

Aesthetics - the science of beauty.

Sciences study societies in the narrow and broad senses.

Society in the narrow sense:

1. The entire population of the Earth, the totality of all peoples.

2. Historical stage of human development (feudal society, slave society).

3. Country, state (French society, Russian society).

4. Uniting people for some purpose (animal lovers club, soldiers’ society

mothers).

5. A circle of people united by a common position, origin, interests (high society).

6. Methods of interaction between the authorities and the population of the country (democratic society, totalitarian society)

Society in the broad sense - a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.

The humanities and social sciences represent a complex of many disciplines, the subject of study of which is both society as a whole and man as its member. These include political science, philosophy, philology, psychology, economics, pedagogy, law, cultural studies, ethnology and other theoretical knowledge.

Specialists in these areas are trained and graduated by scientists, which can be either a separate educational institution or a division of any humanities university.

social sciences

First of all, they explore society. Society is considered as an entity that develops historically and represents associations of people that have developed as a result of joint actions and have their own system of relations. The presence of different groups in society allows us to see how interdependent individuals are on each other.

Social Sciences: research methods

Each of the disciplines listed above applies characteristics unique to it. Thus, political science, when studying society, operates with the category “power”. Culturology considers culture and the forms of its manifestation as an aspect of society that has value. Economics studies the life of society from the perspective of organizing the economy.

For this purpose, it uses categories such as market, money, demand, product, supply and others. Sociology views society as a constantly evolving system of relations that develop between social groups. History studies what has already happened. At the same time, trying to establish the order of events, their relationships, and causes, it is based on all kinds of documentary sources.

The formation of social sciences

In ancient times, social sciences were mainly included in philosophy, since it studied both man and the entire society at the same time. Only history and jurisprudence were partially separated into separate disciplines. The first social theory was developed by Aristotle and Plato. During the Middle Ages, social sciences were considered within the framework of theology as knowledge of the undifferentiated and embracing absolutely everything. Their development was influenced by such thinkers as Gregory Palamas, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and John of Damascus.

Starting from the New Age (since the 17th century), some social sciences (psychology, cultural studies, political science, sociology, economics) are completely separated from philosophy. In higher educational institutions, faculties and departments are opened in these subjects, specialized almanacs, magazines, etc. are published.

Natural and social sciences: differences and similarities

This problem has been solved ambiguously in history. Thus, Kant’s followers divided all sciences into two types: those studying nature and culture. Representatives of such a movement as the “philosophy of life” generally sharply contrasted history with nature. They believed that culture is the result of the spiritual activity of mankind, and it can only be understood by experiencing and understanding those eras and the motives of their behavior. In modern times, science and natural sciences are not only opposed, but also have points of contact. This is, for example, the use of mathematical research methods in philosophy, political science, history; application of knowledge from the field of biology, physics, astronomy in order to establish the exact date of events that occurred in the distant past.

Society is such a complex object that science alone cannot study it. Only by combining the efforts of many sciences can we fully and consistently describe and study the most complex formation that exists in this world, human society. The totality of all sciences that study society as a whole is called social studies. These include philosophy, history, sociology, economics, political science, psychology and social psychology, anthropology and cultural studies. These are fundamental sciences, consisting of many subdisciplines, sections, directions, and scientific schools.

Social science, having emerged later than many other sciences, incorporates their concepts and specific results, statistics, tabular data, graphs and conceptual diagrams, and theoretical categories.

The entire set of sciences related to social science is divided into two types - social And humanitarian.

If the social sciences are the sciences of human behavior, then the humanities are the sciences of the spirit. One can say differently: the subject of the social sciences is society, the subject of the humanities is culture. The main subject of social sciences is study of human behavior.

Sociology, psychology, social psychology, economics, political science, as well as anthropology and ethnography (the science of peoples) belong to social sciences . They have a lot in common, they are closely related and form a kind of scientific union. Adjacent to it is a group of other related disciplines: philosophy, history, art history, cultural studies, literary studies. They are classified as humanitarian knowledge.

Since representatives of neighboring sciences constantly communicate and enrich each other with new knowledge, the boundaries between social philosophy, social psychology, economics, sociology and anthropology can be considered very conditional. At their intersection, interdisciplinary sciences are constantly emerging, for example, social anthropology appeared at the intersection of sociology and anthropology, and economic psychology appeared at the intersection of economics and psychology. In addition, there are such integrative disciplines as legal anthropology, sociology of law, economic sociology, cultural anthropology, psychological and economic anthropology, historical sociology.

Let's get acquainted more thoroughly with the specifics of the leading social sciences:

Economy- a science that studies the principles of organizing the economic activities of people, the relations of production, exchange, distribution and consumption that are formed in every society, formulates the grounds for the rational behavior of producers and consumers of goods. Economics also studies the behavior of large masses of people in a market situation. In small and large - in public and private life - people cannot take a step without affecting economic relations. When negotiating a job, buying goods on the market, counting our income and expenses, demanding payment of wages, and even going on a visit, we - directly or indirectly - take into account the principles of economy.

Sociology– a science that studies the relationships that arise between groups and communities of people, the nature of the structure of society, problems of social inequality and the principles of resolving social conflicts.

Political science– a science that studies the phenomenon of power, the specifics of social management, and relationships that arise in the process of carrying out government activities.

Psychology- the science of the laws, mechanisms and facts of the mental life of humans and animals. The main theme of psychological thought in antiquity and the Middle Ages is the problem of the soul. Psychologists study stable and repetitive behavior in individual behavior. The focus is on problems of perception, memory, thinking, learning and development of the human personality. There are many branches of knowledge in modern psychology, including psychophysiology, zoopsychology and comparative psychology, social psychology, child psychology and educational psychology, developmental psychology, occupational psychology, creativity psychology, medical psychology, etc.

Anthropology - the science of the origin and evolution of man, the formation of human races, and the normal variations in the physical structure of man. She studies primitive tribes that have survived today from primitive times in the lost corners of the planet: their customs, traditions, culture, and behavior patterns.

Social psychology studies small group(family, group of friends, sports team). Social psychology is a frontier discipline. She was formed at the intersection of sociology and psychology, taking on tasks that her parents were unable to solve. It turned out that a large society does not directly influence the individual, but through an intermediary - small groups. This closest world of friends, acquaintances and relatives plays an exceptional role in our lives. In general, we live in small, not large worlds - in a specific house, in a specific family, in a specific company, etc. The small world sometimes influences us even more than the big one. That is why science appeared, which took it closely and very seriously.

Story- one of the most important sciences in the system of social and humanitarian knowledge. The object of its study is man and his activities throughout the existence of human civilization. The word “history” is of Greek origin and means “research”, “search”. Some scholars believed that the object of studying history is the past. The famous French historian M. Blok categorically objected to this. “The very idea that the past as such can be an object of science is absurd.”

The emergence of historical science dates back to the times of ancient civilizations. The “father of history” is considered to be the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who compiled a work dedicated to the Greco-Persian wars. However, this is hardly fair, since Herodotus used not so much historical data as legends, legends and myths. And his work cannot be considered completely reliable. There are much more reasons to consider Thucydides, Polybius, Arrian, Publius Cornelius Tacitus, and Ammianus Marcellinus to be considered the fathers of history. These ancient historians used documents, their own observations, and eyewitness accounts to describe events. All ancient peoples considered themselves historiographers and revered history as a teacher of life. Polybius wrote: “lessons drawn from history most surely lead to enlightenment and prepare us for engaging in public affairs; the story of the trials of other people is the most intelligible or the only teacher that teaches us to courageously endure the vicissitudes of fate.”

And although, over time, people began to doubt that history could teach subsequent generations not to repeat the mistakes of previous ones, the importance of studying history was not disputed. The most famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote in his reflections on history: “History teaches nothing, but only punishes for ignorance of the lessons.”

Culturology I am primarily interested in the world of art - painting, architecture, sculpture, dance, forms of entertainment and mass spectacles, institutions of education and science. The subjects of cultural creativity are a) individuals, b) small groups, c) large groups. In this sense, cultural studies covers all types of associations of people, but only to the extent that it concerns the creation of cultural values.

Demography studies population - the entire multitude of people who make up human society. Demography is primarily interested in how they reproduce, how long they live, why and in what numbers they die, and where large masses of people move. She looks at man partly as a natural, partly as a social being. All living things are born, die and reproduce. These processes are influenced primarily by biological laws. For example, science has proven that a person cannot live more than 110-115 years. This is its biological resource. However, the vast majority of people live to be 60-70 years old. But this is today, and two hundred years ago the average life expectancy did not exceed 30-40 years. Even today, people in poor and underdeveloped countries live less than in rich and highly developed countries. In humans, life expectancy is determined both by biological and hereditary characteristics, and by social conditions (life, work, rest, nutrition).

3.7 . Social and humanitarian knowledge

Social cognition- this is knowledge of society. Understanding society is a very complex process for a number of reasons.

1. Society is the most complex of the objects of knowledge. In social life, all events and phenomena are so complex and diverse, so different from each other and so intricately intertwined that it is very difficult to detect certain patterns in it.

2. In social cognition, not only material (as in natural science), but also ideal, spiritual relationships are studied. These relationships are much more complex, diverse and contradictory than connections in nature.

3. In social cognition, society acts both as an object and as a subject of cognition: people create their own history, and they also know it.

When talking about the specifics of social cognition, extremes should be avoided. On the one hand, it is impossible to explain the reasons for Russia’s historical lag using Einstein’s theory of relativity. On the other hand, one cannot assert that all the methods by which nature is studied are unsuitable for social science.

The primary and elementary method of cognition is observation. But it differs from the observation that is used in natural science when observing the stars. In social science, cognition concerns animate, endowed with consciousness objects. And if, for example, the stars, even after many years of observation of them, remain completely unperturbed in relation to the observer and his intentions, then in public life everything is different. As a rule, a reverse reaction is detected on the part of the object being studied, something that makes observation impossible from the very beginning, or interrupts it somewhere in the middle, or introduces interference into it that significantly distorts the results of the study. Therefore, non-participant observation in social science does not provide sufficiently reliable results. Another method is needed, which is called participant observation. It is carried out not from the outside, not from the outside in relation to the object being studied (social group), but from within it.

For all its significance and necessity, observation in social science demonstrates the same fundamental shortcomings as in other sciences. While observing, we cannot change the object in the direction that interests us, regulate the conditions and course of the process being studied, or reproduce it as many times as required to complete the observation. Significant shortcomings of observation are largely overcome in experiment.

The experiment is active and transformative. In an experiment we interfere with the natural course of events. According to V.A. Stoff, an experiment can be defined as a type of activity undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, the discovery of objective laws and consisting of influencing the object (process) under study using special tools and devices. Thanks to the experiment, it is possible to: 1) isolate the object under study from the influence of side, insignificant phenomena that obscure its essence and study it in its “pure” form; 2) repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed, controllable and accountable conditions; 3) systematically change, vary, combine various conditions in order to obtain the desired result.

Social experiment has a number of significant features.

1. The social experiment is of a concrete historical nature. Experiments in the field of physics, chemistry, biology can be repeated in different eras, in different countries, because the laws of natural development do not depend on the form and type of production relations, or on national and historical characteristics. Social experiments aimed at transforming the economy, the national-state structure, the education system, etc., can produce not only different, but also directly opposite results in different historical eras and in different countries.

2. The object of a social experiment has a much lesser degree of isolation from similar objects remaining outside the experiment and from all the influences of a given society as a whole. Here, such reliable isolating devices as vacuum pumps, protective screens, etc., used in the process of a physical experiment, are impossible. This means that a social experiment cannot be carried out with a sufficient degree of approximation to “pure conditions”.

3. A social experiment places increased demands on compliance with “safety precautions” during its implementation compared to natural science experiments, where even experiments carried out by trial and error are acceptable. A social experiment at any point in its course constantly has a direct impact on the well-being, well-being, physical and mental health of the people involved in the “experimental” group. Underestimation of any detail, any failure during the experiment can have a detrimental effect on people and no good intentions of its organizers can justify this.

4. A social experiment may not be conducted for the purpose of obtaining direct theoretical knowledge. Conducting experiments (experiments) on people is inhumane in the name of any theory. A social experiment is an ascertaining, confirming experiment.

One of the theoretical methods of cognition is historical method research, i.e., a method that reveals significant historical facts and stages of development, which ultimately makes it possible to create a theory of the object, revealing the logic and patterns of its development.

Another method is modeling. Modeling is understood as a method of scientific knowledge in which research is carried out not on the object of interest to us (the original), but on its substitute (analogue), similar to it in certain respects. As in other branches of scientific knowledge, modeling in social science is used when the subject itself is not available for direct study (say, does not yet exist at all, for example, in predictive studies), or this direct study requires enormous costs, or it is impossible due to ethical considerations.

In his goal-setting activities, from which history is formed, man has always strived to comprehend the future. Interest in the future has especially intensified in the modern era in connection with the formation of the information and computer society, in connection with those global problems that call into question the very existence of humanity. Foresight came out on top.

Scientific foresight represents such knowledge about the unknown, which is based on already known knowledge about the essence of the phenomena and processes that interest us and about the trends in their further development. Scientific foresight does not claim absolutely accurate and complete knowledge of the future, or its mandatory reliability: even carefully verified and balanced forecasts are justified only with a certain degree of reliability.

Social sciences, often called social sciences, study the laws, facts and dependencies of the socio-historical process, as well as the goals, motives and values ​​of man. They differ from art in that they use the scientific method and standards to study society, including qualitative and quantitative analysis of problems. The result of these studies is the analysis of social processes and the discovery of patterns and recurring events in them.

Social Sciences

The first group includes sciences that provide the most general knowledge about society, primarily sociology. Sociology studies society and the laws of its development, the functioning of social communities and the relationships between them. This multi-paradigm science views social mechanisms as self-sufficient means of regulating social relations. Most paradigms are divided into two areas - microsociology and macrosociology.

Sciences about certain areas of social life

This group of social sciences includes economics, political science, ethics and aesthetics. Culturology studies the interaction of cultures in individual and mass consciousness. The object of economic research is economic reality. Due to its breadth, this science represents a whole discipline that differs from each other in the subject of study. Economic disciplines include: macro- and econometrics, mathematical methods of economics, statistics, industrial and engineering economics, history of economic doctrines and many others.

Ethics is the study of morality and ethics. Metaethics studies the origin and meaning of ethical categories and concepts using logical-linguistic analysis. Normative ethics is devoted to the search for principles that regulate human behavior and guide his actions.

Sciences about all spheres of social life

These sciences permeate all spheres of public life, these are jurisprudence (jurisprudence) and history. Relying on various sources, history studies the past of mankind. The subject of the study of jurisprudence is law as a socio-political phenomenon, as well as a set of generally binding certain rules of behavior established by the state. Jurisprudence views the state as an organization of political power that ensures the management of the affairs of the entire society with the help of law and a specially created state apparatus.

Social Sciences

otherwise social science- study different aspects of human social life, but sometimes this term is used in the singular in the sense of general social science, and then it is synonymous with sociology (see). The sciences are closely related to the humanities, which study the spiritual side of human life; some see them only as a special branch of the humanities. The oldest of the S. sciences should be recognized politics(see) in the Aristotelian sense of the science of the state. With the development of specialization in the study of the state, even a special cycle of state (or political) sciences was formed, and this name includes general theories about the nature and structure of the state and the laws governing the phenomena that occur in its life, and historical investigations in the same area , and the doctrine of the norms of state life or the means of influencing this life to achieve certain practical goals. In the broad sense of the word, political sciences also include those legal and economic disciplines that in one way or another relate to the state: public and financial law, political economy, statistics. But in essence, law and national economy, as categories different from the category of the state, are studied in special cycles of social sciences, which have independent significance next to the political sciences. Start jurisprudence(see) in the sense of the scientific study of law was founded by Roman jurists, who pursued more practical goals, but at the same time created the first principles of the theoretical doctrine of law. Much later it became an independent science political economy (see), studying the social relations of people, which owe their origin to their economic activities. Its close connection with the previous “politics” was also reflected in its name, which, however, among the Germans is replaced by the names of “national economy” or “science of national economy” (“Nationaloekonomie, Volkswirtschaftslehre”). Recently, the name “social economics” has begun to spread, which means either political economy in the old sense, or even a special science with a new formulation of economic issues. Thus, social sciences can be divided into political, legal, and economic according to the categories of state, law, and national economy, not counting general social science, that is, sociology, which studies society from all aspects of its existence. The close connection that actually exists between the state, law and the national economy, of course, does not allow isolating one circle of knowledge from another, and in particular there are individual disciplines that equally fall within the realm of at least two categories. Such are, for example, state law, as a political-legal discipline, financial law, as a discipline of both economic and political, etc. Social sciences cannot lay claim to such perfection as the natural sciences are more or less distinguished by. This depends: 1) on the greater complexity of social phenomena, compared with phenomena of a physical nature, 2) on the longer-term subordination of the scientific sciences to metaphysical speculations, 3) on the recent systematic development of their methodology, and 4) on the influence exerted on them by practical interests, party passions and national, religious, class, etc. traditions, prejudices and prejudices. The idea that the imperfection of social sciences depends on the complexity of the phenomena they study was first clearly expressed by Auguste Comte, who was the first to very definitely formulate the need to create a positive science of society (see Sociology), but only in the second half of the 19th century. his idea began to have any lasting influence on various branches of social science. Likewise, the question of the systematic development of the methodology of the social sciences was first raised only in the middle of the 19th century. in Mill's Logic, and only at the very end of the century did this development make any progress. In the Middle Ages, political thinking was subordinated, like all philosophical and scientific activity in general, to theology, but from the era of humanism (see) secularization began (see. ) scientific thought mainly in favor of rationalism (see), which built its theories of social phenomena through pure speculation, detached from connection with reality, while objectively reliable knowledge is given only by experience and observation. A rich supply of factual material for the social sciences can only be provided by sciences that deal with past and contemporary reality, such as history, ethnography, and statistics. In their development, individual scientific sciences were, however, not in the same relationship to history. The earliest and strongest connection was established with history in politics, which even with Aristotle had a purely historical basis; in the 18th century In Montesquieu, politics is also intertwined with history. That is why Comte considered both of these thinkers to be his predecessors in sociology. On the other hand, history in former times had almost exclusively political content. On the contrary, the science of law, starting with the Roman jurists, was in a particularly close alliance with speculative philosophy, and the historical attitude towards law was long hampered by the conviction that Roman law itself was “written reason” (ratio scripta). Only at the beginning of the 19th century. in the form of a reaction against the rationalistic “natural law” of the previous jurisprudence, the historical school of law arose (see). Political economy, as a special science, also arose in the era of rationalism, and therefore it was dominated by the conviction that scientific laws and practical principles found by deduction can be considered absolute. In the middle of the 19th century. political economy also formed its own historical school (see); The study of economic phenomena and scientific socialism of the second half of the 19th century were placed on the same historical basis. Further, sociology, which set itself the task of studying social evolution, drew the attention of lawyers and economists to the primitive forms of law and national economy, to which ethnography sheds light (on the importance that statistics has received for the economic sciences, see Statistics). Theoretical foundations began to be sought for introducing a historical point of view and a historical method into the social sciences. In the field of sociology, Comte first pointed them out, and in economics there was even a great polemic in the name of historicism against the abstract-deductive method of the “classical” school. An important moment in the history of the social sciences was, finally, the introduction into them of the comparative or comparative-historical (see) method, the general significance of which was already foreseen by Comte; Even special directions of comparative politics have been created (see. Freeman's famous work under this title), comparative law, etc. In general, in the middle of the 19th century. A great revolution took place in social sciences, mainly under the influence of positivism (see Comte) and new social ideas. The first introduced into the system of science the idea of ​​scientific regularity of social phenomena and the need to use the methods of positive science when studying them. Mill, who first spoke about the logic of the social sciences, was followed by a number of writers who explored this issue from different points of view (Bahn, Wundt, etc. in general works on logic and many purely sociological works). On the other hand, the first thought about the need for a positive science of society originated with Saint-Simon (q.v.), who was both the teacher of Auguste Comte, the founder of sociology, and one of the founders of socialism. Rationalistic theories in politics, jurisprudence and political economy of the 18th century. were distinguished by too individualistic character, in the 19th century the idea of ​​the public was put forward, taken, moreover, not in the exclusively political sense of the state, which this idea had in the 18th century. Society in the broad sense of the word, its division into classes, the struggle between the latter, this is the new theme posed to the social sciences under the influence of new social aspirations. This was also reflected in historical science, where a special direction of social history arose (see), different from political and cultural history (the same connotation belongs to the expressions S. politics, S. economics, etc.). As subjects of teaching, social sciences were hitherto concentrated in law faculties, but recently special schools of social sciences have begun to emerge: in Paris Collège libre des sciences sociales, in Hertford College of sociology, etc. See University, Faculty, Jurisprudence.

Literature. In addition to the histories of individual social sciences, see Baerenbach, “Die Social Wissenschaften” (1882); Bain, "Logic" (department of social sciences; exists in Russian translation); Bouglé, “Les sciences sociales en Allemagne” (Russian translation available); Caporali, "Filosofia delle scienze sociali" ("La nuova scienza", 1892); Fouillée, "La science sociale contemporaine" (there is a Russian translation), Gothein, "Gesellschaft und Gesellschaftswissenschaft" (in "Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenchaften"); Hauriou, "La science sociale traditionnelle" (1896); Krieken, "Ueber die Begriffe Gesellschaft, Gesellschaftsrecht u. Gesellschaftswissenschaft" (1882); Lewis, "A treatise on the methods of observation and reasoning in politics" (1852); Masaryk, "Versuch einer concreten Logik" (1887); Mayr, "Die Gesetzmässigkeit im Gesellschaftsleben" (1887; there is a Russian translation); S. Menger, “Untersuchungen über die Methode der Social Wissenschaften und der politischen Oekonomie insbesondere” (there is a Russian translation); J. S. Mill, “System of logic” (department on the logic of social sciences; Russian translation available); M. van der Rest, "Enseignement des sciences, sociales" (1889); Simmel, "Zur Methodik der Social wissenschaft" (Schmoller's "Jahrbuch"); Wundt, "Logik" (Methodenlehre); H. Kareev, "Introduction to the study of sociology" (1897); M. Kovalevsky, "Historical-comparative method in jurisprudence and methods of studying law" (1880); V. Levitsky, "Tasks and methods of the science of national economy" (1890); S. Muromtsev, "Definition and basic division of law" (1879); Novgorodtsev, "Historical school of lawyers" (1896); V. Sergeevich, “The task and method of state sciences” (1871).

N. Kareev.

Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - S.-Pb.: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907 .

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