The relationship of components in various biocenoses. Community (biocenosis) is a living component of the system. Interaction of populations in biocenoses

lesson type - combined

Methods: partially exploratory, problem presentation, reproductive, explanatory-illustrative.

Target: mastering the skills to apply biological knowledge in practical activities, to use information about modern achievements in the field of biology; work with biological devices, tools, reference books; conduct observations of biological objects;

Tasks:

Educational: the formation of a cognitive culture, mastered in the process of educational activities, and aesthetic culture as an ability to have an emotional and value attitude towards objects of wildlife.

Developing: development of cognitive motives aimed at obtaining new knowledge about wildlife; cognitive qualities of the individual associated with the assimilation of the foundations of scientific knowledge, mastering the methods of studying nature, the formation of intellectual skills;

Educational: orientation in the system of moral norms and values: recognition of the high value of life in all its manifestations, the health of one's own and other people; ecological consciousness; education of love for nature;

Personal: understanding of responsibility for the quality of acquired knowledge; understanding the value of an adequate assessment of one's own achievements and capabilities;

cognitive: the ability to analyze and evaluate the impact of environmental factors, risk factors on health, the consequences of human activities in ecosystems, the impact of one's own actions on living organisms and ecosystems; focus on continuous development and self-development; the ability to work with various sources of information, convert it from one form to another, compare and analyze information, draw conclusions, prepare messages and presentations.

Regulatory: the ability to organize independently the execution of tasks, evaluate the correctness of the work, reflection of their activities.

Communicative: the formation of communicative competence in communication and cooperation with peers, understanding the characteristics of gender socialization in adolescence, socially useful, educational, research, creative and other activities.

Technology : Health saving, problematic, developmental education, group activities

Activities (elements of content, control)

Formation of students' activity abilities and abilities to structure and systematize the studied subject content: collective work - study of the text and illustrative material, compilation of the table "Systematic groups of multicellular organisms" with the advisory assistance of expert students, followed by self-examination; pair or group performance of laboratory work with the advisory assistance of a teacher, followed by mutual verification; independent work on the studied material.

Planned results

subject

understand the meaning of biological terms;

describe the features of the structure and the main processes of life of animals of different systematic groups; compare the structural features of protozoa and multicellular animals;

recognize organs and systems of organs of animals of different systematic groups; compare and explain the reasons for similarities and differences;

to establish the relationship between the features of the structure of organs and the functions that they perform;

give examples of animals of different systematic groups;

to distinguish in drawings, tables and natural objects the main systematic groups of protozoa and multicellular animals;

characterize the direction of evolution of the animal world; give evidence of the evolution of the animal world;

Metasubject UUD

Cognitive:

work with different sources of information, analyze and evaluate information, convert it from one form to another;

draw up abstracts, various types of plans (simple, complex, etc.), structure educational material, give definitions of concepts;

make observations, set up elementary experiments and explain the results obtained;

compare and classify, independently choosing criteria for the indicated logical operations;

build logical reasoning, including the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships;

create schematic models highlighting the essential characteristics of objects;

identify possible sources of necessary information, search for information, analyze and evaluate its reliability;

Regulatory:

organize and plan their educational activities - determine the purpose of the work, the sequence of actions, set tasks, predict the results of work;

independently put forward options for solving the tasks set, foresee the final results of the work, choose the means to achieve the goal;

work according to a plan, compare your actions with the goal and, if necessary, correct mistakes yourself;

own the basics of self-control and self-assessment for making decisions and making a conscious choice in educational and cognitive and educational and practical activities;

Communicative:

listen and engage in dialogue, participate in a collective discussion of problems;

integrate and build productive interaction with peers and adults;

adequately use speech means for discussion and argumentation of one's position, compare different points of view, argue one's point of view, defend one's position.

Personal UUD

Formation and development of cognitive interest in the study of biology and the history of the development of knowledge about nature

Receptions: analysis, synthesis, conclusion, transfer of information from one type to another, generalization.

Basic concepts

The concept of "food chain", the direction of the flow of energy in food chains; concepts: biomass pyramid, energy pyramid

During the classes

Learning new material(teacher's story with elements of conversation)

The relationship of the components of the biocenosis and their adaptability to each other

Each biocenosis is characterized by a certain composition of components - various species of animals, plants, fungi, bacteria. There are close relationships between these living organisms in the biocenosis. They are extremely diverse and boil down mainly to obtaining food, preserving life, the ability to produce offspring, to conquer a new living space.

Organisms of various species in the biocenosis are characterized by food, or trophic, connections: according to the habitat, the characteristics of the material used, the method of settlement.

The food connections of animals are manifested directly and indirectly.

Direct connections are traced while the animals are eating their food.

Hare eating spring grass; a bee collecting nectar from plant flowers; dung beetle, processing droppings of domestic and wild ungulates; the fish leech adhering to the mucous surface of the fish cover are examples of the existence of direct trophic relationships.

Diverse and indirect trophic relationships arising on the basis of the activity of one species, which contributes to the emergence of access to food to another species. Caterpillars of nun butterflies and silkworms eat pine needles, weaken their protective properties and provide bark beetles with tree colonization.

Numerous in biocenoses are animal connections to find various building materials for building dwellings - nests by birds, anthills by ants, termite mounds by termites, trapping nets by predatory larvae of caddisflies and spiders, trapping funnels by antlions, the formation of ootheca capsules designed to protect and develop offspring by female cockroaches , honeycomb bees. During its life, as it grows, the hermit crab repeatedly changes small shells of mollusks for larger ones, which serve it to protect the soft abdomen. To build their structures, animals use various materials - fluff and feathers of birds, mammalian hair, dried blades of grass, twigs, grains of sand, fragments of mollusk shells, secretion products of various glands, wax and pebbles.

Relationships that promote the dispersal or spread of one species by another are also widely represented in nature and human life. Many types of ticks move from one place to another, attaching themselves to the body of bumblebees, rhinoceros beetles. Human transportation of fruits and vegetables contributes to the resettlement of their pests. Traveling on ships and trains helps rodents, dipterans and other animals settle. Interest in keeping exotic animals has led to the fact that they live on almost all continents, however, in artificial conditions. Many of them have adapted to breed in captivity.

The long-term coexistence of different species in the biocenosis leads to the division of food resources between them. This reduces competition for food and leads to food specialization. For example, the inhabitants of a biocenosis can be divided into ecological groups according to the predominant food objects.

Relationships of organisms in biocenoses

Individuals of different species do not exist in isolation in biocenoses, they enter into a variety of direct and indirect relationships. They are usually divided into four types: trophic, tonic, phoric, factory.

Trophic relationships arise when one species in the biocenosis feeds on another (either its dead remains or its metabolic products). A ladybug eating aphids, a cow eating grass in a meadow, a wolf hunting a hare are all examples of direct trophic relationships between species.

When two species compete for a food resource, an indirect trophic relationship arises between them. Thus, a wolf and a fox enter into indirect trophic relationships when using such a common food resource as a hare.

The transfer of plant seeds is usually carried out with the help of special devices. Animals can seize them passively. So, burdock seeds or a string can cling to the hair of large mammals with their spikes and be transported over long distances.

Undigested seeds that have passed through the digestive tract of animals, most often birds, are actively transferred. For example, in rooks, about a third of the seeds are hatched suitable for germination. In a number of cases, the adaptation of plants to zoochory has gone so far that the germinating capacity of seeds that have passed through the intestines of birds and exposed to the action of digestive juices increases. Insects play an important role in the transfer of fungal spores.

Animal phoresia- this is a passive way of settling, characteristic of species that need to be transferred from one biotope to another for normal life. The larvae of a number of ticks, being on other animals, such as insects, settle with the help of other people's wings. Dung beetles are sometimes unable to lower their elytra because of the densely accumulated mites on their bodies. Birds often carry on feathers and paws small animals or their eggs, as well as protozoan cysts. The caviar of some fish, for example, can withstand two weeks of drying. Quite fresh mollusk caviar was found on the legs of a duck shot in the Sahara, 160 km from the nearest reservoir. For short distances, waterfowl can carry even fish fry that accidentally fall into their plumage.

factory connections- a type of biopenotic relationship in which individuals of one species use excretory products, dead remains, or even living individuals of another species for their structures. For example, birds build nests from dry twigs, grass, mammal hair, etc. Caddisfly larvae use pieces of bark, grains of sand, debris or shells with live mollusks for construction.

Of all the types of biotic relationships between species in a biocenosis, topical and trophic ties are of the greatest importance, since they keep organisms of different species near each other, uniting them into fairly stable communities (biocenoses) of different scales.

Independent work

1. The relationship of the components of the biocenosis

Types of relationships between organisms in a biocenosis

Types of Relationships Between Aquarium Organisms

Independent work of students on assignments:

consider and identify the organisms that inhabit the aquarium;

name the types of relationships that exist between the inhabitants of the aquarium;

explain how the inhabitants of the aquarium are adapted to each other.

Answer the questions

Question 1. What biocenoses in your locality can serve as an example of the relationship of components?

Question 2. Give examples of the relationship between the components of the biocenosis in the aquarium. An aquarium can be considered as a model of biocenosis. Of course, without human intervention, the existence of such an artificial biocenosis is practically impossible, however, subject to certain conditions, its maximum stability can be achieved. Producers in the aquarium are all types of plants - from microscopic algae to flowering plants. Plants in the course of their vital activity produce primary organic substances under the action of light and release oxygen, which is necessary for the respiration of all inhabitants of the aquarium. The organic production of plants in aquariums is practically not used, since, as a rule, animals that are consumers of the first order are not kept in aquariums. A person takes care of the nutrition of consumers of the second order - fish - with the corresponding dry or live food. Very rarely, predatory fish are kept in aquariums, which could play the role of third-order consumers. As decomposers living in an aquarium, one can consider various representatives of mollusks and some microorganisms that process the waste products of the inhabitants of the aquarium. In addition, the work of cleaning organic waste in the biocenosis of the aquarium is performed by a person.

Question 3. Prove that in an aquarium it is possible to show all kinds of adaptability of its components to each other.. In an aquarium, it is possible to show all kinds of adaptability of its components to each other only under conditions of very large volumes and with minimal human intervention. To do this, you must first take care of all the main components of the biocenosis. Provide mineral plant nutrition; organize water aeration, populate the aquarium with herbivorous animals, the number of which could provide food for those consumers of the first order that will feed on them; pick up predators and, finally, animals that act as decomposers.

Relationshipsorganisms.

PresentationRelationshipsbetweenorganisms

Presentation Types of relationships between organisms

Presentation Relationships between organisms and research

Resources

Biology. Animals. Grade 7 textbook for general education. institutions / V. V. Latyushin, V. A. Shapkin.

Active Formsandbiology teaching methods: Animals. Kp. for the teacher: From work experience, —M.:, Enlightenment. Molis S. S. Molis S. A

Work program in biology grade 7 to the teaching materials of V.V. Latyushina, V.A. Shapkina (M.: Bustard).

V.V. Latyushin, E. A. Lamekhova. Biology. 7th grade. Workbook for the textbook by V.V. Latyushina, V.A. Shapkin "Biology. Animals. 7th grade". - M.: Bustard.

Zakharova N. Yu. Control and verification work in biology: to the textbook by V. V. Latyushin and V. A. Shapkin “Biology. Animals. Grade 7 "/ N. Yu. Zakharova. 2nd ed. - M.: Publishing house "Exam"

Presentation Hosting

MBOU Shakhun secondary school No. 14

ESSAY

INTERRELATION OF COMPONENTS OF BIOCENOSIS AND THEIR ADAPTABILITY TO EACH OTHER

Completed by student

7 B class

Vorontsov Maxim

Shakhunya

2016

The weather is sunny;

Air temperature +14 0 C;

Relative air humidity - 50%;

Wind direction - southwest;

Precipitation - no precipitation.

*** SPRING ***

Look, spring is coming

Cranes fly in a caravan

The day is drowning in bright gold,

And streams on ravines rustle.

Soon you will have guests

How many nests will be built, look!

What kind of sounds, for songs will pour

Day-to-day from dawn to dusk.

I. S. Nikitin

*** SPRING IS COMING ***

Spring is coming! Spring is coming!

And the forest stands on tiptoe

Illuminated by rays.

Spring is about to come

And turn on the green light!

The willow is all fluffy

Spread around;

Fluffy spring again

She waved her wings.

A. Fet

Agrocenosis and biocenosis

BIOCENOSIS ("bio" from the Greek "bios" - "life" and from the Greek "koinos" - "general") (coenosis), a set of plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit a given area of \u200b\u200bland or water and are characterized by certain relationships between themselves and adaptability to environmental conditions.

Any biocenosis develops and evolves. The leading role in the process of changing terrestrial biocenoses belongs to plants, but their activity is inseparable from the activity of the other components of the system, and the biocenosis always lives and changes as a whole. The change goes in certain directions, and the duration of the existence of various biocenoses is very different. An example of a change in an insufficiently balanced system is the overgrowth of the Samarikha pond. Due to the lack of oxygen in the bottom water layers, part of the organic matter remains unoxidized and is not used in the further cycle. In the coastal zone, the remains of aquatic vegetation accumulate, forming peaty deposits. The pond is shallow. Coastal aquatic vegetation spreads to the center of the pond, peat deposits are formed. The surrounding terrestrial vegetation is gradually moving towards the place of the reservoir.

The impact of human activity on the biocenosis; measures to be taken to protect it.

Man has recently become very active in influencing the life of the biocenosis. The economic activity of people is a powerful factor in the transformation of nature. As a result of this activity, peculiar biocenoses are formed. These include, for example, agrocenoses, which are artificial biocenoses resulting from human economic activity. Examples are artificially created fields, lawns, flower beds. Artificial biocenoses created by man require tireless attention and active intervention in their life. Of course, there are many similarities and differences in artificial and natural biocenoses, but we will not dwell on this. Man also influences the life of natural biocenoses, but, of course, not as much as on agrocenoses. An example is our forestry, which grows seedlings in a nursery for planting young trees. Mass societies are being created that promote the preservation and protection of the environment, such as the "green" society, etc.

The composition of the biocenosis

Of the most characteristic and specific features of the biological environment of the park, the following should be noted: the severity of closed canopies of several tiers of trees and shrubs, shrubs and herbaceous plants and other representatives of the ground cover flora in large areas; the presence of a ground layer of forest litter and litter inherent only in the park; the presence of various very valuable species of cap mushrooms (white, boletus, milk mushroom, boletus, camelina, etc.). The severity of the joint growth of tree species with fungi or the severity of the so-called mycotrophy of tree species; originality of the fauna; microclimate. In this regard, trees grown in a specific biological environment differ markedly from trees of the same species grown in other landscapes. Trees grown in the park are characterized by straight, well-debranched, full-woody close to a cylinder in shape and tall trunks; narrow, raised high, sparse with thin branches and branches and crowns closed together.

Ground fury in a plant community

Species belonging to the same plant community have different life forms. So, trees, shrubs, perennial and annual grasses grow in the park. Different species in the same community find themselves in different conditions of lighting, moisture and mineral nutrition.

In the best lighting conditions in the park, there are trees that carry their crowns to the light. They form the upper or first tier in the community.

Itier - the tallest trees (warty birch, ash, poplar, spruce, maple, common linden).

Under them, in conditions of somewhat reduced lighting, the growth of lower breeds.

IItier - lower located trees (Tatar maple, mountain ash, bird cherry).

Under the tree layers there is an undergrowth consisting of shrubs.

IIItier - shrubs (Japanese spirea, wild rose, brittle buckthorn, fieldfare);

IVtier - herbaceous flowering plants and shrubs (ranunculus anemone, mother and stepmother, plantain, nettle, cereals, dandelion).

We do not observe mosses and lichens in the lowest, ground fifth layer.

Under the canopy of tall plants on the soil are the remains of plants, fallen leaves, dry branches. This is a grass bed. It is rich and inhabited by microorganisms, primarily bacteria and fungi, which decompose dead plant remains. As a result of the vital activity of bacteria and especially fungi, nutrients return to the soil, and the amount of humus increases in it.

Underground fury in the plant community.

Plant roots are also arranged in tiers. Tree roots make up the first underground tier. They penetrate deeper into the soil than other plants, often reaching groundwater. Consequently, the trees also find themselves in conditions of better water supply, which is especially important in dry years. A powerful root system ensures the absorption of minerals in significant quantities. The second underground tier is made up of the roots of undersized tree species, the third one is the roots of shrubs, the fourth one is herbaceous flowering plants, the fifth one is moss rhizoids. Thus, the underground fury is a mirror reflection of the ground.

food chain

The dragonfly grabbed a butterfly circling near the flower and devours it in flight. Soon the dragonfly itself became the prey of the frog. Watching further, we noticed that more and more new links are included in the food chain - larger predators. Each of them acts first as an attacker, and then becomes a victim himself, except for the one who closes the chain. He crept up to the frog and grabbed her before she had time to notice him. Already he himself soon became a victim of a hawk who noticed him from a height. This completes the supply chain.

With

hema of a simple food chain in a biocenosis

All living things in the biocenosis are in continuous movement, change and development. Plants increase in size, absorbing nutrients from the environment, animals, birds, insects run, fly, crawl, feed, multiply. In the biocenosis, some work is continuously carried out, for which it is necessary to expend the appropriate energy and have its source.

The channels through which energy constantly flows through communities are calledfood chains . Each link in this chain is a kind of transformer, using some of the energy originally accumulated by plants for their own existence and reproduction, and transferring it to the next link.

Organisms that are not capable of photo- and chemosynthesis receive the energy of solar radiation indirectly - with plant or animal food. You can build a clear sequential chain of transmission and transformation of energy from one link to another. Thus, the energy of solar radiation is transformed by the plant (producer) into the energy of chemical bonds of the organic matter created by it, the latter is placed at the disposal of plant-eating animals (primary consumers) and then transferred to carnivores (secondary consumers).

Thus, the trophic food chain is also an energy chain. Of course, in a real biocenosis there are many species of plants and animals with similar trophism. Therefore, food chains can, as it were, intersect, forming a food web in the biocenosis.

The most complex chain of mutual relations forms a stable system in which the circulation of substances takes place between its living and non-living parts. Samarikha Pond, the park isecological systems . Its living elements (non-living include water with oxygen, carbon dioxide, inorganic salts dissolved in it) are divided into groups.

The first group - plants that create organic compounds from simple inorganic substances. They receive energy for this synthesis from the Sun.

The second group - consumer organisms: insects, crustaceans, fish. Among them are the so-called primary consumers, which feed on plants, and secondary - carnivores, feeding on primary consumers.

Third group organisms - bacteria and fungi that decompose organic compounds, the remains of dead organisms, into simple inorganic substances that are then used by green plants. This is how the cycle of substances takes place in the ecosystem.

Numerous in the biocenoses are the connections of animals to find various building materials for the construction of dwellings - nests by birds, anthills by ants, trapping nets by predatory larvae of caddisflies and spiders, trapping funnels by antlions.

Conclusion:metabolic processes take place in the park, some organisms die, others are born, they feed on each other, each other's products, and so on. There is a constantly working biological cycle in the biosphere, a number of substances, a number of forms of energy constantly circulate in the cycle of the biosphere. From this cycle, part of the organic matter enters the soil, to the bottom of the reservoir in aqueous solutions, is used by mineralizing microorganisms, etc.

I would like a benevolent attitude towards the park to become a nationwide unwritten law for each of us and that a green park fill our whole life with that incomparable joy that only wildlife gives a person.

two populations of animals cannot be attributed to the same species if the individuals of these populations a) do not interbreed with each other b) differ

from each other in size c) have a common area d) inhabit different tiers

Choose one correct statement from the four given.
.one. Correctly designed food chain:
a) rotten stump - honey agaric - mouse - snake - hawk;
b) mouse - rotten stump - honey agaric - snake - hawk;
c) hawk - snake - mouse - rotten stump - honey agaric;
d) honey agaric - rotten stump - mouse - snake - hawk.
2. Graphic representation of the relationship between producers, consumers and reducers in the biocenosis, expressed in units of mass, number of individuals or energy:
a) power supply;
b) power supply network;
c) ecological pyramid;
d) ecological column.
3. Efficient use of sunlight energy by forest plants is achieved due to:
a) a large number of stomata in the skin of the leaves;
b) the presence of hairs on the surface of the leaves
c) multi-tiered arrangement of plants;
d) flowering of plants before the formation of leaves.
4. All nutritional relationships between organisms in biocenoses
a) power supply;
b) power supply network;
c) ecological pyramid;
d) ecological column.
5. Environmental factors should be considered:
a) factors causing changes in the genotype of living organisms;
b) factors that cause organisms to adapt to a changing environment;
c) any factors acting on the body;
d) elements of the environment that allow the organism to survive in the struggle for existence.
6. Air temperature, air humidity, sunlight are: a) abiotic factors;
b) abiotic relief factors; c) biotic factors;
d) anthropogenic factors.
7. Pine forest, spruce forest, meadow, swamp - examples of: a) biocenoses; b) biogeocenoses; c) agrocenoses; d) biomes.
8. Consumers of the second order include: a) a hamster, b) a lizard; c) a grasshopper; d) vole.
9. The transfer of matter and energy from one type of organism to another is called: a) a pyramid of numbers; b) food chain; c) pyramid of energy; d) ecological pyramid.
10. Consumers of the first order include: a) wolf, b) jackal; c) lynx; d) vole.
II. Choose three correct statements from the six offered.
1. Factors regulating the number of species in biocenoses: a) change in the amount of food; b) change in the number of predators; c) commercial hunting; d) infectious diseases; e) fishing with a bait; f) construction of a country house
.2. Biocenoses include: a) meadow; b) an apple orchard; c) a lake d) pine forest; e) wheat field; e) a park.
3. Agrocenoses include: a) meadow; b) an apple orchard; c) a lake d) pine forest; e) wheat field; e) a park.
III. Choose matches. Write the numbers of statements corresponding to the given concepts.
1. Components of the biocenosis. A) Decomposers: ____________________________ B) Producers ___________________________ C) Consumers of the 1st order: __________________ E) Consumers of the 2nd order: _________________ 1) herbivorous organisms; 2) carnivorous organisms; 3) green plants; 4) organisms that destroy organic compounds
.2. Environmental factors: A) Biotic: ____________________________ B) Abiotic: ___________________________ 1) light; 2) temperature; 3) terrain; 4) plants; 5) animals; 6) man.IV. Read the text. Using the words below for reference (the list of words is redundant), insert the missing terms (changes of endings are possible).1. Environmental conditions that affect living organisms of biocenoses are called __________ factors. They are of three types: _________ - the influence of inanimate nature, _________ - interactions with other organisms, ___________ - born by human activity. The latter can be direct and ___________ factors. a) environmental; b) optimal; c) biotic; d) biotic; e) limiting; f) anthropogenic; h) periodic; g) indirect; i) indefinite. Numbers of words: _____________________________.2. The functional groups of organisms in the biocenosis are: _________, or producers; ____________, or consumers; ___________, or destroyers. a) producers; b) parasites; c) decomposers; d) consumers; e) saprophytes. Word numbers: ____________________________.

Animal phoresia is a passive way of settling, characteristic of species that need to be transferred from one biotope to another for normal life. The larvae of a number of ticks, being on other animals, such as insects, settle with the help of other people's wings. Dung beetles are sometimes unable to lower their elytra because of the densely accumulated mites on their bodies. Birds often carry on feathers and paws small animals or their eggs, as well as protozoan cysts. The caviar of some fish, for example, can withstand two weeks of drying. Quite fresh mollusk caviar was found on the legs of a duck shot in the Sahara, 160 km from the nearest reservoir. For short distances, waterfowl can carry even fish fry that accidentally fall into their plumage.

Interaction of populations in biocenoses

The types of population interactions in biocenoses are usually conditionally divided into positive (beneficial), negative (unfavorable) and neutral. However, in an equilibrium community, the interactions and connections of all populations ensure the maximum stability of the ecosystem, and from this point of view, all interactions are useful.

Positive and negative are only interactions in a non-equilibrium population during its spontaneous movement towards equilibrium.

Ecological connections between predators and prey direct the course of evolution of conjugated populations.

Commensalism- a form of relationship between two populations, when the activity of one of them delivers food or shelter to the other (commensal). In other words, commensalism is the unilateral use of one population by another without harming the first.

Neutralism- such a form of biotic relations in which the cohabitation of two populations in the same territory does not entail either positive or negative consequences for them. Relations such as neutralism are especially developed in communities saturated with populations.

With amensalism for one of the two interacting populations, the consequences of living together are negative, while the other receives neither harm nor benefit from them. This form of interaction is more common in plants.

Competition - the relationship of populations with similar ecological requirements, existing at the expense of common resources that are in short supply. Competition is the only form of ecological relationship that has a negative effect on both interacting populations.

If two populations with the same ecological needs find themselves in the same community, sooner or later one competitor displaces the other. This is one of the most common environmental rules, which is called the law of competitive exclusion. Competing populations can coexist in a biocenosis even if a predator does not allow an increase in the number of a stronger competitor.

Consequently, each group of organisms contains a significant number of potential or partial competitors that are in dynamic relationships with each other.

Competition has a dual meaning in biocenoses. It is a factor that largely determines the species composition of communities, since intensely competing populations do not get along together. At the same time, partial or potential competition allows populations to quickly capture additional resources that are released when the activity of neighbors is weakened, and mix them into biocenotic relationships, which preserves and stabilizes the biocenosis as a whole.

Complementarity and cooperation arise when the interaction is useful for both populations, but they are not completely dependent on one another, therefore, they can exist separately. This is the most evolutionarily important form of positive interactions between populations in biocenoses. This also includes all the main forms of interactions in communities in the series producers - consumers - decomposers.

Positive interactions have become the basis for biota to remove restrictions on the resource by organizing nutrient cycles.

All of the listed types of biocenotic relationships, distinguished by the criterion of the benefit or harm of mutual contacts for individual partners, are characteristic not only for interspecific, but also for intraspecific relationships.

Thus, the transfer of energy and matter, which underlies the circulation of substances in nature, is carried out. There can be a lot of such chains in a biocenosis, they can include up to six links.

An example would be oak, it is a producer. The caterpillars of the oak leafworm butterfly, eating green leaves, receive the energy accumulated in them. The caterpillar is the primary consumer, or consumer of the first order. Part of the energy in the leaves is lost when they are processed by the caterpillar, part of the energy is spent by the caterpillar on vital activity, part of the energy goes to the bird that pecked the caterpillar - this is a secondary consumer, or secondary consumer. If a bird becomes a victim of a predator, then its carcass will become a source of energy for the tertiary consumer. The bird of prey may later die, and its corpse may be eaten by a wolf, a crow, a magpie, or carnivorous insects. Their work will be completed by microorganisms - decomposers.

In nature, they are very rare, but there are organisms that eat only one type of plant or animal. They are called monophages, for example, the Apollo caterpillar butterfly feeds only on stonecrop leaves (Fig. 2), and the giant panda only feeds on several species of bamboo leaves (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Monophages ()

Oligophages- these are organisms that feed on representatives of a few species, for example, the caterpillar of the wine hawk eats willow-herb, bedstraw, impatiens and several other plant species (Fig. 3). Polyphages able to eat various foods, the titmouse is a characteristic polyphage (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Representatives of oligophages and polyphages ()

When eating, each next link in the food chain loses some of the substances obtained from food and loses part of the energy received, about 10% of the total mass of food eaten is spent on increasing its own mass, the same happens with energy, a food pyramid is obtained (Fig. 4) .

Rice. 4. Food pyramid ()

About 10% of the potential energy of the food goes to each tier of the food pyramid, the rest of the energy is lost in the process of digestion of food and dissipated in the form of heat. The food pyramid allows you to evaluate the potential productivity of natural natural biocenoses. In artificial biocenoses, it allows you to evaluate the efficiency of management or the need for some changes.

Food, or trophic, links of animals can be manifested directly or indirectly, direct connections is the direct consumption of food by animals.

Indirect trophic links- this is either competition for food, or, conversely, the involuntary help of one species to another in capturing food.

Each biocenosis is characterized by its own special set of components, various species of animals, plants, fungi and bacteria. Close ties are established between all these living beings, they are extremely diverse and can be divided into three large groups: symbiosis, predation and amensalism.

Symbiosis- this is a close and prolonged coexistence of representatives of different biological species. With prolonged symbiosis, these species adapt to each other, their mutual adaptation.

Mutually beneficial symbiosis is called mutualism.

Commensalism- this is a relationship that is useful to one, but indifferent to another symbiont.

Amensalism- a type of interspecific relationship in which one species, called amensal, undergoes inhibition of growth and development, and the second, called an inhibitor, is not subject to such tests. Amensalism is fundamentally different from symbiosis in that none of the species benefits; as a rule, such species do not live together.

These are forms of interaction between organisms of different species (Fig. 4).

Rice. 5. Forms of interaction between organisms of different species ()

The long coexistence of animals in the same biocenosis leads to the division of food resources between them, this reduces competition for food. Only those animals survived that found their food and specialized, adapting to eat it. It is possible to distinguish ecological groups based on the prevailing food objects, for example, herbivorous animals are called phytophages(Fig. 6). Among them are philophages(Fig. 6) - animals that eat leaves, carpophages- eating fruits, or xylophages- wood eaters (Fig. 7).

Rice. 6. Phytophages and phyllophages ()

Rice. 7. Carpophages and xylophages ()

Today we discussed the relationship between the components of the biocenosis, got acquainted with the variety of relationships between the components in the biocenosis and their adaptability to life in one community.

Bibliography

Latyushin V.V., Shapkin V.A. Biology Animals. Grade 7 - Bustard, 2011
Sonin N.I., Zakharov V.B. Biology. variety of living organisms. Animals. Grade 8, - M.: Drofa, 2009
Konstantinov V.M., Babenko V.G., Kuchmenko V.S. Biology: Animals: A Textbook for Grade 7 Students of Educational Institutions / Ed. prof. V.M. Konstantinov. - 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Ventana-Count.

Homework

What relationships exist between organisms in a biocenosis?
How do the relationships between organisms affect the stability of the biocenosis?
In connection with what are ecological groups formed in the biocenosis?

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