Numerology 

Military unit of the Roman army. Roman army: numbers, ranks, units, victories. Camps and forts

The emperor ruled the lands under his control by appointing legates who had the power of Legatus Augusti pro praetore (Legate of Augustus propraetor) Commander of two or more legions. The imperial legate also served as governor of the province in which the legions he commanded were stationed. From the senatorial class, the Imperial Legate was appointed by the emperor himself and usually held the position for 3 or 4 years. Each legate was the highest military and civil authority in his area. He was in charge of the troops stationed in his province and could not leave it until his term of service expired. The provinces were divided into those where people were appointed before the consulate, and those where former consuls were appointed. The first category included provinces where there were no legions or where there was only one legion. They were controlled by people in their late forties who had already commanded legions. In the provinces that the former consuls received, there were usually from two to four legions, and the legates who ended up there were usually over forty or under fifty. During the imperial era, people received high positions relatively young.

Senior officers:

Legatus Legionis (Legate of the Legion)
Commander of the legion. The emperor usually appointed the former tribune to this post for three to four years, but the legate could hold his post for much longer. In the provinces where the legion was stationed, the legate was also the governor. Where there were several legions, each had its own legate, and they were all under the general command of the governor of the province.

Tribunus Laticlavius
This tribune was appointed to the legion by the emperor or the senate. He was usually young and less experienced than the five military tribunes (Tribuni Angusticlavii), yet his position was the second most senior in the legion, just after legate. The name of the position comes from the word laticlava, which refers to the two wide purple stripes on the tunic worn by officials of senatorial rank.

Praefectus Castrorum(Camp Prefect)
The third most senior post in the legion. It was usually occupied by a promoted veteran soldier who had previously held the post of one of the centurions.

Tribuni Angusticlavii (Tribunes of Angustiklavii)
Each legion had five military tribunes from the equestrian class. Most often, these were professional military men who occupied high administrative positions in the legion, and during hostilities they could, if necessary, command the legion. They were given tunics with narrow purple stripes (angusticlava), hence the name of the position.

Middle officers:

Primus Pilus (Primipil)
The highest-ranking centurion of the legion, who led the first double century. In the 1st-2nd centuries AD. e. upon dismissal from military service, the primipil was enrolled in the equestrian class and could achieve a high equestrian position in the civil service. The name literally means “first rank.” Due to the similarity between the words pilus (line) and pilum (pilum, throwing spear), the term is sometimes incorrectly translated as "centurion of the first spear." Primipilus was an assistant commander of the legion. He was entrusted with the protection of the legionary eagle; he gave the signal for the legion to move and ordered the sound signals concerning all cohorts; on the march he was at the head of the army, in battle he was on the right flank in the first row. His century consisted of 400 selected warriors, whose direct command was exercised by several commanders of the lowest rank. In order to reach the rank of primipile, it was necessary (in the normal order of service) to go through all the centurion ranks, and usually this status was achieved after 20 or more years of service, by the age of 40-50.

Centurio
Each legion had 59 centurions, commanders of centuries. Centurions represented the basis and backbone of the professional Roman army. These were professional warriors who lived the daily lives of their subordinate soldiers and commanded them during battle. Typically, this post was given to veteran soldiers, but one could become a centurion by direct decree of the emperor or other high-ranking official. The cohorts were numbered from the first to the tenth, and the centuries within the cohorts were numbered from the first to the sixth (the first cohort had only five centuries, but the first century was double) - thus, there were 58 centurions and primipiles in the legion. The number of the century each centurion commanded directly reflected his position in the legion, that is, the highest position was occupied by the centurion of the first century of the first cohort, and the lowest by the centurion of the sixth century of the tenth cohort. The five centurions of the first cohort were called "Primi Ordines". In each cohort, the centurion of the first century was called "Pilus Prior".

Junior officers:

Optio
Assistant to the centurion, replaced the centurion in battle if he was wounded. He was chosen by the centurion himself from among his soldiers.

Tesserarius (Tesserary)
Assistant option. His duties included organizing guards and transmitting passwords to the sentries.

Decurio
He commanded a cavalry detachment of 10 to 30 horsemen as part of the legion.

Decanus
The commander of 10 soldiers with whom he lived in the same tent.

Special honorary posts:

Aquilifer
An extremely important and prestigious post (the literal translation of the name is “eagle bearer.” The loss of the symbol (“eagle”) was considered a terrible dishonor, after which the legion was disbanded. If the eagle could be recaptured or returned in another way, the legion was re-formed with the same name and number.

Signifer
Each century had a treasurer who was responsible for paying the soldiers' salaries and safeguarding their savings. He also carried the battle badge of the century (Signum) - a spear shaft decorated with medallions. At the top of the shaft there was a symbol, most often an eagle. Sometimes - an image of an open palm.

Imaginifer (Imaginifer)
In battle he carried an image of the emperor (Latin imago), which served as a constant reminder of the army’s loyalty to the head of the Roman Empire.

Vexillarius (Vexillarius)
In battle he carried the standard (vexillum) of a certain infantry or cavalry unit of the Roman troops.

Immunes
The immuns were legionnaires who had special skills that gave them the right to receive increased salaries and exempted them from labor and guard duty. Engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks, quartermasters, weapons and drill instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical personnel and military police were all immune. These men were fully trained legionnaires, and were called upon to serve in the line of battle when needed.

Cornicen
Legionnaire trumpeters playing the brass horn. They were next to the standard bearer, giving commands to gather to the battle badge and transmitting the commander’s orders to the soldiers with bugle signals.

Tubicen
Trumpeters played the “tuba,” which was a copper or bronze tube. The Tubitseni, who were with the legate of the legion, called on the soldiers to attack or trumpeted retreat.

Bucinator
Trumpeters playing the bucina.

Evocatus
A soldier who has served his term and retired, but returned to service voluntarily at the invitation of the consul or other commander. Such volunteers enjoyed a particularly honorable position in the army, as experienced, seasoned soldiers. They were assigned to special detachments, most often attached to the commander as his personal guard and especially trusted guard.

Duplicarius
A distinguished ordinary legionnaire who received double pay.

The core of the officer staff was the beneficiary, literally the “blessed,” because this position was considered a sinecure. Every officer had a beneficiary, but only senior officers, starting with the camp prefect, had a cornicularius. Cornicularius headed the office that dealt with the endless stream of official documents characteristic of the Roman army. The army produced countless documents. Many such documents written on papyrus have been discovered in the Middle East. From this mass we can single out those that contain the results of medical examinations of recruits, assignments of recruits to units, duty schedules, daily lists of passwords, lists of sentries at headquarters, records of departures, arrivals, and lists of connections. Annual reports were sent to Rome indicating permanent and temporary assignments, casualties, and the number of soldiers fit to continue serving. Each soldier had a separate file, where everything was recorded, from his salary and the amount of savings to absences from the camp on errands. The offices, of course, had scribes and archivists (librarii). Many legionnaires were probably sent to the office of the provincial governor, where they served as executioners (speculatores), interrogators (quaestionaries) and intelligence officers (frumentarii). An escort (singulares) was recruited from the legionnaires. The hospital (valetudinarium) had its own staff, headed by optio valetudinarii. The hospital staff included people who did dressings and orderlies (capsarii and medici). There were specialist officers, doctors (also medici) and architecti. The latter performed the duties of surveyors, builders, sappers and commanders of siege weapons. “Architects,” like “medics,” were of different ranks, although they all had the same name.
In addition, the legion had many merchants and artisans: masons, carpenters, glass blowers and tile tile workers. The legion had a large number of siege weapons, but the people assigned to them did not have special ranks. The manufacture and repair of siege weapons was the work of the architect and his assistants. And finally, the legion had veterinary officers who took care of the animals.

The history of Rome is one of almost continuous wars with neighboring tribes and peoples. At first, all of Italy came under the rule of Rome, and then its rulers turned their attention to neighboring lands. Thus, Carthage was Rome's rival in the Mediterranean. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal, at the head of a huge army, in which war elephants made up a terrible force, almost took Rome, but his army was defeated in Africa by the legions of Scipio, who received the nickname African for this victory. As a result of the Punic Wars, which lasted twenty-three years, the Romans put an end to the power of Carthage. Soon Greece and Macedonia became Roman provinces. Trophies captured in conquered cities decorated the streets of Rome and were placed in temples. Gradually everything Greek became fashionable: the Greek language and Greek philosophical education; children were taught by Greek teachers. Rich people sent their sons to Athens and other cities of Greece to listen to lectures by famous speakers and learn oratory, because in order to win in National Assemblies, courts or disputes, one had to be able to persuade. Famous Greek artists, sculptors and architects came to Rome and worked. In Ancient Rome, the saying “Captive Greece captured her enemies” appeared. For many years, wars continued with the warlike Gaul tribes. It took Gaius Julius Caesar eight years to subjugate these lands to the power of Rome and turn Gaul into a Roman province.

Of course, the state needed a good army. “The fact that the Romans were able to conquer the whole world can only be explained by their military training, camp discipline and military practice,” wrote the Roman military historian Publius Flavius ​​Vegetius in his treatise on military affairs. The Roman army was divided into legions and auxiliary units: initially there were 4 legions, at the beginning of the 1st century. n. e. - already 25. The legions were staffed exclusively by Roman citizens; people who did not have Roman citizenship served in auxiliary units, and they were staffed on a national basis. In the time of Caesar, auxiliary units were not part of the regular troops, but under Octavian Augustus they became part of the standing army, they were organized in the Roman manner. Over time, the differences between the legions and auxiliary units became blurred.

The legion included heavily armed and lightly armed warriors, as well as cavalry. The legion was divided into thirty maniples, which, in turn, were divided into two centuries of 60 and 30 people. Six centuries made up the cohort. In addition to infantrymen, the Roman army included cavalry, which provided communications and pursued fugitives.

Each Roman legion or century had its own distinctive insignia. During the campaign they were carried in front of the military unit. The sign of the legion was an image of an eagle made of silver. If the “eagle” was captured in battle, the legion was disbanded. Along with this, each legion had its own emblem. For the III legion of Gallicus it was Caesar's bull, for the XIIIIII legion of Gemina it was the capricorn of Augustus. The emblem of a maniple, cohort or ship was a signum, which was a spear or a silvered shaft with a crossbar at the top, to which was attached an image of an animal (wolf, minotaur, horse, boar), an open hand or a wreath.

“The Roman army represents the most advanced system of infantry tactics invented during an era that did not know the use of gunpowder. It retains the predominance of heavily armed infantry in compact formations, but adds to it: the mobility of individual small units, the ability to fight on uneven ground, the arrangement of several lines one behind the other, partly for support and partly as a strong reserve, and finally a system of training for each individual warrior, even more expedient than the Spartan one. Thanks to this, the Romans defeated any armed force that opposed them - both the Macedonian phalanx and the Numidian cavalry,” - this is how Friedrich Engels describes the Roman army (F. Engels. Articles on military history. Collected works. 2nd ed. T .11). Each legion was built in a certain order: in front were the hastati, armed with throwing spears and swords and striking the first blow at the enemy, behind them were experienced heavily armed warriors - principles, equipped with heavy spears and swords, in the last ranks were the triarii - battle-tested veterans, their weapons also included spears and swords. The warriors wore helmets, copper breastplates or chain mail and metal leggings; they were protected by curved plank shields - scutums, covered with thick leather, with metal strips attached along the upper and lower edges. In the center of the shields, metal plaques of hemispherical or conical shape were attached - umbons, which were used in battle, since their blows could stun the enemy. Legionnaires' shields were decorated with relief compositions indicating the rank of the soldiers. The armament of the legionnaires consisted of short double-edged pointed gladius swords and heavy and light throwing spears. According to the treatise of Publius Flavius ​​Vegetius “On Military Affairs”, swords were used to deliver predominantly piercing rather than slashing blows. In the time of Caesar, soft iron was used to make a metal spear, and only the tip of the tip was hardened. The metal tip with small notches of the dart could pierce even a strong shield, and sometimes several. Crashing into the enemy’s shield, the soft iron bent under the weight of the shaft, and the enemy could not use this spear again, and the shield became unusable. Helmets were made of metal (initially from bronze, later from iron) and were often decorated on top with a plume made of feathers or horsetail hair; lightly armed warriors could wear a leather cap. The metal helmet protected the shoulders and back of the warrior’s head, while the forward forehead and cheek pads protected the face from the enemy’s slashing blows. Scale armor, the metal plates of which were attached to a leather lining or canvas like fish scales, was worn over a shirt with sleeves made of canvas and, apparently, additionally lined with wool to soften the blows. During the reign of Emperor Tiberius, plate armor appeared, which was easier to manufacture and weighed much less than chain mail, but was less reliable.

Slingers and archers formed units of lightly armed warriors. They were armed, respectively, with slings (double-folded leather belts, with which stones were thrown) and bows and arrows. The protective weapons of the riders were armor, leather legguards and leggings, and shields; offensive - long spears and swords. During the late Roman Empire, heavy cavalry appeared - cataphracts, dressed in scaly armor; Moreover, the horses were also protected by the same blankets.

The best warriors were part of the praetorian cohort based in Rome. It consisted of nine parts of 500 people each. By the beginning of the 3rd century. n. e. their number grew to 1500. The service of the guards took place mainly in Rome, only if necessary did the emperors take the guards with them on military campaigns. As a rule, they entered into battle at the very last moments.

The Romans honored valiant soldiers with decorations. They ensured that such soldiers were visible to their commanders on the battlefield by dressing them in animal skins or combs and feathers. Among the awards for valor given to legionnaires of all ranks were torques (neck hoops), faleres (medals) worn on armor, and armilles (bracelets) made of precious metals.

Roman soldiers (legionnaires) were harsh and hardy. Often a warrior spent his entire life on long campaigns. Veterans were the most experienced, battle-hardened and disciplined soldiers. All legionnaires were required to take the military oath and take a solemn oath - the sacramentum, which connected the soldier with the emperor and the state. The legionnaires repeated this oath year after year on the day of the New Year holiday.

The Roman camp served as reliable protection for the resting army. Descriptions of the size of the Roman camp and its layout can be found in military manuals and the writings of Roman historians of the time. The marching orders of the Roman legions and the structure of the camp are described in detail by the historian and military leader Josephus Flavius ​​(c. 37 - c. 100 AD) in his “War of the Jews.” It should be noted that the layout of the camp was deeply thoughtful and logical. The camp was protected by a dug ditch, about a meter deep and wide, a rampart and a palisade. Inside, the camp looked like a city: two main streets crossed it at right angles, forming a cross in plan; where the streets ended, gates were installed. The Roman army had a great influence on the life of the province. Legionnaires erected not only defensive structures, but also built roads, water pipelines, and public buildings. True, maintaining a 400,000-strong army placed a heavy burden on the population of the provinces.

Rome - capital of the empire

The Romans were proud of their capital. The main temple in Rome was dedicated to the gods Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The main square of the city was called the Forum, at the same time it served as a market square and was located at the foot of the Capitol - one of the seven hills on which Rome was founded. Around the forum there were temples, the Senate building and other public buildings. It was decorated with statues of triumphants and monuments in honor of the victories of Roman arms. The so-called rostral columns, decorated with the bows of defeated enemy ships, were installed here. All important events in the life of the city took place at the Forum: the Senate met, People's Assemblies were held, important decisions were announced.

During the Empire, several more forums were built in Rome, named after the emperors who built them - Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan.

The streets of Rome intersected each other at right angles. One of the first and most important of Rome's public roads was the arrow-straight Via Appia. Already in ancient times she was called the “queen of roads” (in Latin - regina viarum), a mention of this can be found in the work “Forests” by the Roman poet Publius Papinius Statius (40s AD - approximately 96 AD). e.). To build a Roman road, they first dug a wide trench into which sand was poured and flat stones were laid to provide a reliable foundation. Then a layer of carefully compacted small stones and brick fragments mixed with clay or concrete was laid. The concrete consisted of so-called mine sand of volcanic origin mixed with quicklime. It contained glass, which made it practically eternal. The top layer of the road was large, smooth stone. On both sides of the road, small ditches were dug into which rainwater flowed. It should be noted that the Tiber river water was, especially in summer, undrinkable, and the ancient city needed clean drinking water. To supply clean water from mountain springs to the city, Roman builders built aqueducts, the slender arches of which sometimes stretched for tens of kilometers. The invention of a new building material by the Romans - concrete - allowed them to quickly build strong and beautiful structures, and using arches to overcome large spaces.

Roman cities were connected by beautiful roads paved with stone paving stones. Many of them have survived to this day. Bridges were built across rivers and deep ravines. Thermae were built in the cities - public baths with lush gardens, pools with warm and cold water, and gymnasiums. The baths of imperial Rome were especially luxurious - they resembled palaces. Over time, the baths began to serve not only as a place for bathing, gymnastic exercises and swimming, but also as a meeting place, casual communication, relaxation and entertainment. In Roman cities they became real centers of public life. roman legion infantry antiquity

The palaces of the Roman emperors were especially luxurious. The Roman historian Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c. 4 BC - 65 AD), describing the "Golden House" of Emperor Nero, reported that it was so extensive that it had three porticoes, surrounded by an artificial pond that resembled the sea, groves and vineyards. The gardens were filled with numerous statues, and the parks abounded with gazebos, baths and fountains. The ceiling of the dining room was lined with ivory plates; during feasts it moved apart and flowers fell from there. The walls were lined with multi-colored marble and richly decorated with gilding.

The Romans were proud of their origins. In connection with the cult of ancestors, sculptural portraits were very popular in Rome. The masters conveyed portrait resemblance to the faces of their models with extraordinary accuracy, noting all the characteristic details and individual features.

Houses in Rome were usually built of brick, with orange tile roofs. Only a blank wall with one door opened onto the noisy street. As a rule, in the center of the buildings there was a small courtyard with a colonnade (peristyle), around which all the rooms were located with walls decorated with frescoes and floors decorated with mosaics. The courtyard was surrounded by greenery and was surrounded by a marble colonnade, decorated with fountains and magnificent statues.

The ethnic composition of the Roman army changed over time: in the 1st century. n. e. it was predominantly an army of the Romans, at the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. army of the Italics, but already at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 3rd century. n. e. turned into an army of Romanized barbarians, remaining “Roman” only in name. According to other sources, if in the 1st century. BC e. Mostly people from the Apennine Peninsula served in the army, then already in the 1st century. n. e. the number of immigrants from the Apennine Peninsula in the army decreased sharply, and the number of immigrants from the Romanized Senate provinces (Asia, Africa, Baetica, Macedonia, Narbonese Gaul, etc.) increased. The Roman army had the best weapons for its time, an experienced and well-trained command staff, and was distinguished by strict discipline and high military skill of commanders who used the most advanced methods of warfare, achieving the complete defeat of the enemy.

The main branch of the army was infantry. The fleet ensured the operations of ground forces in coastal areas and the transfer of armies to enemy territory by sea. Military engineering, the establishment of field camps, the ability to make rapid transitions over long distances, and the art of siege and defense of fortresses received significant development.

Organizational structure

Combat units

The main organizational and tactical unit of the army was legion. From the second half of the 4th century BC. e. the legion consisted of 10 maniple(infantry) and 10 turm(cavalry), from the first half of the 3rd century BC. e. - out of 30 maniple(each of which was divided into two centuries) and 10 turm. All this time, its number remained unchanged - 4.5 thousand people, including 300 horsemen. The tactical division of the legion ensured high maneuverability of troops on the battlefield. From 107 BC. e. in connection with the transition from a militia to a professional mercenary army, the legion began to be divided into 10 cohorts(each of which combined three maniples). The legion also included battering and throwing machines and a convoy. In the 1st century AD e. The legion's strength reached approx. 7 thousand people (including about 800 horsemen).

In almost all periods there existed simultaneously:

Under the concept signum either maniples or centuries were understood.

Vexillations were the name given to individual units that were separated from a unit, such as a legion. So, the vexillation could be sent to help another unit or to build a bridge.

Praetorians

The elite unit of the Roman army was the Praetorian Guard, which served as the emperor's guard and was stationed in Rome. The Praetorians took part in many conspiracies and coups d'etat.

Evocats

Soldiers who served their term and were demobilized, but were re-enlisted into the military on a voluntary basis, in particular on the initiative of, for example, a consul, were called evocati- lit. “newly called” (under Domitian, this was the name given to the elite guards of the equestrian class who guarded his sleeping quarters; presumably, such guards retained their name under some subsequent emperors, cf. evocati Augusti in Hyginus). Usually they were included in almost every unit, and, apparently, if the military leader was popular enough among the soldiers, the number of veterans of this category in his army could increase. Along with the vexillaria, the evocati were exempt from a number of military duties - fortifying the camp, laying roads, etc. and were higher in rank than ordinary legionnaires, sometimes compared to horsemen or even candidates for centurions. For example, Gnaeus Pompey promised to promote his exes evocati to the centurions after the end of the civil war, but in totality all evocati could not be promoted to this rank. All contingent evocati usually commanded by a separate prefect ( praefectus evocatorum).

Auxiliary troops

Auxiliary troops were divided into cohorts and als (in the Late Empire they were replaced by wedges - cunei). The irregular troops (numeri) did not have a clear numerical composition, as they corresponded to the traditional preferences of the peoples who composed them, for example the mauri (Moors).

Armament

  • 1st class: offensive - gladius, hasta and darts ( tela), protective - helmet ( galea), shell ( lorica), bronze shield ( clipeus) and leggings ( ocrea);
  • 2nd class - the same, without a shell and a scutum instead clipeus;
  • 3rd class - the same, without leggings;
  • 4th class - hasta and pike ( verutum).
  • offensive - Spanish sword ( gladius hispaniensis)
  • offensive - pilum (special throwing spear);
  • protective - iron chain mail ( lorica hamata).
  • offensive - dagger ( pugio).

At the beginning of the Empire:

  • protective - the shell of Lorica Segmentata, segmented lorica, late lamellar armor made of individual steel segments. Comes into use starting from the 1st century. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the weapons of the crupellarian gladiators who participated in the rebellion of Florus Sacrovir in Germany (21). Chain mail also appeared during this period ( lorica hamata) with double chain mail covering on the shoulders, especially popular among cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shorter chain mail are also used in auxiliary infantry units. Helmets of the so-called imperial type.
  • offensive - “Pompeian” sword, weighted pilums.
  • protective - scale armor ( lorica squamata)

Uniform

  • paenula(short dark woolen cloak with a hood).
  • tunic with long sleeves, sagum ( sagum) - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military one.

Build

Manipulative tactics

It is almost generally accepted that during the period of their dominance the Etruscans introduced the phalanx to the Romans, and subsequently the Romans deliberately changed their weapons and formation. This opinion is based on reports that the Romans once used round shields and formed a phalanx like the Macedonian, however, in descriptions of battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the former was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.

If you want to be a tribune, or if, simply put, you want to live, then restrain your soldiers. Let none of them steal someone else's chicken, let none of them touch someone else's sheep; Let no one take away a bunch of grapes, an ear of grain, or demand oil, salt, or firewood for himself. Let everyone be content with their rightful portion... Let their weapons be cleaned, sharpened, their shoes strong... Let the soldier's salary remain in his belt, and not in the tavern... Let him take care of his horse and not sell his feed; let all the soldiers follow the centurion's mule together. Let the soldiers... give nothing to fortune tellers... let the scoundrels be beaten...

Medical service

At different periods there were 8 positions of military medical personnel:

  • medicus castrorum- camp doctor, subordinate to the camp prefect ( praefectus castrorum), and in his absence - to the legionary tribune;
  • medicus legionis, medicus cohortis, optio valetudinarii- the last one is the head of a military hospital (valetudinary), all 3 positions existed only under Trajan and Hadrian;
  • medicus duplicarius- a doctor with double salary;
  • medicus sesquiplicarius- a doctor on time and a half salary;
  • capsarius (deputatus, eques capsariorum) - a mounted orderly with a first aid kit ( capsa) and with a saddle with 2 stirrups on the left side for evacuating the wounded, was part of a detachment of 8-10 people; presumably they could be recruited from among the so-called. immunes;
  • medicus ordinarius (miles medicus) - an ordinary doctor or staff surgeon, there were 4 of them in each cohort.

The student was called discens capsariorum.

The recruitment could be ordinary, from recruits, from qualified doctors under a contract, from slaves who were then released, or, in emergency cases, mandatory, from civilians.

See also

Notes

Primary sources

  • Flavius ​​Vegetius Renatus. "A summary of military affairs."
  • Caesar. "Notes on the Gallic War". "Notes on the Civil War".
  • Appian. "Civil Wars". "Syrian Wars". "Punic Wars". "Mithridates Wars". "Illyrian Wars", "Macedonian Wars".
  • Josephus Flavius. "The Jewish War".
  • Lucius Annaeus Florus. "Two Books of Roman Wars."
  • Gaius Sallust Crispus. "Yugurthine War".
  • Flavius ​​Arrian. "Disposition against the Alans."
  • Sextus Julius Frontinus. "Stratagems".
  • Anonymous. "Alexandrian War".
  • Anonymous. "African War".
  • Anonymous. "Notes on the War in Spain."
  • Tabulae Vindolandae

For non-specialized primary sources, see.

Literature

In Russian

  • // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
  • Bannikov A.V. The Roman army in the 4th century from Constantine to Theodosius. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University; Nestor-History, 2011. - 264 p. - (Historia Militaris). -

During these long and stubborn wars, the military organization of Rome was formed and strengthened.

The Roman army was a people's militia and was recruited by recruiting citizens starting from the age of 17.

All Romans were required to serve in the army, and length of military service was required to obtain government positions.

Military service was considered not only a duty, but also an honor: only full citizens were allowed to participate.

Proletarians, in accordance with the constitution of Servius Tullius, did not perform military service, and slaves were not allowed into the army at all. Evasion of military duty was punished very severely: the culprit could be deprived of civil rights and sold into slavery.

In the early period of the republic, in case of military danger, the army was recruited by order of the Senate and consuls, and after the end of hostilities it was disbanded.

Formally, this situation persisted for quite a long time, but already in the 4th, and even more so in the 3rd century. Due to almost continuous military operations, the army actually becomes permanent.

Service in the army in the early years of the republic was not paid: each soldier himself had to take care of his own weapons and food, only the horsemen received horses from the state or the corresponding amount for their purchase.

Depending on their property status, the Romans served in cavalry, heavy or (the least wealthy) light infantry.

At the end of the 5th century. BC e. A military reform was carried out, attributed to the semi-legendary hero of the Veientine and Gallic wars, Marcus Furius Camillus, in accordance with which the salaries of soldiers were established, government weapons and food were issued, and the structure of the army was changed.

The Roman army was divided into legions, the number of which ranged from 4,200 to 6,000 people. Before the reform, the legion was a phalanx of heavily armed infantry up to eight ranks deep. Cavalry and lightly armed infantry were usually placed on the flanks and were used primarily as reserves.

The reform consisted of the reorganization of this sedentary phalanx and the introduction of the so-called manipular system. Each legion was divided into 30 tactical units - maniples.

Each maniple, in turn, was divided into two centuries. The legions were now built according to the principle of experienced warriors in three battle lines: in the first there were young warriors (the so-called hastati), in the second - more experienced ones (principles) and in the third - veterans (triarii).

Each line split up along the front into 10 maniples; the maniples of the first line were separated from each other by certain intervals, the maniples of the second line were lined up against the intervals of the first line, the maniples of the triarii were lined up behind the intervals of the second line.

The manipulative system provided significant freedom of maneuver. The battle usually began as follows: the formation moving forward threw darts into the ranks of the enemy. A volley of darts opened the way to hand-to-hand combat, in which the main weapons were a sword, a spear, and for defense - a shield, helmet and armor.

The great advantage of the Roman battle formation lay in this combination of hand-to-hand combat with preliminary throwing of darts at a distance.

The battle began with the lightly armed, who lined up in front of the front of the legion. Then, after the main forces entered the battle, the lightly armed retreated into the intervals between the maniples, and the battle was fought by the first line, that is, the hastati. If the enemy offered persistent resistance, then maniples of principles entered the intervals of the first line, thus creating a continuous front.

Only as a last resort, when the outcome of the battle could not be decided without attracting reserves, did the triarii enter the battle. The Romans had a proverb: “The matter has come to the triarii,” which meant that the matter had been brought to the extreme.

The highest command staff included the consuls, who were commanders-in-chief, their assistants - legates and commanders of the legions - military tribunes.

In case of special danger to the state, high command was transferred to the dictator. This was an unusual master's program, created for a relatively short period of time (six months).

The dictator exercised complete military and civil power; in the army he appointed an assistant to himself - the chief of the cavalry.

The main figure of the lower command staff was the centurion. The centurion of the first century was simultaneously the commander of the entire maniple. In the early period of the Republic, the armed forces usually consisted of four legions; each consul commanded two legions.

When the armies united, the consuls, according to Roman custom, took turns in command.

In addition to the legions, which consisted exclusively of Roman citizens, the Roman army also had so-called allies, recruited from the conquered tribes and communities of Italy.

They were usually auxiliary troops located on the flanks of the legions. One legion relied on 5,000 infantry and 900 horsemen from among the allies.

Roman army plan for two legions. Schematic reconstruction according to Polybius: 1. Praetorium, the area where the commander’s tent was located. 2. Forum, a square used for gatherings. 3. Altar. 4. Premises for the praetorian cohort, the personal guard of the commander. 5. Auxiliary cavalry barracks. 6. Legionnaires' barracks. 7. Barracks of auxiliary infantry detachments. 8. Barracks of detachments of veterans newly called up for military service. 9. The area where the quaestor's tent was located. 10. Main street of the camp. 11. A street parallel to the main one, where merchants trading with soldiers were located. 12. The street that separated the units located directly at the fortifications from the interior of the camp. 13. The street connecting the praetorium with the camp gates. 14. The gap between the defensive rampart surrounding the camp and the first barracks. 15. Camp gate.

A feature of Roman military tactics was the construction of fortified camps; places where the Roman army stopped for at least one night were certainly surrounded by a ditch and rampart.

Camp fortifications excluded a surprise attack by the enemy and made it possible to combine the advantage of offensive actions with defensive ones, since the camp always served as a support base where the army could take refuge if necessary.

Iron discipline reigned in the Roman army. Order and obedience were placed above all else, and any deviation from them was punished mercilessly.

Failure to comply with the order was punishable by death.

The commander-in-chief had the right to control the lives of not only ordinary soldiers, but also military leaders.

If a Roman detachment fled from the battlefield, decimation was carried out: the detachment was lined up, and every tenth one was subjected to the death penalty.

Warriors who distinguished themselves on the battlefield received promotions and silver or gold insignia, but the highest award was considered a laurel wreath.

The commander who won a major victory was given the title of emperor and awarded a triumph, that is, a ceremonial entry into the city at the head of the victorious legions.

Such was the Roman military organization, which largely determined the victories of Rome over other Italian peoples and further contributed to the establishment of Rome's dominance over the entire Mediterranean.