Victorian England and its culture. Victorian era
Victorian Britain is the period of the reign of Queen Victoria on the English throne, which lasted from 1837 to 1901. This period is also called the “Victorian era” or “Victorian age”.
The ideal partner for parliamentary government is Queen Victoria. She was the force that ensured stability in Britain.
Victoria is the last queen from the Hanoverian dynasty (the Hanoverian dynasty ruled in Great Britain for 123 years). Under the rule of Victoria, Great Britain became one of the most advanced countries in the world, where the industrial revolution was one of the first to end. Queen Victoria strictly adhered to all laws governing the activities of Parliament. During the reign of Queen Victoria, a two-party parliamentary system was legally enshrined.
UK - “workshop of the world”
50-60s pp. XIX Art. - the beginning of the "golden era" of the economic and political development of Great Britain. At this time, she did not have a single serious opponent in the world. Great Britain has become the "workshop of the world", the "world banker", the "world carrier". Capitalist Great Britain was the master of the world market for industrial goods, which were of high quality and relatively low prices. They were better and cheaper than the products of other countries.
The UK has turned into a large worldwide workshop that processed not only its own raw materials, but also raw materials that were exported from other countries. She had no serious rivals either in industry or in trade.
Hence the explanation of the concept: Great Britain is the “workshop of the world”.
Prerequisites for the UK to become the “workshop of the world”
Completion of the industrial revolution.
Industrial monopoly.
The system of protectionism that operated in England.
colonial expansion.
A series of wars fought for the sake of English merchant capital.
1. Heavy industry developed rapidly, which was the basis for the re-equipment of all industry based on the latest achievements of science and technology.
2. The population of Great Britain in the 50-60s of the XIX century. accounted for less than 3% of the world's population, but it provided half of the world's iron, coal, cotton fabrics and many other goods.
3. The smelting of pig iron, the extraction of hard coal in Great Britain has been constantly growing.
In 1865, the tonnage of steam ships exceeded that of sailboats.
9. The steam merchant fleet provided transportation for English goods, and also transported goods from other countries, which allowed shipowners huge profits.
Great Britain in the middle of the 19th century, as well as Holland in the 17th century. called the "world carrier".
10. In the middle of the XIX century. The world's largest ship, the Bolshoi Vostochny, was built. He could sail to India and back on his own coal with 4,400 passengers on board.
11. British products were exported to different countries of the world, which, in turn, supplied the UK with raw materials and food.
Reasons for Britain's predominance in industry and commerce
1. In the UK, the industrial revolution happened earlier than in other countries of the world.
2. It has been equipped with the world's best machinery and equipment:
mechanical machines for metal processing;
mechanical spindles;
steam engines.
3. A lot of goods were produced only in the UK, not a single country in the world had:
improved headers;
sewing machines;
refrigerators.
4. In the UK, thanks to the use of machines, labor productivity at that time was the highest in the world.
5. Great Britain did not have serious competitors in the world market.
6. Machinery and equipment at that time were exported only from the UK.
7. Possession of a colonial empire is one of the conditions for industrial and commercial advantage in the world.
8. The stability of the monetary unit - the British pound sterling.
conclusions
Great Britain's position as the "workshop of the world" provided the English bourgeoisie with huge profits.
Great Britain became the richest and most powerful country in the world.
English entrepreneurs were the first in the world to begin exporting abroad not only goods, but also capital, building enterprises there, railways, establishing banks.
The assertion of liberalism
50-60s of the XIX century. The period of establishment in the UK of the principles of liberalism.
Liberalism is a socio-political trend that unites supporters of the parliamentary system, political rights and freedoms, the democratization of society, and private entrepreneurship.
In the 50s and 60s of the XIX century. Great Britain was the most democratic country in Europe, in which the principles of liberalism were established. No other country had such personal freedoms, freedom of free trade and enterprise, freedom of assembly and the press. Great Britain served as a haven for political exiles.
Liberalism developed in two parallel directions.
1. Political liberalism, which advocated:
the rule of law;
individual freedoms and rights, which should be limited only when they encroach on the rights of other people;
a small number of police forces;
a small bureaucratic administrative apparatus;
religious tolerance;
universal suffrage;
providing political protection to emigrants from other countries;
reformist course of development;
local self-government rather than centralization of power.
2. Economic liberalism, which was based on:
inviolability of private property;
free trade concepts;
the policy of non-intervention of the state in the economic life of the country;
the elimination of all restrictions on commercial and industrial activities;
development of free competition;
elimination of economic barriers within the country and between countries.
The ideologists of British liberalism were G. Cobden and D. Bright, who developed theories of the country's liberal development. They believed that:
"freedom of trade and enterprise" provides unhindered control over all trade transactions;
"freedom of competition" promotes the promotion of new industries in the industry, the unhindered search for new markets for their goods;
victory over competitors due to industrial and economic advantages;
the personality must be freed from all obstacles;
the state should not interfere in the activities of a private entrepreneur.
Formation of liberal and conservative parties
In the 50s and 60s of the XIX century. the country was dominated by landowners and the money bourgeoisie, who ruled the country without the industrial bourgeoisie, headed by both main political parties - the Tories (conservatives) and Whigs (liberals). Subsequently, the industrial bourgeoisie began to play an increasingly important role.
In the middle of the XIX century. finally established a two-party system. This period became the "golden age" of English parliamentarism, because Parliament played the role of the center of state life. There were no significant differences between the conservative and liberal parties, but there was a constant struggle for power.
The Liberal Party pushed for reforms.
The Conservative Party tried not to change anything, to stick to the old traditions. Both parties defended the existing system and the foundations of democracy, sought to prevent the possibility of a repetition of any political movement of the workers, similar to Chartism.
The most prominent politician in the ranks of the Conservative Party was Benjamin Disraeli, and the Liberal Party - Henry Palmerston and Gladstone.
For 20 years (1850-1870 pp.), the Tories (conservatives) formed government cabinets for only three years. The remaining 17 years the power was in the hands of the Whigs (liberals). For 36 years, the Liberal Party was headed by prominent statesmen G. Palmerston and J. Russell, who, showing flexibility, timely made concessions to the general population. However, the Whigs stubbornly resisted the further expansion of voting rights after the reform of 1832 p., did not want to carry out new democratic reforms.
The main content of the foreign policy actions of all British governments was to ensure the interests and protection of British capital.
Political system of Great Britain
In the 19th century Great Britain was a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament, in which the lower house (House of Commons) played the main role. The government, headed by the prime minister, who was appointed only from the representative of the party that won the elections, had broad powers in governing the country.
Features of the English political system
1. At that time, Great Britain was the most democratic state in Europe, in which the principles of liberalism were established.
2. No other country had such personal freedoms, freedom of free trade and enterprise, freedom of assembly and the press. Great Britain served as a haven for political exiles.
3. No one represented workers, farmers, farm laborers in parliament.
4. In political life, Great Britain was distinguished by the fact that there was no numerous bureaucracy.
5. The role of the state was reduced to the maintenance of law and order, the rule of law, the provision of defense, the conduct of foreign policy, the collection of taxes and the promotion of trade.
The Victorian era, like any other, is characterized by its own unique features. When they talk about it, then, as a rule, there is a feeling of sadness, because it was a time of high moral standards, which is unlikely to return.
This period was characterized by the flourishing of the middle class, high standards of relations were established. For example, such qualities as: punctuality, sobriety, diligence, diligence, economy and economy have become a model for all residents of the country.
The most significant thing for England at that time was the absence of hostilities. The country did not wage wars at that time and could concentrate its funds for internal development, but this is not the only characteristic feature of that time, it was also distinguished by the fact that it was precisely in this era that the rapid growth of English industry began.
During this period, the young She ascended the throne and was not only wise, but also a very beautiful woman, as her contemporaries noted. Unfortunately, we mostly know of her portraits, where she is in mourning and no longer young. She wore lifelong mourning for her husband, Prince Albert, with whom she lived happy years. The subjects called their marriage ideal, but revered. dreamed of being like the queen respected by all.
An interesting fact is that during the reign of Queen Victoria, a custom arose for Christmas to decorate the Christmas tree and give gifts to children. The initiator of this innovation was the Queen's husband.
Why is the Victorian era famous, why do we often remember it, what was so special about it? First of all, it is an industrial boom that began in England and led to rapid changes in the country. The Victorian era in England forever destroyed the old, familiar, old and very stable way of life. There was literally no trace left of it before our eyes, it uncontrollably disintegrated, changing the attitude of the inhabitants. At that time, mass production was developing in the country, the first photography studios, the first postcards and souvenirs in the form of porcelain dogs appeared.
The Victorian era is also the rapid development of education. For example, in 1837, 43% of the population in England were illiterate, but in 1894 only 3% remained. At that time, the printing industry also developed at a rapid pace. It is known that the growth of popular periodicals has grown 60 times. The Victorian era is characterized by rapid social progress, it made the inhabitants of their country feel at the very center of world events.
It is noteworthy that at that time the writers were the most respected people in the country. For example, Charles Dickens, a typical Victorian writer, left a huge number of works in which moral principles are subtly noticed. In many of his works, defenseless children are depicted and retribution is necessarily shown to those who unfairly treated them. Vice is always punishable - this is the main direction of social thought of that time. This was the Victorian era in England.
This time was characterized not only by the flourishing of science and art, but also by a special style in clothing and architecture. In society, everything is subject to the rules of "decency". Suits and dresses, both for men and women, were strict but refined. Women, going to the ball, could wear jewelry, but they could not afford to put on makeup, as this was considered the lot of women of easy virtue.
Victorian architecture is a special property of that time. This style is loved and popular so far. It has luxury and a variety of decorative elements, it is attractive to modern designers. The furniture of that time was solemn, with stucco lush forms, and many chairs with high backs and curved legs are still called "Victorian".
A lot of small tables with oddly shaped ottomans and, of course, paintings and photographs were an indispensable attribute of every decent house. Tables were always covered with long lace tablecloths, and heavy, multi-layered curtains covered the windows. It was a style of luxury and comfort. This is how the stable and prosperous middle class lived in the Victorian era, which ensured the prosperity of England for many years.
Victorian architecture is, first of all, a successful mixture of such styles as: neo-gothic, styles, and also there are elements in it. Architects used rich details with pleasure, used bright decorative techniques. This style is characterized by very high windows that resembled an inverted shield, elegant wood paneling, traditional granite fireplaces, and fences with majestic Gothic spiers.
When eight-year-old boys from aristocratic families went to live in schools, what did their sisters do at that time?
They learned to count and write first with nannies, and then with governesses. For several hours a day, yawning and bored, looking longingly out the window, they spent in the room reserved for classes, thinking about what wonderful weather for riding. A table or a desk was placed in the room for the student and the governess, a bookcase with books, sometimes a black board. The entrance to the study room was often directly from the nursery.
“My governess, her name was Miss Blackburn, was very pretty, but terribly strict! Extremely strict! I was afraid of her like fire! In the summer my lessons started at six in the morning and in the winter at seven, and if I came late, I paid a penny for every five minutes I was late. Breakfast was at eight in the morning, always the same, a bowl of milk and bread and nothing else until I was a teenager. I still can not stand either one or the other, We did not study only half a day on Sunday and all day on a name day. There was a closet in the classroom where books were kept for classes. Miss Blackburn put a piece of bread on her plate for her lunch. Every time I couldn’t remember something, or didn’t obey, or objected to something, she locked me in this closet, where I sat in the dark and trembled with fear. I was especially afraid that a mouse would come running there to eat Miss Blackburn's bread. In my confinement, I remained until, suppressing sobs, I could say calmly that now I am good. Miss Blackburn made me memorize pages of history or long poems, and if I was wrong even a word, she made me learn twice as much!”
If nannies were always adored, then poor governesses were rarely loved. Maybe because nannies chose their fate voluntarily and stayed with the family until the end of their days, and governesses always became by the will of circumstances. In this profession, educated middle-class girls, the daughters of penniless professors and clerks, were most often forced to work to help a ruined family and earn a dowry. Sometimes the daughters of aristocrats who had lost their fortune were forced to become governesses. For such girls, the humiliation of their position was an obstacle to them being able to get at least some pleasure from their work. They were very lonely, and the servants did their best to express their contempt for them. The more noble the family of a poor governess was, the worse they treated her.
The servant believed that if a woman is forced to work, then she is equated in her position with them, and did not want to look after her, diligently demonstrating her disdain. If the poor thing got a job in a family in which there were no aristocratic roots, then the owners, suspecting that she looks down on them and despises them for their lack of proper manners, did not like her and endured only so that their daughters learned to behave in society.
Apart from teaching their daughters languages, playing the piano and watercolor painting, the parents cared little for deep knowledge. The girls read a lot, but chose not moral books, but love stories, which they slowly dragged from their home library. They went down to the common dining room only for lunch, where they sat at a separate table with their governess. Tea and pastries were carried upstairs to the study room at five o'clock. After that, the children did not receive any food until the next morning.
“We were allowed to spread butter or jam on bread, but never both, and eat only one serving of cheesecakes or cakes, which we washed down with plenty of fresh milk. When we were fifteen or sixteen, we no longer had enough of this amount of food and we constantly went to bed hungry. After we heard that the governess went into her room, carrying a tray with a large portion of supper, we slowly descended barefoot down the back stairs to the kitchen, knowing that there was no one there at that time, since loud conversation and laughter could be heard from the room, where the servants ate. Stealthily we collected what we could and returned to the bedrooms satisfied.
Often, French and German women were invited as governesses to teach French and German to their daughters. “Once we were walking along the street with Mademoiselle and met my mother's friends. That same day they wrote her a letter saying that my prospects for marriage were being jeopardized because the ignorant governess was wearing brown shoes instead of black ones. “Darling,” they wrote, “cocottes walk around in brown shoes. What can they think of dear Betty if such a mentor looks after her!”
Lady Hartwrich (Betty) was the younger sister of Lady Twendolen, who married Jack Churchill. When she came of age, she was invited to hunt quite far from home. To get to the place, she had to use the railway. Early in the morning she was escorted to the station by a groom, who was obliged to meet her here that same evening. Further, with the luggage that made up all the equipment for hunting, she rode in a stall car with a horse. It was considered quite normal and acceptable for a young girl to travel sitting on straw with her horse, since it was believed that he would protect her and kick anyone who entered the stall car. However, if she were unaccompanied in a passenger car with the whole audience, among which there could be men, society would condemn such a girl.
In carriages pulled by little ponies, the girls could travel alone outside the estate, visiting their girlfriends. Sometimes the path lay through forest and fields. The absolute freedom that the young ladies enjoyed on the estates disappeared instantly as soon as they got into the city. Conventions were waiting for them here at every turn. “I was allowed to ride alone in the dark through the forest and the field, but if I wanted to walk through a park in the center of London full of walking people in the morning to meet my friend, they would immediately put a maid on me.”
For three months, while the parents and older daughters moved in society, the younger ones on their upper floor, together with the governess, repeated lessons.
One of the famous and very expensive governesses, Miss Wolf, opened classes for girls in 1900, which worked until the Second World War. “I myself attended them when I was 16, and therefore, by personal example, I know what the best education for girls was at that time. Miss Wolfe had previously taught to the finest aristocratic families and eventually inherited enough money to buy a large house on Mather's Adley Street South. In one part of it, she arranged classes for selected girls. She taught the best ladies of our high society, and I can safely say that I myself have benefited a lot from this beautifully organized mess in her educational process. For three o'clock in the morning we girls and girls of all ages met at a long table in our cozy study room, the former living room in this elegant 18th century mansion. Miss Wolf, a small, frail woman with huge glasses that made her look like a dragonfly, explained to us the subject that we were to study that day, then went to the bookcases and took out books for each of us. At the end of the classes, there was a discussion, sometimes we wrote essays on topics in history, literature, geography. One of our girls wanted to study Spanish, and Miss Wolf immediately began to teach her grammar. It seemed that there was no subject that she did not know! But her most important talent was that she knew how to kindle in young heads the fire of a thirst for knowledge and curiosity for the subjects studied. She taught us to find interesting sides in everything. She had a lot of familiar men who sometimes came to our school, and we got a point of view on the subject of the opposite sex.
In addition to these lessons, the girls also learned dancing, music, needlework and the ability to stay in society. In many schools, as a test before admission, the task was to sew on a button or overcast a buttonhole. However, this pattern was observed only in England. Russian and German girls were much more educated (according to Lady Hartvrich) and knew three or four languages perfectly, and in France the girls were also more refined in manners.
How difficult it is now for our free-thinking generation, practically not subject to public opinion, to understand that just a little over a hundred years ago, it was precisely this opinion that determined the fate of a person, especially girls. It is also impossible for a generation that grew up beyond class and class boundaries to imagine a world in which insurmountable restrictions and barriers arose at every turn. Girls from good families were never allowed to be alone with a man, even for a few minutes in the living room of their own house. In society, they were convinced that if a man was alone with a girl, he would immediately harass her. Those were the conventions of the time. The men were in search of prey and prey, and the girls were protected from those who wanted to pick the flower of innocence.
All Victorian mothers were very concerned about the latter circumstance, and in order to prevent rumors about their daughters, who often dissolved in order to eliminate a happier rival, did not let them go and controlled their every step. Girls and young women were also under constant surveillance by the servants. The maids woke them up, dressed them, waited at the table, the young ladies made morning visits accompanied by a lackey and a groom, at balls or in the theater they were with mothers and matchmakers, and in the evening, when they returned home, sleepy maids undressed them. The poor things were almost never left alone. If a miss (an unmarried lady) slipped away from her maid, matchmaker, sister and acquaintances for just an hour, then dirty assumptions were already being made that something could happen. From that moment on, the contenders for the hand and heart seemed to evaporate.
Beatrix Potter, the beloved English children's writer, in her memoirs recalled how she once went to the theater with her family. She was 18 at the time and had lived in London all her life. However, near Buckingham Palace, the Houses of Parliament, the Strand and the Monument - famous places in the city center, which it was impossible not to drive past, she had never been. “It is amazing to state that this was the first time in my life! she wrote in her memoirs. “After all, if I could, I would gladly walk here alone, without waiting for someone to accompany me!”
At the same time, Bella Wilfer, from Dickens' book Our Mutual Friend, traveled alone through the city from Oxford Street to Hollowen Prison (more than three miles), according to the author, "as if a crow flies", and no one I didn't think it was weird. One evening, she went to look for her father in the city center and was only noticed because there were only a few women on the street in the financial district at that time. It's strange, two girls of the same age, and so differently treated the same question: can they go out alone on the street? Of course, Bella Wilfer is a fictional character, and Beatrix Potter actually lived, but the point is that there were different rules for different classes. The poor girls were much freer in their movements due to the fact that there was no one to follow them and accompany them wherever they went. And if they worked as servants or in a factory, then they made the way back and forth alone and no one thought it was indecent. The higher the status of a woman, the more rules and decorum she was entangled.
An unmarried American woman who had come to England with her aunt to visit her relatives had to return home on inheritance matters. Aunt, fearful of another long voyage, did not go with her. When six months later the girl reappeared in British society, she was received very coldly by all the important ladies on whom public opinion depended. After the girl made such a long journey on her own, they did not consider her virtuous enough for their circle, suggesting that, being left unattended, she could do something unlawful. Marriage for a young American woman was in jeopardy. Fortunately, having a flexible mind, she did not reproach the ladies for their outdated views and prove them wrong, but instead, for several months she demonstrated exemplary behavior and, having established herself in society on the right side, having, moreover, a pleasant appearance, very successfully got married.
As a countess, she quickly silenced any gossipers who still had the desire to discuss her "dark past".
The wife had to obey and obey her husband in everything, just like the children. A man, on the other hand, should be strong, decisive, businesslike and fair, since he was responsible for the whole family. Here is an example of an ideal woman: “There was something inexplicably tender in her image. I will never allow myself to raise my voice or just speak to her loudly and quickly, for fear of frightening her and hurting her! Such a delicate flower should be fed only by love!”
Tenderness, silence, ignorance of life were typical features of the ideal bride. If a girl read a lot and, God forbid, not etiquette books, not religious or classical literature, not biographies of famous artists and musicians or other decent publications, if she had seen Darwin's On the Origin of Species or similar scientific works in her hands, then it looked as bad in the eyes of society as if she had been seen reading a French novel. After all, a smart wife, having read such "nasty things", would begin to express her ideas to her husband, and he would not only feel stupider than her, but also would not be able to keep her in check. Here is how Molly Hages, an unmarried girl from a poor family, who herself had to earn a living, writes about this. Being a hat milliner and having lost her business, she went to Cornwall to her cousin, who was afraid of her, considering her modern. “After a while, my cousin complimented me: “They told us that you are smart. And you are not at all!”
In the language of the XIX century, this meant that, it turns out, you are a worthy girl with whom I will be happy to make friends. Moreover, it was expressed by a girl from the outback to a girl who came from the capital - a hotbed of vice. These words of the cousin made Molly think about how she should behave: “I must hide the fact that I was educated and worked by myself, and even more hide my interest in books, paintings and politics. Soon, I gave myself wholeheartedly to gossip about romance and "how far some girls can get" - a favorite topic of the local society. At the same time, I found it quite convenient for me to seem somewhat strange. It was not considered a defect or a defect. Knowledge is what I had to hide from everyone!”
The already mentioned girl from America, Sarah Duncan, remarked bitterly: “In England, an unmarried girl of my age should not talk much ... It was quite difficult for me to accept this, but later I realized what was the matter. You need to keep your opinions to yourself. I began to speak rarely, little and found that the best topic that suits everyone is the zoo. No one will judge me if I talk about animals."
Also a great topic for conversation is opera. The opera Gilbert and Sillivan was considered very popular at that time. In Gissing's work entitled "Women in Discord", the hero visited the friend of an emancipated woman:
“What, is this new opera Schilberg and Sillivan really that good? he asked her.
- Very! Have you really not seen it yet?
- Not! I'm really ashamed to admit it!
- Go tonight. Unless, of course, you get a free seat. What part of the theater do you prefer?
“I am a poor man, as you know. I have to be content with a cheap place."
A few more questions and answers - a typical mixture of banality and intense insolence, and the hero, peering into the face of his interlocutor, could not help smiling. “Isn't it true, our conversation would have been approved over traditional tea at five o'clock. Exactly the same dialogue I heard yesterday in the living room!”
Such communication with conversations about nothing led someone to despair, but most were quite happy.
Until the age of 17-18, girls were considered invisible. They were present at parties, but did not have the right to say a word until someone addressed them. Yes, and then their answers should be very brief. They seemed to have an understanding that the girl was noticed only out of politeness. Parents continued to dress their daughters in similar simple dresses so that they would not attract the attention of suitors intended for their older sisters. No one dared jump their turn, as happened to Eliza Bennet's younger sister in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice. When their hour finally came, all attention at once turned to the blossoming flower, the parents dressed the girl in all the best so that she would take her rightful place among the first brides of the country and be able to attract the attention of profitable suitors.
Every girl, entering the world, experienced a terrible excitement! After all, from that moment on, she became noticeable. She was no longer a child who, with a pat on the head, was sent away from the hall where the adults were. Theoretically, she was prepared for this, but practically she had not the slightest experience of how to behave in such a situation. After all, at that time the idea of evenings for young people did not exist at all, as well as entertainment for children. Balls and receptions were given for the nobility, for royalty, for the guests of their parents, and the young were only allowed to attend these events.
Many girls aspired to get married only because they considered their own mother to be the worst of evils, saying that it was ugly to sit cross-legged. They really had no idea about life, and this was considered their great advantage. Experience was seen as bad form and almost equated with bad reputation. No man would want to marry a girl with a bold, as it was believed, daring outlook on life. Innocence and modesty were traits highly valued in young girls by the Victorians. Even the colors of their dresses, when they went to the ball, were surprisingly uniform - different shades of white (a symbol of innocence). Before marriage, they did not wear jewelry and could not wear bright dresses.
What a contrast with spectacular ladies dressed in the best outfits, traveling in the best carriages, cheerfully and uninhibitedly receiving guests in richly furnished houses. When mothers went out into the street with their daughters, in order to avoid explaining who these beautiful ladies were, they forced the girls to turn away. The young lady should not have known anything about this "secret" side of life. It was such a big blow for her when, after marriage, she discovered that her husband was uninteresting and he preferred to spend time in the company of such cocottes. Here is how the Daily Telegraph journalist describes them:
“I stared at the sylphs as they flew or swam in their delightful traveling costumes and intoxicatingly beautiful hats, some in beaver hunting with flowing veils, others in coquettish green-feathered cavaliers. And as this magnificent cavalcade passed by, the mischievous wind slightly lifted their skirts, revealing small, tight-fitting boots, with a military heel, or tight trousers for riding.
How much excitement at the sight of dressed legs, much more than now at the sight of undressed ones!
Not only was the whole system of life built in such a way as to observe morality, but clothing was an inevitable barrier to vice, because the girl was wearing up to fifteen layers of undershirts, skirts, bodices and corsets, which she could not get rid of without the help of a maid. Even assuming her date was skilled in lingerie and could help her, most of the date would have gone into getting rid of the clothes and then putting them back on. At the same time, the experienced eye of the maid would instantly see the problems in the petticoats and shirts, and the secret would still be revealed.
Months, if not years, passed in Victorian times between the beginning of sympathy for each other, which began with a twitch of eyelashes, timid glances that lingered a little longer on the subject of interest, sighs, a slight blush, rapid heartbeat, excitement in the chest, and a decisive explanation. From that moment on, everything depended on whether the girl's parents liked the applicant for the hand and heart. If not, then they tried to find another candidate who met the main criteria of that time: title, respectability (or public opinion) and money. Interested in the daughter's future chosen one, who could be several times older than her and cause disgust, her parents reassured her that she would endure and fall in love. In such a situation, the opportunity to quickly become a widow was attractive, especially if the spouse left a will in her favor.
If a girl did not marry and lived with her parents, then most often she was a prisoner in her own house, where she continued to be treated as a minor who did not have her own opinions and desires. After the death of her father and mother, the inheritance was most often left to the elder brother, and she, having no means of subsistence, moved to live in his family, where she was always put in last place. Servants carried her around the table, her brother's wife commanded her, and again she found herself in complete dependence. If there were no brothers, then the girl, after her parents left this world, moved to her sister's family, because it was believed that an unmarried girl, even if she is an adult, is not able to take care of herself. It was even worse there, since in this case her brother-in-law, that is, a stranger, decided her fate. When a woman married, she ceased to be the mistress of her own money, which was given for her as a dowry. The husband could drink them away, walk away, lose or give them to his mistress, and the wife could not even reproach him, as this would be condemned in society. Of course, she could be lucky, and her beloved husband could be successful in business and reckon with her opinion, then life really passed in happiness and peace. But if he turned out to be a tyrant and a petty tyrant, then all that remained was to wait for his death and be afraid at the same time to be left without money and a roof over his head.
To get the right groom, they did not hesitate to use any means. Here is a scene from a popular play, which Lord Ernest himself wrote and often performed in the home theater:
“The rich house on the estate, where Hilda, sitting in her own bedroom in front of a mirror, combs her hair after an event that occurred during a game of hide and seek. Her mother Lady Dragon enters.
Lady Dragoy. Well, you did the same, dear!
Hilda. What's up, mom?
Lady Dragon (derisively). What business! To sit all night with a man in the closet and not make him propose!
Hilda, Not all night at all, just a short time before dinner.
Lady Dragon. This is the same!
Hilda. Well, what could I do, mom?
Lady Dragon. Don't pretend to be stupid! A thousand things you could do! Did he kiss you?
Hilda. Yes mom!
Lady Dragon. And you just sat there like an idiot and let yourself be kissed for an hour?
Hilda (sobbing). Well, you said yourself that I shouldn't oppose Lord Paty. And if he wants to kiss me, then I have to let him.
Lady Dragon. You really are a real fool! Why didn't you scream when the prince found you two in his wardrobe?
Hilda. Why did I have to scream?
Lady Dragon. You don't have a brain at all! Don't you know that as soon as you heard the sound of footsteps, you should have shouted: "Help! Help! Get your hands off me, sir!" Or something similar. Then he would have been forced to marry you!
Hilda. Mom, but you never told me about it!
Lady Dragon. God! Well, it's so natural! You should have guessed! As I will now explain to my father... Well, all right. It's no use talking to a brainless chicken!
The maid enters with a note on a tray.
Housemaid. My lady, a letter for Miss Hilda!
Hilda (reading the note). Mother! It's Lord Pati! He asks me to marry him!
Lady Dragoy (kissing her daughter). My dear, dear girl! You have no idea how happy I am! I always said that you are my smart one!
The above passage shows another contradiction of its time. Lady Dragon did not see anything reprehensible in the fact that her daughter, contrary to all the Norms of Behavior, was alone with a man for an hour! Yes, even in the closet! And all this because they played a very common home game of "hide and seek", where the rules not only allowed, but also prescribed to scatter, breaking into pairs, since the girls could be frightened by dark rooms lit only by oil lamps and candles. At the same time, it was allowed to hide anywhere, even in the owner's closet, as was the case.
With the beginning of the season, there was a revival in the world, and if a girl did not find a husband for herself last year, her excited mother could change her matchmaker and start hunting for suitors again. At the same time, the age of the matchmaker did not matter. Sometimes she was even younger and more playful than the treasure she offered and at the same time carefully guarded. It was allowed to retire to the winter garden only for the purpose of offering a hand and heart.
If a girl disappeared for 10 minutes during the dance, then in the eyes of society she was already noticeably losing her value, so the matchmaker relentlessly turned her head in all directions during the ball so that her ward remained in sight. During the dance, the girls sat on a well-lit sofa or in a row of chairs, and young people approached them to sign up for a ball book for a certain dance number.
Two dances in a row with the same gentleman attracted the attention of everyone, and the matchmakers began to whisper about the engagement. Only Prince Albert and Queen Victoria were allowed three in a row.
And it certainly was completely unacceptable for ladies to make visits to a gentleman except on very important matters. Every now and then in the English literature of that time, examples are given: “She knocked nervously and immediately regretted it and looked around, afraid to see suspicion or mockery in the respectable matrons passing by. She had doubts, because a lonely girl should not visit a lonely man. She pulled herself together, straightened up and knocked again more confidently. The gentleman was her manager and she really needed to speak to him urgently.”
However, all conventions ended where poverty reigned. What kind of supervision could be for girls who were forced to earn a living. Did anyone think that they alone walked along the dark streets, looking for a drunken father, and in the service also no one cared that the maid was left alone in the room with the owner. The moral standards for the lower class were completely different, although here the main thing was that the girl took care of herself and did not cross the last line.
Born into poor families, they worked to the point of exhaustion and could not resist when, for example, the owner of the store in which they worked, persuaded them to cohabitate. They could not refuse, even knowing what fate befell many others who had previously worked at the same place. The addiction was terrible. Having refused, the girl lost her place and was doomed to spend long weeks, or even months, in search of a new one. And if the last money was paid for housing, it means that she had nothing to eat, she could faint at any moment, but she was in a hurry to find a job, otherwise she could lose the roof over her head.
Imagine if at the same time she had to feed her elderly parents and little sisters! She had no choice but to sacrifice herself for them! For many poor girls, this could be a way out of poverty, if not for children born out of wedlock, which changed everything in their situation. At the slightest hint of pregnancy, the lover left them, sometimes without any means of subsistence. Even if he helped for a while, the money still ran out very quickly, and the parents, who had previously encouraged their daughter to feed the whole family with the means earned in this way, now, without receiving more money, dishonored her daily and showered curses. All the gifts that she had received before from a rich lover were eaten up. Shame and humiliation awaited her at every turn. It was impossible for a pregnant woman to get a job - it means that she settled with an extra mouth on the neck of an already poor family, and after the birth of a child there were constant worries about who would look after him while she was at work.
And all the same, even knowing all the circumstances, before the temptation to hide at least for a while from oppressive poverty, open the curtain to a completely different joyful, elegant world, walk down the street in stunningly beautiful and expensive outfits and look down on people from whom so much work depended on for years, and therefore life, it was almost impossible to resist! To some extent, this was their chance, which they would have regretted in any case, accepting it or rejecting it.
The statistics were relentless. For every former store clerk who proudly strutted around in expensive outfits in the apartment her lover rented for her, there were hundreds whose lives were ruined for the same reason. A man could lie about his status, or intimidate, or bribe, or take by force, you never know the ways in which resistance can be broken. But, having achieved his goal, he most often remained indifferent to what would happen to the poor girl, who would surely get tired of him. Will the poor thing manage her life? How will she recover from the shame that has befallen her? Will she die of grief and humiliation, or will she be able to survive? What will happen to their common child? The former lover, the culprit of her disgrace, now avoided the unfortunate and, as if afraid of getting dirty, turned away, making it clear that there could be nothing in common between him and this dirty girl. She might as well be a thief! Driver, move!"
Even worse was the situation of the poor illegitimate child. Even if his father provided financial assistance until he came of age, even then every minute of his life he felt that they did not want him to be born and that he was not like the others. Still not understanding the word illegitimate, he already knew that it had a shameful meaning, and all his life he could not wash off the dirt.
Mr. William Whiteley cohabited all his saleswomen and abandoned them when they became pregnant. When one of his illegitimate sons grew up, then, experiencing a burning hatred for his father, one day he went to the store and shot him. In 1886, Lord Querlingford wrote in his journal after he had passed through one of the main streets of Mayfair after supper: "It is strange to go through the rows of women silently offering their bodies to passing men." Such was the result of almost all the poor girls who, to use the terminology of the 19th century, "plunged themselves into the abyss of debauchery." The cruel time did not forgive those who neglected public opinion. The Victorian world was divided into only two colors: white and black! Either virtuous to the point of absurdity, or depraved! Moreover, as we saw above, one could be assigned to the last category, just because of the wrong color of the shoes, because of flirting in front of everyone with a gentleman during the dance, and you never know because of which young girls were awarded a brand from old maidens that, pursing their lips into a thin thread, they watched the youth at the balls.
Text by Tatjana Dittrich (from Daily Life in Victorian England.
Reproductions of paintings by James Tissot.
a source
http://gorod.tomsk.ru/
The Victorian era in England began with the coming to power of Queen Victoria in 1837. Historians describe this period with admiration, art critics consider it with genuine interest, and political scientists from all over the world study the Empress's system of government. This era in England can be called the heyday of a new culture and the age of discovery. Such a favorable development of the kingdom during the period of Victoria's rule, which lasted until 1901, was also influenced by the relatively calm situation of the country and the absence of major wars.
Personal life and reign of Queen Victoria
The Queen ascended the throne at a very young age - she was only 18. However, it was during the reign of this great woman that great cultural, political and economic changes took place in England. The Victorian era gave the world many new discoveries, outstanding writers, and scientists, who later influenced the development of world culture. In 1837, Victoria became not only Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, but also Empress of India. Three years after the coronation, Her Majesty was married to Duke Albert, whom she fell in love with even before ascending to the royal throne. For 21 years of marriage, the couple had nine children, but in 1861 the queen's husband died. After that, she never married again and always wore a black dress, mourning the early departure of her husband.
All this did not prevent the queen from brilliantly ruling the country for 63 years and becoming a symbol of an entire era. These times were marked by an unprecedented development of trade, since England had a large number of colonies and well-established economic relations with other states. Industry was also actively developing, which led to the relocation of many residents of villages and villages to cities. With the influx of population, the cities began to grow, while the power of the British Empire covered more and more territories of the globe.
It was a secure and stable time for all the English. During the reign of Victoria, morality, hard work, honesty and decency were actively promoted among the population. Some historians note that the queen herself served as an excellent example for her people - among all the rulers of the country, she is unlikely to be able to find equals in love for work and responsibility.
Victorian Achievements
A huge achievement, according to historians, was the way of life of Queen Victoria. She was strikingly different from her two predecessors in her lack of love for public scandals and stunning modesty. Victoria created a cult of home, family, thrift and economy, which significantly influenced all her subjects, and with them the whole world. Exceptional industriousness, family values and sobriety of mind became the main moral principles in the Victorian era, which led to the flourishing of the middle class in England, establishing a social and economic position in the country.
The Victorian era is referred to by name and is defined by the years of the reign of Queen Victoria (Great Britain and Ireland, as well as the Empress of India) - 1837 - 1901 This is the time of the birth and formation of the middle class in England. As well as the famous gentlemen's code - the gallant era.
The word originally meant belonging to a noble origin (as the basic definition of an aristocrat, behind which the title category was opened - Esquire), but due to the formation of the middle class, it became customary to address and name educated and well-mannered men with a respectable and balanced disposition and manners (prim and imperturbable ), regardless of origin.
Contemporaries also noted that before and at the beginning of the XIX century. "Gentleman" was used to call any man who lived on income from capital, having the opportunity not to work, regardless of the qualities of his personality. In the Middle Ages, it was customary to understand the word “gentleman” as belonging to the category of untitled nobility - Gentry, which included knights, descendants of the younger and non-hereditary sons of feudal lords (the title was inherited only by the eldest of the sons).
However, from the standpoint of the image that was steadily formed in society in the Victorian era, and seems to us as such now, in reality, a gentleman is distinguished by impeccable manners and gallant behavior towards ladies. In particular, the gentleman, under no circumstances, will dare and will not allow himself to be treated rudely with them, and in the ladies' society he will strictly observe the rules of etiquette.
So, a gentleman is punctuality and elegance, an impeccable ability to keep his word (hence the category "gentleman's agreement").
In addition to gentlemanship, as noble manners in society and everyday communication for the middle class, trade democratic approaches and trend lines of behavior have passed to us from that era.
The modern, it would seem, "boom" of supermarkets (self-service system of inexpensive price categories) takes its toll in the Victorian era, as a project specifically for the middle class.
The concept of the middle class consciousness, which consists in making a career first, acquiring social status, earning money, and love must wait, is from that era.
The Victorian era is a noble era of the middle class, which took its rightful place in British society, pushing the aristocracy off the pedestal. The enormous influence of its masses changed society itself in its attitude to work and profession. If the English aristocrat considered the avoidance of systematic work to be extremely important, and this confirmed his elitist status of the upper class of the leisure class, then with the advent of the influence of the spirit of the middle class, respectability of perception and professionalism was introduced. Being a professional is even becoming fashionable.
The Victorian person is characterized by loneliness, against the backdrop of strict morals and mores that prevent the ease of making acquaintances. Implementation took place mainly in the profession. Apparently, for this reason, the category "home" played the most important role. Creating a house, under the conditions of many years of engagements (until the young man “gets on his feet”), the opportunity to start a family, get a house, acted as a kind of ideal, a goal that was sought, but not always achieved.
Probably under the influence of such conditions, the need for economic activity, as an opportunity to create and support a family, at the end of the 19th century. the first suffragettes appear, demanding equal rights with men. Others continued to be content with housekeeping, growing flowers in country houses built by their prosperous husbands. As part of this trend, the first cottage villages appear, which already fall at the end of the Victorian era. So the middle class tried to separate from the working class.
At the same time, detective stories became a characteristic hobby of the era (stories about Sherlock Holmes by Conan Doyle, numerous exciting works by Agatha Christie about Miss Marple, etc.).
Detective Sherlock Holmes was the epitome of the good conservatism of the Victorian era.
Conan Doyle accurately conveyed the society's demanded sense of respectability, stability, nobility and excellent noble manners of the era, inherent in any Victorian person. Thanks to this, the character of Holmes, invented from beginning to end, is perceived as an absolutely real person of that time, and his apartment on Baker Street is a place of pilgrimage.
The expansion of trade relations led to the assimilation of Indian with Chinese and Japanese, as well as Persian and Arabic styles of decor for European living rooms - everything came down to the category of "oriental" - oriental style.
- And resulted in a true Victorian eclecticism of an enriched cultural heritage, which was manifested in the interior diversity for each room: the bedroom could well be in the spirit of the revived rococo, the library of the same house - in the style of the revived Gothic, and the neoclassical entrance hall could lead straight into " Persian smoking room.
In the interiors and dresses of the era, gold of geometric and floral ornaments reigns. It is applied with stencils to embossed wallpapers, and gilded frames are made for paintings. The ideal shading color for interiors is red and burgundy. Plush draperies and burgundy velvet curtains with gold trim separate the library and dining rooms. Above the mahogany beds, you can find pale yellow canopies with fringe, made of curtain fabric - they served as a protection against drafts. There was a fashion for coloring cheap wood furniture to look like hardwoods (oak, mahogany).
Europe has spread its values all over the world, with smartly dressed gentlemen pulling pith helmets over their eyes, traveling to exotic distant lands and previously unexplored corners of the world. All the beautiful works of this Age of Discovery we read as children, written by educated English authors with good manners, nobility of spirit, and excellent style of witty writing, have shaped many of us, and will probably influence the minds of another generation to come.
The Victorian era (and the features of its fashion trends) are conventionally divided into 3 periods:
Early Victorian era (period 1837-1860)
The early period of the Victorian era is also called the "Romantic period". Good reasons for such a name were the youth and trepidation of the age of the new queen of the British throne.
During these times, she is passionately in love with her husband Albert, full of life, loves jewelry (which she wears in huge quantities). The style is reflected in the palace fashion, and then the whole country: imitating its queen, England wears gold in any form (with precious stones, enamel, etc.) and sets of 4 or even more jewelry.
Gold and jewels are becoming an essential attribute of evening dresses. In the daytime, they wear less expensive and chic ones (from selected pearls, corals, ivory, tortoiseshell). Earrings were worn hanging and swaying - long and large, bracelets - flexible and rigid, sometimes with a stone, were worn in pairs, and bracelets representing a strap with a buckle were in a special fashion. In necklaces (in fashion, short and with a stone in the center), it was customary to use a design that allowed the stone to be separated and worn also as a brooch or pendant.
Feeding the romantic notions of nature shaped by Ruskin's philosophical ideas of God and beauty, the era actively promotes depictions of flora and fauna in jewelry. Also often the sentimental content of medallions and bracelets was a strand of hair of a loved one or his image; engraved messages-inscriptions on products were used in many cases.
Middle Victorian era (period 1860-1885)
The Great Period - opulent, opulent and exuberant - was the true offspring of the (typical for most) notion of the Victorian era that we have today. There was also a third, so there are 3 Victorian periods in total:
- early, characterized by neostyles (1835-1855);
- mid-Victorian luxury (“Mid-Victorian period”, 1855-1870) period;
- "free revival of the Renaissance" late ("Free Renaissance revivals", 1870-1901) period.