Parting

Types of lexicography. Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Types of linguistic dictionaries Lexicography as a science of language

Practical lexicography is the oldest human activity. If we turn to the Sumerian culture (and this is the 25th century BC), we will see that already at that time people tried to explain obscure words and compiled dictionaries, which they called glossaries or vocabularies. The appearance of dictionaries in the form in which we are accustomed to seeing them, that is, the so-called "early dictionary period", refers to the 16th century. Since then, a huge number of different dictionaries have been compiled. Practical lexicography performs socially important functions, providing language teaching, description and normalization of the language, interlingual communication, scientific study of the language. Lexicography seeks to find the most optimal and acceptable for perception ways of dictionary representation of the entire body of knowledge about the language.

By the 20th century, practical lexicography had accumulated rich experience in the lexicographic description of a language. From the middle of our century, this experience began to be described and generalized, and these generalizations led to the emergence of the theory of lexicography, which is defined today as "expediently organized knowledge that gives a holistic view of the entire series of issues related to the creation of dictionaries and other dictionary-type works.

Theoretical lexicography covers a complex of problems related to the development of the macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, the volume and nature of the dictionary, the principles of the arrangement of material) and the microstructure of the dictionary (the structure of the dictionary entry, types of dictionary definitions, the ratio of different types of information about the word, types of language illustrations, etc. ), the creation of a typology of dictionaries, with the history of lexicography.

The theory of lexicography includes:

1. consideration of the scope, content and structure of the concept of lexicography;
2. the doctrine of genres and types of dictionaries;
3. the doctrine of the elements and parameters; the doctrine of the basics of lexicographic construction and the possibility of computerization;
4. the doctrine of familiar vocabulary materials;
5. the doctrine of planning and organizing vocabulary work;
6. development and formation of lexicography rules

The universal principles and functions of dictionaries have been formulated today.

The main functions of dictionaries are:

1. educational;
2. systematizing;
3. reference;
4. normative.

The principles of lexicographic description include:

1. the principle of relativity and focus on the addressee
2. the principle of standardization
3. the principle of economy
4. the principle of simplicity
5. principle of completeness
6. efficiency principle
7. principle of semantic gradation of description

The universal functions and principles of the dictionary macrostructure determine the following universal features of any dictionary entry:

1. The requirement for clear addressing (reference function);
2. Description of the compatibility potentials of the word (principle of economy, completeness, efficiency);
3. Description of the semantic relationships of the word in the lexical system of the language (systematizing function);
4. The presence of illustrative examples, speech contexts (the principle of completeness, efficiency, traditionality)

The modern theory of lexicography is characterized by:

1. The idea of vocabulary as a system, the desire to reflect in the structure of the dictionary the lexical-semantic structure of the language as a whole and the semantic structure of a single word
2. Didactic view on the meaning of the word, taking into account the mobile nature of the connection between the signifier and the signified in the verbal sign
3. Recognition of the close connection of vocabulary with grammar and other aspects of the language.

A dictionary is an information resource that plays an orienting and explanatory role in the work of a translator. This is a reference book that contains words (or morphemes, phrases, idioms, etc.) arranged in a certain order (different in different types of dictionaries), explains the meaning of the units described, gives various information about them or their translation into another language, or provides information about the objects they represent.

Dictionaries perform the following social functions:

1) informative (allow in the shortest way - through designations - to join the accumulated knowledge);
2) communicative (contribute to interlingual communication, language learning, both native and non-native);
3) normative (fix the meanings and use of words, contributing to the normalization and unification of the language as a means of communication)

When compiling dictionaries, the following general principles should be taken into account:

1. stylistic unlimitedness is the belonging of the word to both written and colloquial speech and, in addition, the absence of any "territorial restrictions" in the use of the word;
2. semantic value is the inclusion mainly of those words that denote concepts and phenomena, and mostly of a fictional and political and economic nature (general literary and socio-political vocabulary is best known to language learners, various associative links are formed around it, a certain conceptual base is created) ;
3. ambiguity (the dictionary should focus on the knowledge of the "basic meanings of the word", which helps to expand both the active and passive vocabulary when teaching translation);
4. frequency. The frequency criterion is a feature that regulates the selection of vocabulary for dictionaries.

Brief description of traditional lexicography as a branch of general linguistics. Lexicography theoretical and practical. Problems of theoretical lexicography. Social functions performed by practical lexicography.

Lexicography is the science of dictionaries, it is a branch of linguistics that deals with the practice and theory of compiling dictionaries. This area partly belongs to applied linguistics. It is conditionally possible to divide lexicography into practical and theoretical.

Theoretical lexicography covers the following set of problems:

development of a general typology of dictionaries and dictionaries of new types;

development of the macrostructure of the dictionary (selection of vocabulary, the principle of the arrangement of words and dictionary entries, the selection of homonyms, inclusion in the dictionary corpus, etc.);

development of the microstructure of the dictionary, i.e. a separate dictionary entry (grammatical and phonetic commentary on a word, selection and classification of meanings, types of dictionary definitions, etc.);

Much attention is paid to the issue of the correlation of linguistic and non-linguistic (encyclopedic, regional studies, etc.) information in the dictionary.

Practical lexicography performs several important social functions:

language training, both native and foreign;

description of the native language (explanatory dictionaries);

interlingual communication (bilingual or other dictionaries, phrasebooks);

scientific study of the vocabulary of a language (etymological, historical dictionaries, dictionaries of dead languages).

The main oppositions on which the classification of traditional dictionaries is based (dictionary of the academic type versus. reference book, etc.). Specific types of dictionaries, examples.

The first in Russian science to address the problem of the typology of dictionaries was L.V. Shcherba. He proposed a classification of dictionaries based on 6 opposites:

Dictionary of academic type - dictionary-reference. An academic type dictionary is a normative one that describes the lexical system of a given language: it should not contain facts that contradict modern usage. In contrast to academic dictionaries, reference dictionaries can contain information about a wider range of words that go beyond the boundaries of the standard literary language.

Encyclopedic Dictionary - General Dictionary. Contrasting encyclopedic (describe a thing, reality) and linguistic dictionaries (describe words)

Thesaurus- aboutbull (explanatory or translation) dictionary. A thesaurus is a dictionary that lists all the words that appear at least once in a given language.

Ordinary (explanatory or translation) dictionary - ideological (ideographic) dictionary. In the ideological dictionary, words-concepts should be classified in such a way as to show their living relationship.

Explanatorydictionary- translation dictionary

Non-historical dictionary - historical dictionary

Definition and main directions of computer lexicography.

Computer lexicography: creation of automatic dictionaries, linguistic databases and development of programs for supporting lexicographic works.

Main directions:

automatic obtaining from the text with the help of computer tools of various dictionaries (frequency, terminological, concordances, etc.)

theoretical and practical aspects of compiling computer dictionaries for NLP systems. (Natural Language Processing)

creation of dictionaries, which are machine versions of traditional dictionaries.

Electronic collections of documents. Corpus linguistics, its connection with computer lexicography. The concepts of corpus, markup, representativeness. Case examples.

Corpus linguistics- a branch of linguistics that deals with the development, creation and use of text corpora.

A linguistic corpus is a collection of texts collected in accordance with certain principles, marked up according to a certain standard and provided with a specialized search engine. Corpus linguistics is a branch of computational linguistics.

The concept of a text corpus also includes a system for managing textual and linguistic data, which has recently been most often called a "corpus manager". This is a specialized search system that includes software tools for searching data in the corpus, obtaining statistical information and presenting the results to the user in a convenient form.

Representativity is understood as a necessary-sufficient and proportional representation in the corpus of texts of various periods, genres, styles, authors.

Linguistic markup types include:

morphological (This is the main type of markup in texts, it is considered as the basis for further stages of analysis - syntactic and semantic.)

syntactic (It is the result of syntactic analysis or parsing (from English parsing). Most often it is based on the grammar of the structures of the immediate constituents. Graphically, the syntagmatic relations between the members of the sentence are depicted, as you know, in the form of a tree, and in the text they are represented by pairs of opening and closing square brackets that frame various syntactic constructions - nominal, verbal and prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses.)

semantic (Semantic markup schemes provide for those cases when not a single word, but a phrase acts as a unit of meaning. All members of such a phrase receive the same code, while for each of them its serial number is additionally indicated, as well as the total number words in idiomatic expression ;)

anaphoric (Of all types of reference, the pronominal is the most difficult for automatic text processing.)

prosodic (In the corpora of transcribed sounding speech, marks are used that describe stress and intonation. Prosodic is often accompanied by the so-called discourse markup, which serves to indicate hesitation pauses, repetitions, reservations, etc.)

Case examples:

Over the past decades, work has been carried out in many countries on the creation of corpora of texts in national languages. The most intensive construction of English language corpora is going on, the first of which appeared in the 60s: these are Brown University Corpus and Lancaster/Oslo-Bergen Corpus (LOB). The text content of each of them includes approximately one million word usages and is provided with morphological markup. In addition, Lancaster/Oslo-Bergen Corpus has two subcorpuses - Leeds-Lancaster Treebank and Lancaster Parsed Corpus - equipped with syntactic markup. The largest at present is the British National Corpus (BNC), which reaches one hundred million words. The corpus began to be created in the 90s, approximately 90% of it consists of written material and 10% of speech recordings. The content of the corpus is morphologically marked. Of the text corpora created for other European languages, it is worth mentioning the corpus of the Institute of the German Language in Mannheim.

– National Corpus of the Russian Language, British National Corpus, International Corpus of English, Czech National Corpus

Lexicography(from Greek lexikon - dictionary, graphō - I write) is the science of dictionaries and the practice of compiling them. It is very closely related to lexicology and semasiology, being their practical section, since the systemic description of vocabulary is most clearly embodied in dictionaries of various types. At the same time, lexicography is also a theory, the subject of which is the development of principles and methods for compiling dictionaries.

For different peoples, the path from the first handwritten small dictionaries to multi-volume printed publications developed in its own way. Most European peoples in the first period of development of lexicographic practice developed only certain elements of future dictionaries. In the so-called pre-verbal period, such elements were glosses (from the Greek gl5ssa - an obsolete or little-used word). They were a translation or interpretation of an incomprehensible word or expression. These interpretations and translations were made either in the margins or directly in the text of the book. In the Western European tradition, the Greeks began to use glosses for the first time when studying the poetry of Homer. In the future, glosses began to be widely used in the interpretation of individual passages of the Bible, legal texts, and literary monuments. Later, numerous glosses

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were taken into special manuscript collections - glossaries, which are actually explanatory dictionaries of obsolete and little-used words for any text. Glossaries at that time were also called lexicons, lexis, etc. Glossaries paved the way for the publication of the first printed dictionaries. So, among the first among the Eastern Slavs were published "Lexis" (1596) by L. Zizania, "Lexicon of Slovenian Russian" (1627) by P. Berynda and others. To date, numerous and diverse dictionaries and encyclopedias are the most universal way preservation of human knowledge.

Encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries. encyclopedias(from French encyclopedic< гр.enkyklopaideia- круг знаний), или энциклопедическиеdictionaries, contain a body of knowledge in all areas of life and science or individual branches of knowledge. Encyclopedias that provide systematized knowledge in all areas of society and in various branches of science are called universal (for example, TSB - Great Soviet Encyclopedia, BE - Belarusian Encyclopedia, etc.). A special, or branch, encyclopedia contains a systematized body of knowledge from one field of science, technology, production or culture - medical, philosophical, physical, biological, architectural, musical and other encyclopedias.

The main difference between encyclopedias and linguistic dictionaries is the object of description. Encyclopedias reveal scientific concepts, provide information about objects and phenomena, events and persons, while linguistic dictionaries characterize words and only incidentally - objects and concepts. Linguistic dictionaries describe words with their meaning, usage, grammatical characteristics, morphemic composition, stylistic affiliation, spelling and orthoepic norms, etc.

The main types of linguistic dictionaries. Modern lexicography has numerous types of linguistic dictionaries, which differ from each other in purpose, form of presentation of material, content of dictionary entries, etc. The classification of dictionaries into types differs depending on the principles that underlie it. On the

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the diversity of classifications also influences the factor of the existence of transitional, mixed types of dictionaries. A dictionary can be both explanatory and encyclopedic (for example, the Larousse dictionary - named after the French publisher who organized the release of such dictionaries), linguistic and sectoral (for example, dictionaries of terms of various sciences and branches of technology), etc. At the same time, any classification contains a list of the main types of linguistic dictionaries.

Modern lexicography distinguishes monolingual, bilingual and multilingual dictionaries. monolingual Dictionaries usually contain information about the words of one language, the one in which this information is presented. AT bilingual and multilingual In dictionaries, words from one language are translated into another language or languages; therefore, such dictionaries are also called translation dictionaries.

Monolingual dictionaries, according to their purpose, as well as the content and structure of dictionary entries, are divided into explanatory, historical and etymological, phraseological and terminological, literary and dialect, orthoepic and spelling dictionaries, etc.

explanatory Dictionaries are one of the most ancient types of dictionaries, since glossaries are, in fact, the first representation of an explanatory dictionary. Initially, explanatory dictionaries were bilingual: the first dictionaries of European languages interpreted the words of their native language in Latin; in European languages during the Renaissance, explanatory dictionaries of the peoples of Asia, America, and Africa were created. The modern explanatory dictionary gives an interpretation of the meanings of the words of any language by the forms of the same language.

The main task of the explanatory dictionary is to interpret, explain the meaning of a word using a logical definition, selection of synonyms or an indication of the grammatical relationship to another word. In some explanatory dictionaries, pictures are sometimes used to reveal the meanings of words. Along with the main task, other tasks are solved in the explanatory dictionary: a grammatical description of the word is given, the use of the word in speech is shown with the help of illustrations, and the stylistic affiliation of the word is characterized.

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Modern explanatory dictionaries are usually dictionaries of modern literary languages; as a rule, they are of a normative nature. Explanatory dictionaries are sometimes divided into large, medium and small (one-volume). In other terminology, large dictionaries are called complete dictionaries, and small dictionaries are called short dictionaries. Large, or complete, dictionaries cover, if possible, the entire vocabulary of the literary language, which is why they are called thesauri (< гр. thēsauros- запас). Малые, или краткие, словари толкуют лишь наиболее активные в речи слова. К большим словарям можно отнести 17-томный "Словарь современного русского литературного языка" (1950-1965), 12-томный "Оксфордский словарь английского языка" (1934) и др. К средним толковым словарям можно причислить 4-томный "Словарь русского языка" (2-е издание в 1981-1984 гг.), "Толковый словарь русского языка" в 4-х томах под редакцией Д.Н. Ушакова, 5-томный (в 6 книгах) "Тлумачальныслоунік беларускай мовы" и др. К малым (однотомным) словарям относятся "Словарь русского языка" СИ. Ожегова, "Краткий толковый словарь русского языка" под редакцией В.В. Розановой и другие.

The description of the vocabulary of the language as a whole, and not just its literary vocabulary, is supplemented by dialect dictionaries, which are non-normative. Dialect dictionaries, in principle, cover the entire vocabulary of one dialect or group of dialects, both specific to a given dialect and coinciding with the vocabulary of a common language. The well-known 4-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Narrower dialect and regional dictionaries are also published, for example, the Pskov Regional Dictionary, the Smolensk Regional Dictionary, the Vitebsk Regional Dictionary, the Dictionary of Ryazan Dialects, etc.

Supplement the description of the lexicon of the dictionary phraseological dictionaries in which the phraseological fund of a particular language is systematized. For example, the repeatedly reprinted "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by A.I. Lepeshev, etc.

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The historical development of the vocabulary of a particular language can be traced in historical and etymological dictionaries. historical dictionaries include information related to the history of the words of a particular language, which is usually traced through written monuments. The type of historical dictionaries includes the "German Dictionary", begun by the Grimm brothers and published for over a hundred years (1854-1961), "Materials for a Dictionary of the Old Russian Language Based on Written Monuments" (1893-1912) by I.I. Sreznevsky, "Dictionary of the Russian language of the XI-XVII centuries", the multi-volume "Gistarychnyslounik of the Belarusian language", the publication of which has not yet been completed, and others. Etymological dictionaries contain information about the most ancient meanings and their motivation, as well as about the primary forms of words. Widely known is the "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by A.G. Preobrazhensky, "The Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by M. Fasmer and some other etymological dictionaries. In Belarus, the publication of the multi-volume "Etymalagichnagaslounika Belarusian language" is being published, which has not yet been completed.

The systematic nature of vocabulary is reflected in dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, in terminological dictionaries, dictionaries foreign words. Thus, the consistency of Russian vocabulary is described in the "Dictionary of Russian Synonyms", in the "Dictionary of Russian Language Antonyms" and "Dictionary of Russian Homonyms", which reflect the main lexico-semantic groupings of words in the Russian language. In terminological dictionaries, the vocabulary of a particular language is classified according to branches of knowledge. For example, among philologists, the "Dictionary of Linguistic Terms" by O.S. Akhmanova and "Dictionary of literary terms" L.I. Timofeev and S.V. Turaev. The division of vocabulary into "own" and "foreign" is reflected in the dictionaries of foreign words, where "foreign" is represented - borrowed vocabulary, for example, in the "Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by I.V. Lekhina and others, in "Slounika of Inshamous Words" by A.N. Bulyki and other dictionaries.

Widespread in lexicographic practice transferable, most often bilingual (for example, Russian-Belarusian and Belarusian-Russian dictionaries), and sometimes many

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language (for example, Belarusian-Russian-Polish) dictionaries. In them, instead of interpreting the meanings of words, their translations into another language or languages are given, that is, the equivalence of the vocabulary of a given language to the vocabulary of other languages is traced.

It is difficult to name an area of the language that would not be covered by modern lexicography. Grammar, word-formation, morphemic dictionaries, dictionaries of stresses and combinations of words, spelling and orthoepic dictionaries are published, which describe, systematize, and standardize almost all areas of language activity. There are new types of dictionaries that consider all or individual layers of vocabulary from a specific point of view. These are, for example, frequency, reverse and associative dictionaries. A task frequency dictionaries - show the degree of use of words in speech. AT reverse In dictionaries, words are arranged in alphabetical order of final letters, which is important for studying the productivity of suffixes. Associative Dictionaries are built on the basis of the study of word connections, associations that exist between words in the minds of speakers.

Recently, lexicographers have shown interest in the language of fiction. First of all, dictionaries of the language of individual writers are created, including all the words used in the surviving texts of the writer. For example, dictionaries of the language of Shakespeare, Goethe, Pushkin have been created; Anichenki. Dictionaries are also published that reflect the features of both the language of works of art and its vocabulary as a whole, for example, dictionaries of epithets ("Dictionary of epithets of the Russian language", etc.).

The type of dictionary is sometimes determined depending on the location of the material in it - alphabetic or non-alphabetic. Most often, in the construction of dictionaries, the alphabetical order of the material is used. Dictionaries with a non-alphabetical arrangement of material include the so-called ideographic dictionaries in which the distribution of words is carried out by classes of concepts. Ideographic dictionaries are also called thesauras. The Thesaurus of English Words and Expressions (1852) is considered the first modern ideographic dictionary.

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P.M. Roger. In this dictionary, the entire conceptual field of the English language was divided into four classes: abstract relations, space, matter, spirit. Each class is divided into types, each of which is divided into groups - there are only 1000 of them. Roger's scheme was later applied in compiling ideographic dictionaries of French, German, Spanish and other languages.

Speaking about the types of dictionaries, dictionaries are often distinguished as general and special, or differential. General Dictionaries cover common vocabulary or linguistic material, regardless of its professional, style, dialect, grammatical and similar division. Special dictionaries distinguish vocabulary on any one basis - dialect, professional, grammatical, etc.

Modern lexicography is an actively developing area of linguistics, striving to achieve an increasingly complete systemic description of the vocabulary of a language.

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The department of linguistics dealing with the compilation of dictionaries and their study is called lexicography(gr. lexikos- vocabulary and grapho- writing). Dictionary- a book containing a list of words or other language units (morphemes, phrases, phraseological units) placed in a certain order, most often alphabetically.

There are two types of dictionaries: encyclopedic(for example, "Great Soviet Encyclopedia", "Big Encyclopedic Dictionary", "Literary Encyclopedia", philosophical dictionary, etc.) and linguistic. In the first, concepts, phenomena are explained, information about various events is reported, in the second, words (and other language units) are explained, their meanings are interpreted. Linguistic dictionaries can also be encyclopedic, for example: "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" ed. V.N. Yartseva was published in 1990, and in 1997 published under the editorship of. Yu.N. Karaulov dictionary "Russian language: Encyclopedia".

Linguistic dictionaries are divided into two types: dictionaries multilingual(most often bilingual, for example, Russian-Croatian or Croatian-Russian) and monolingual in which words are explained using words of the same language.

Finally, among the monolingual dictionaries stand out: sensible, describing the lexical meaning of words (in passing also reflecting its spelling, stress, part of speech, individual grammatical forms), and aspect, describing words in terms of their spelling (spelling), pronunciation (orthoepic), morphemic composition (morphemic), word-formation derivatives (word-formation), grammatical forms (grammatical), origin (etymological, foreign words), as well as in terms of their relationship with other words (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, compatibility, etc.).

Some of the most important explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language:

1. The four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl 1863-1866). According to the compiler's own calculations, the dictionary contains about 80 thousand words collected by him personally (in total, the dictionary contains about 200 thousand words). Having put folk speech as the basis of the dictionary, Dahl sought to prove the uselessness of most of the foreign words. Instead of foreign words, Dahl often introduced non-existent words that he himself composed, or dialectisms, which was an undeniable extreme. For example: dexterity(instead of gymnastics) or horn-wrapping(instead of grimace).

2. In 1935-1940. a four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" was published, edited by D.N. Ushakov. The dictionary, numbering more than 85 thousand words, is built on the vocabulary of works of art, journalism, scientific works, and the words of the Soviet era are widely represented in it.

3. In 1949, the first edition compiled by S.I. Ozhegov's one-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language, which contained more than 50 thousand words. This is the most famous explanatory dictionary of the Russian literary language (its 23rd edition was published in 1991). Since 1992, the dictionary has been published under the names of two authors - S.I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova - and covers about 80 thousand words.

4. From 1950 to 1965, a 17-volume academic Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language was published, containing 120,480 words. It gives a grammatical description of words, notes the features of their pronunciation and spelling, provides normative stylistic marks, as well as etymological information. The meanings of words and the features of their use are illustrated by examples from the artistic, scientific and socio-political literature of the CIC-CC centuries.

5. Based on the 17-volume academic dictionary, a four-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language was created, edited by A.P. Evgenieva, published from 1957 to 1961 and containing 82159 words. In 1981-1984 A second, revised and enlarged edition has been published.

6. In 1998, the Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language was published in St. Petersburg, edited by S.A. Kuznetsova (2nd ed., 2000). The dictionary contains about 130 thousand words. In addition to commonly used words, the dictionary contains the main terms of modern science and technology, and some articles include encyclopedic references.

Questions on the lexicology of the modern Russian language

Give definitions of the concepts "lexicon" and "lexicology".
The word as a unit of language and its relationship with other units of the language (phonemes and morphemes).
Give definitions of the concepts "grammatical meaning of the word" and "lexical meaning of the word". Give examples.
Define the term "semantic field". Give examples.
What types of figurative meanings of words do you know? Give examples.
Define the concept of homonymy. Describe the different types of homonyms. Give examples.
Give examples of Russian-Croatian homonyms.
What words are called paronyms? Give examples.
What words are called synonyms? Describe the types of synonyms. Give examples. What are the functions of using synonyms in the text?
What words are called antonyms? Describe the types of antonyms. Give examples. What are the functions of using antonyms in the text?
Give definitions of the concept of "primordially Russian word". What layers stand out in the original Russian vocabulary? Give examples.
List the main reasons for borrowing words. Give examples.
What are the signs of Old Slavonicisms, in which they differ from native Russian words. Give examples.
Give examples of borrowed words that entered the Russian language from non-Slavic languages.
What happens in the process of mastering foreign borrowings? Give examples of words that are not fully mastered by the Russian language. What are the specific features of borrowings in Russian?
Define barbarism and exoticism. Give examples.
What is calque? What types of cripples do you know? Give examples.
What is dialect vocabulary? Describe the main groups of dialects that exist in the Russian language. Give examples of different types of dialectisms.
What is special vocabulary? Give definitions of the concepts "term" and "professionalism". Give examples.
What is jargon? What terms are used to denote the vocabulary of socially restricted use? What are the main ways to replenish jargon vocabulary. Give examples.
What words of the modern Russian language are classified as active, and which as passive vocabulary?
What words in Russian are called obsolete? Give examples. How are archaisms different from historicisms?
What types of archaisms do you know? Give examples.
What words are called neologisms? Name the ways of occurrence of neologisms in the Russian language. Give examples of general language and author's neologisms.
What is common interstyle vocabulary? Give examples.
What vocabulary refers to the "high" and what - to the "low" style? Give examples.
Name the main functional styles of the modern Russian language.
Give examples of expressive and emotionally colored vocabulary.
What is lexicography? Name the main types of dictionaries. What explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language do you know?

From Russian. gut - Croatian crijevo.

Rus. cheekbone - Croatian jagodica (na licu).

From Greek. gryps – 1) grif (u mitologiji: životinja pola lav pola orao); 2) crni strvinar.

From fr. griffe – pečat s ugraviranim potpisom; poseban natpis, oznaka (na knijgama, dokumentima).

From him. Griff – vrat (on violini, gitari).

Rus. chrome - posebno obrađena koža od koje se izrađuje obuća.

Rus. lame(short form – chrome) – chrome, sepav.

Yes 1 – jesti, hraniti se. Yes 2 (verb to be in the form of 3rd person singular present time) – 1) jest, je; 2) ima, postoji.

Tracing paper - transparent paper and a copy on such paper (from fr. calque- copy).

Word humanity arose in the Russian literary language thanks to V.G. Belinsky.

Lexicography (Greek lexkos - “verbal” and grapho - “I write”) is a branch of linguistics that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. The volume, nature and aspect of the presentation of information determine the type of dictionary.

There are the following types of dictionaries:

Encyclopedic Dictionary (encyclopedia) - a scientific reference publication in the form of a dictionary, which contains basic information in alphabetical order in all branches of knowledge. The encyclopedic dictionaries contain the names of prominent people, the names of countries, cities, rivers, the terminology of science, art, etc. . They explain the realities (objects, phenomena) that provide information about various events: the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Literary Encyclopedia, Children's Encyclopedia, political dictionary, philosophical dictionary, etc. .

A linguistic dictionary is a scientific reference publication where words (all parts of speech), stable combinations of words with their interpretation, stress, grammatical, stylistic, stylistic and other special marks are placed in alphabetical order. Linguistic dictionaries, in turn, are divided into two types:

Bilingual (more rarely multilingual), i.e., translations that we use when studying a foreign language, when working with a foreign text (Russian-English dictionary, Polish-Russian dictionary, etc.).

Monolingual.

Depending on the amount of information reported in the dictionary, single-volume and multi-volume dictionaries are issued. . According to the type of information contained in linguistic dictionaries, E. I. Dibrova suggests dividing them into:

Explanatory dictionaries that present general cognitive (epistemological) and linguistic information about the word, mainly in the form of everyday concepts and rarely - brief scientific concepts. Aspect dictionaries that put:

specialized word information. These include:

Dictionaries of synonyms ("Experience of the Russian Soslovnik" by D. I. Fonvizin (1783), "Experience of the Dictionary of Russian Synonyms" by P. F. Kalaidovich (1818), "Concise Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language" by R. N. Klyueva, "Dictionary of Russian Synonyms "Z. E. Aleksandrova (1968), two-volume "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" under the main editorship of A. P. Evgenyeva (1970-1971). "Dictionary of synonyms. Reference manual" under the same edition.);

Dictionaries of antonyms ("Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" by L. A. Vvedenskaya, "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" by N. P. Kolesnikov edited by N. M. Shansky, "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" and "" School dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" M. R. Lvov, edited by L. A. Novikov);

Dictionaries of homonyms ("Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language" by O. S. Akhmanova "Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language" by N. P. Kolesnikov, edited by N. M. Shansky);

Dictionaries of paronyms (dictionary-reference book by Yu. A. Belchikov and M. S. Panyusheva "Difficult cases of using single-root words of the Russian language. "Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language" by N. P. Kolesnikov (1971), dictionaries of paronyms are available in the books of O. V. Vishnyakova: "Paronyms in the Russian language" (1974) and "Paronyms of the modern Russian language" (1981 and 1987). "Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language" by O. V. Vishnyakova.);

Dictionaries of new words, etc. (in 1971, the dictionary-reference book "New words and meanings" was published under the editorship of N. Z. Kotelova and Yu. S. Sorokin, containing about 3500 new words, expressions and meanings of words that were not included in earlier published dictionaries A new edition of the dictionary, containing about 5500 new words, meanings and combinations of words, was published under the editorship of N. 3. Kotelova in 1984. These dictionaries reflect the material of the press and literature of the 60s and 70s).

specialized information about the grammatical properties of the word. These include:

Compatibility dictionaries (lexical) ("Educational Dictionary of Compatibility of Words in the Russian Language" edited by P. N. Denisov and V. V. Morkovkin (1978), containing about 2500 dictionary entries with the head word - noun, adjective, verb (2nd edition , corrected, in 1983);

Grammar dictionaries ("Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Inflection" by A. A. Zaliznyak comprehensively reflects modern Russian inflection (declension and conjugation), "Dictionary of indeclinable words" by N. P. Kolesnikov, containing about 1800 indeclinable nouns and other invariable words, a dictionary - reference book "Management in the Russian language" by D. E. Rozental, which includes over 2100 dictionary entries (2nd edition - in 1986), "Grammar and spelling dictionary" by A. V. Tekuchev and B. T. Panov (1976) 2nd edition (revised and enlarged) under the title "School Grammar and Spelling Dictionary" (1985));

Dictionaries of correctness (difficulties) ("Experience of a dictionary of irregularities in Russian colloquial speech" by V. Dolopchev, 1886 (2nd edition - in 1909), work by V. I. Chernyshev "Correctness and purity of Russian speech. Experience of Russian stylistic grammar "in two editions (1914-1915), published in an abridged edition in 1915, included in the "Selected Works" of V. I. Chernyshev (vol. 1, 1970), a dictionary-reference book edited by S. I. Ozhegov (compiled by L. P. Krysin and L. I. Skvortsov), containing about 400 dictionary entries on issues of modern word usage (2nd edition, corrected and supplemented - in 1965), a reference dictionary "Difficulties in word usage and variants of the norms of Russian literary language" edited by K. S. Gorbachevich (1973), "A Brief Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language. For Press Workers", containing about 400 words (1968), a dictionary-reference journal "Difficulties of the Russian Language" edited by L. I. Rakhmanova ( 1974 and 1981), the book "Grammatical correctness of Russian speech", presenting which is an "experience of a frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants", L. K. Graudina, V. A. Itskovich, L. P. Katlinskaya, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, I. F. Protchenko, L. I. Skvortsov (1976) , "Dictionary of the difficulties of the Russian language" by D. E. Rozental and M. A. Telenkova, containing about 30 thousand words related to issues of normative and variant spelling, pronunciation, word usage, form formation, grammatical compatibility, stylistic characteristics);

Word-forming Z. A. Potihi "School word-formation dictionary" (2nd edition, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov), containing about 25 thousand words with their word-formation structure, a reference book of service morphemes "How words are made in Russian" (1974) , a manual for students "School Dictionary of the Structure of Words in the Russian Language" (1987), A.N. Tikhonov "School Derivative Dictionary of the Russian Language" and the most complete "Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language" in two volumes (about 145 thousand words) (1985) );

Morphemic (A. I. Kuznetsova and T. F. Efremova "Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language" (1986));

Phraseological and other dictionaries (collection of S. V. Maksimov "Winged words" (republished in 1899 and 1955), collection of S. V. Maksimov "Winged words (An attempt to explain walking words and expressions)", collection of M. I. Michelson "Russian thought and speech. Own and alien. Experience of Russian phraseology. Collection of figurative words and allegories" (vols. 1-2, 1902-1903), collection "Winged words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions" by N. S. Ashukin and M. G. Ashukina (4th edition - in 1988), "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language"... edited by A. I. Molotkov (4th edition - in 1986), "School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" and "Dictionary of Russian proverbs and sayings" by V.P. Zhukov, a collection of "Proverbs of the Russian people" by V.I. about 800 phraseological units (2nd edition - in 1985).

specialized information about the history of the word. These include:

Historical dictionaries ("Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language according to written monuments" by I. I. Sreznevsky (1890-1912), "Dictionary of the Russian language of the XI-XVII centuries, "Dictionary of the Russian language of the XVIII century." edited by Yu. S. Sorokin);

Etymological and other dictionaries ("Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by A. G. Preobrazhensky "A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Shanskaya, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov (1961 ), "The Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by G. P. Tsyganenke (2nd edition - in 1989), "The Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by M. R. Fasmer - the most extensive of the dictionaries of this type (2nd edition - in 1986 -1987).

specialized information about the rules of spelling and pronunciation of the word. These include:

Spelling ("Reference Index" attached to the "Russian Spelling" by Y. K. Grot (1885), "Spelling Dictionary" by D. N. Ushchakov (since 1948 published and edited by S. E. Kryuchkov), academic "Spelling dictionary of the Russian language" edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, I. F. Protchenko and L. I. Skvortsov, containing 106 thousand words. Special spelling dictionaries were also published: "The use of the letter ё" by K. I. Bylinsky. S. E Kryuchkova and M. V. Svetlaeva (1945), "Together or separately?" B. Z. Bukchina, L. P. Kalakutskaya and L. K. Cheltsova (1972; 7th edition published in 1988, authors - B. Z. Bukchina and L. P. Kalakutskaya));

Orthoepic dictionaries ("To help the announcer" edited by K. I. Bylinsky (1951), on its basis the "Dictionary of stresses for radio and television workers" was created (1960; compilers - F. L. Ageenko and M. V. Zarva , the 6th edition, containing about 75 thousand words, was published in 1985 under the editorship of D. E. Rozental), the reference dictionary "Russian literary pronunciation and stress" under the editorship of R. I. Avanesov and S. I. Ozhegov , "Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms", authors S. N. Borunova, V. L. Vorontsova, N. A. Eskov, edited by R. I. Avanesov (5th edition - in 1989 .)).

specialized information about the frequency of the use of the word, about the use of the word by writers, about the spread of the word in a certain territory. These include:

Frequency Dictionaries ("Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" by E. A. Steinfeldt (1963), G. G. Yosselson's Frequency Dictionary (1953), "Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by L. N. Zasorina (1977));

Dictionaries of the language of writers ("Dictionary of the language of Pushkin" in four volumes, containing over 21 thousand words (1956-1961, supplement to it "New materials for the Dictionary of A. S. Pushkin" - 1982). Dictionaries of one work are "Dictionary-reference book" The Tale of Igor's Campaign "compiled by V. L. Vinogradova (issue 1, 1965, issue b-in 1984); "Dictionary of M. Gorky's autobiographical trilogy" (compiled by A. V. Fedorov and OI Fonyakova, 1974, 1986).

Dictionaries of epithets ("Dictionary of epithets of the Russian literary language" by K. S. Gorbachevich and E. P. Khablo (1979). "A short dictionary of epithets of the Russian language" by N. V. Vedernikov (1975);

Dialect dictionaries ("Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary" (1852) and "Supplement to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary" (1858), at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century a number of dictionaries of individual dialects and dialects were published, "Don Dictionary" by A. V. Mirtov (1929), "Brief Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary..." G. G. Melnichenko (1961), "Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data" (1967), etc.).

There are also the following types of dictionaries:

Reverse Dictionaries ("Reverse Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language" edited by G. Bielfeldt, "Reverse Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by M. V. Lazova);

Onomastic dictionaries ("Dictionary of Russian Personal Names" by N. A. Petrovsky, "Brief Toponymic Dictionary" by V. A. Nikonov. A peculiar combination of toponymic and derivational dictionaries are the publications: "Dictionary of names of the inhabitants of the RSFSR", containing about 6 thousand names, under edited by A. M. Babkin (1964), "Dictionary of names of the inhabitants of the USSR", containing about 10 thousand names, edited by A. M. Babkin and E. A. Levashov); -

Dictionaries of foreign words ("Lexicon of vocabulary new in alphabetical order", compiled at the beginning of the 18th century. Currently, the most complete is the "Dictionary of foreign words" edited by I. V. Lekhin, F. N. Petrov and others, "Dictionary of foreign expressions and words..." A. M. Babkina and V. V. Shendetsova, "School Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by V. V. Ivanov (compiled by V. V. Odintsov, G. P. Smolitskaya, E. I. Golanova , I. A. Vasilevskaya);

Dictionaries of abbreviations and dictionaries of linguistic terms ("Dictionary of Abbreviations of the Russian Language" edited by D. I. Alekseev, "Grammar Dictionary" by N. N. Durnovo (1924) and "Linguistic Dictionary" by L. I. Zhirkov (1945), "Dictionary of Linguistic terms" by O. S. Akhmanova, "Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms" by D. E. Rozental and M. A. Telenkova) .