Patterns and rules of evolution. Evolutionary process. Evolutionary processes Sequence of evolutionary processes on earth chronological
(Answers at the end of the test)
A1. To identify changes occurring in a living cell during mitosis, the method is used
1) centrifugation
2) gene transplantation
3) labeled atoms
4) microscopy
A2. The similarity in the structure and functioning of the cells of all organisms indicates their
1) relationship
2) diversity
3) evolution
4) fitness
A3. In cell lysosomes, as in mitochondria, there is
1) photosynthesis
2) chemosynthesis
3) energy metabolism
4) plastic exchange
A4. The chromosome set in a woman’s somatic cells consists of
1) 44 autosomes and two X chromosomes
2) 44 autosomes and two Y chromosomes
3) 44 autosomes and X- and Y-chromosomes
4) 22 pairs of autosomes and X- and Y-chromosomes
A5. Prokaryotes include
1) algae
2) protozoa
4) cyanobacteria
A6. The process of asexual reproduction in animals is based on
3) gametogenesis
4) fertilization
A7. How many types of gametes are formed in a parent organism with the aaBb genotype during linked inheritance?
A8. What law will manifest itself in the inheritance of traits when crossing organisms with genotypes: Aa x Aa?
1) uniformity
2) splitting
3) linked inheritance
4) independent inheritance
A9. Albinism (appearance of white leaves) in tobacco plants is a result of
1) lack of light
2) disorders of gametogenesis
3) gene mutation
4) modification variability
A10. The main task of taxonomy is to study
1) stages of historical development of organisms
2) relationships between organisms and the environment
3) adaptability of organisms to living conditions
4) diversity of organisms and establishment of their relationships
A11. An underground shoot differs from a root in that it has
2) growth zones
3) vessels
A12. The main feature by which plants are grouped into families is their structural features.
2) flower and fruit
3) leaves and stem
4) root system
A13. Arterial blood in the heart does not mix with venous blood
1) most reptiles
2) birds and mammals
3) tailed amphibians
4) tailless amphibians
A14. The semi-movable connection of the spinal bones is ensured by
1) cartilaginous layers
2) bone processes
3) bone sutures
4) articular surfaces
A15. The process of recognition and destruction of foreign proteins by leukocytes underlies
1) immunity
2) blood clotting
3) hematopoietic function of the bone marrow
4) humoral regulation
A16. Changes in blood sugar occur as a result of impaired activity
1) pituitary gland
2) pancreas
4) thyroid gland
A17. A patient with diphtheria is administered anti-diphtheria serum, which contains
1) fibrinogen
2) weakened microbes
3) ready-made antibodies
4) hemoglobin
A18. Guided by genetic criteria alone, it is impossible to determine the species, since
1) the ranges of different species coincide
2) the set of chromosomes in different species may be the same
3) different species live in similar conditions
4) individuals of different species are similar in appearance
A19. The genetic heterogeneity of individuals in a population increases
1) mutational variability
2) geographical isolation
3) struggle for existence
4) artificial selection
A20. What evidence of evolution includes the similarity of stages of individual development of animal embryos?
1) embryological
2) paleontological
3) comparative anatomical
4) molecular genetic
A21. Aromorphic changes in the ancestors of amphibians include the appearance
2) pulmonary respiration
3) streamlined body shape
4) protective coloring
A22. What are the factors that determine the survival limits of a species called?
1) abiotic
2) anthropogenic
3) optimal
4) limiting
A23. The similarity between artificial and natural ecosystems is that they
2) have the same plant biomass productivity
3) cannot exist without human participation
A24. The continuous flow of chemical elements from inanimate nature into living nature and back, carried out as a result of the vital activity of organisms, is called
1) power circuits
2) food connections
3) biogenic migration of atoms
4) the rule of the ecological pyramid
A25. In the Golgi complex occurs
1) ATP formation
2) oxidation of organic substances
3) accumulation of substances synthesized in the cell
4) synthesis of protein molecules
A26. What number of nucleotides in mRNA encodes the sequence of 14 amino acids in the protein?
A27. Determine the number of chromosomes in the telophase of mitosis in the endosperm cells of an onion seed (endosperm cells have a triploid set of chromosomes), if the onion root cells contain 16 chromosomes.
A28. The diploid set of bread wheat has 42 chromosomes. The new variety obtained on its basis has 84 chromosomes due to
1) changes in reaction norm
2) cytoplasmic mutation
3) chromosomal rearrangements
4) genomic mutation
A29. Distant hybrids are usually sterile because they
1) cells do not divide by mitosis
2) DNA replication does not occur in cells
3) gametes vary in size
4) chromosome conjugation in meiosis is disrupted
A30. What adaptation in plants helps reduce water evaporation?
1) tiered arrangement of plants in the community
2) mosaic arrangement of leaves on the stem
3) location of stomata on the underside of the leaf
4) the presence of photosynthetic tissue
A31. The energy used by a person in the process of life is released in cells when
1) oxidation of organic substances
2) protein biosynthesis
3) splitting polymers into monomers
4) transport of nutrients in the blood
A32. Mixed secretion glands are
1) liver and sweat
2) salivary and lacrimal
3) pancreas and genitals
4) thyroid and pituitary gland
A33. Genetic drift is
1) random change in the frequency of occurrence of their alleles in the population
2) movement of individuals from one population to another
4) the result of natural selection
A34. The upper limit of life in the biosphere is determined by the high concentration
1) carbon dioxide
2) water vapor
3) heat rays
4) ultraviolet rays
The answer to the tasks in this part (B1–B8) is a sequence of numbers.
In tasks B1–B3, choose three correct answers out of six.
B1. Indicate the features of modification variability.
1) occurs suddenly
2) manifests itself in individual individuals of the species
3) changes are due to the reaction norm
4) manifests itself similarly in all individuals of the species
5) is adaptive in nature
6) passed on to offspring
B2. Visual analyzer includes
1) white membrane of the eye
2) retinal receptors
3) vitreous body
4) sensory nerve
5) occipital cortex
6) lens
B3. What features characterize driving selection?
1) operates under relatively constant living conditions
2) eliminates individuals with an average trait value
3) promotes the reproduction of individuals with an altered genotype
4) preserves individuals with deviations from the average values of the trait
5) preserves individuals with an established norm of reaction of the trait
6) contributes to the appearance of mutations in the population
In tasks B4–B6, for each element of the first column, select the corresponding element of the second and write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.
Q4. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of an organism and the kingdom to which it belongs.
B5. Establish a correspondence between the function of the human nervous system and the department that performs this function.
B6. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of autotrophic nutrition and its type.
Q7. Arrange the blood vessels in order of decreasing speed of blood movement in them.
1) superior vena cava
3) brachial artery
4) capillaries
B8. Establish the sequence of evolutionary processes on Earth in chronological order.
1) the emergence of prokaryotic cells
2) formation of coacervates in water
3) the emergence of eukaryotic cells
4) emergence of organisms onto land
5) the emergence of multicellular organisms
Answers.
Answer | Answer |
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Answer | Answer |
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A1, B2, C1, D2, D2 |
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A2, B1, B2, G1, D1, E2 |
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A1, B2, B1, D1, D2, E1 |
Depending on the level of evolutionary changes, three types of evolutionary processes are distinguished: microevolution, speciation and macroevolution. These processes have the following features in common: a) the driving factor of evolutionary changes is natural selection; 6) the material for evolutionary changes is mutations" c) all evolutionary changes begin in populations; d) the result of evolutionary processes is the emergence of new systematic groups.
Comparative characteristics of microevolution, speciation and macroevolution
Microevolution - an evolutionary process that occurs within a species, within a population on the basis of natural selection and ends with the formation of the fitness of organisms and the formation of new populations and subspecies. According to the synthetic theory of evolution, natural selection directs various elementary changes in phenotypes resulting from mutations towards the formation of adaptations of organisms to changes in environmental conditions. The evolution of populations, subspecies and species is carried out through the evolution of their adaptations.
Devices, or adaptations,- adaptation in the process of evolution of the structure, functions, behavior of organisms to certain conditions of existence. Appear in the form preadaptations based on neutral mutations or modifications. Adaptation is the result natural selection in specific conditions of existence. New adaptations do not appear immediately ready-made, but are formed over a long period of time in the process of evolution. After passing the pre-adaptive limits, selection ensures the improvement of the new adaptation. Any set of adaptation helps organisms survive only in those conditions in which it was formed under the influence of evolutionary factors. But even then it is relative. Evidence relative nature fitness may be the following facts:
■ defenses against some enemies are ineffective against others (for example, mongooses eat poisonous snakes)
■ the manifestation of instincts in animals may not be appropriate (for example, moths respond to fire)
■ useful in some conditions, an organ becomes useless and even harmful in another environment (for example, webbed feet in mountain geese).
Microevolution ensures the formation of the most adaptations, which can be divided into:
morphological adaptations - a set of adaptations in the external structure and shape of the body:
■ mimicry - similarity between unprotected and protected species (butterflies and wasps, flies and bumblebees, nettles and stinging nettles) the term was first introduced in zoology by G. Bates to designate cases of extreme external similarity between different species of animals;
■ camouflage - resemblance to surrounding objects (Kalima butterfly to leaves, seahorse to algae, stick insects and birch moth caterpillar to twigs, etc.);
■ protective painting helps to hide in the environment (white color in hare, Arctic partridge, green - in grasshoppers, color change - in flounder, chameleons)
■ warning coloring indicates the danger of the species (sun, Carpathian salamander)
■ threatening coloring - to scare away enemies (octopus).
■ attractive colors ensures the meeting of individuals of different sexes or gathering in flocks;
physiological adaptations is a complex of physiological reactions(changes in blood circulation with temperature changes, fat deposits)
ethological adaptations is a complex of behavioral reactions(threatening poses of various snakes).
Species and speciation
View- a set of individuals characterized by hereditary similarity of characteristics, freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring, adapted to certain living conditions and occupy a certain territory in nature - habitat. The species independence of a certain group of individuals is established according to various species criteria.
1. Morphological - similarity of individuals in structure. It is not absolute, since there are sibling species that are morphologically unidentified; individuals of a species may differ (sexual dimorphism, larvae and adults, etc.).
2. Genetic - This is a set of chromosomes characteristic of each species in number, shape and size. It is not absolute, since there are sibling species that differ in the number of chromosomes (two species of black rats: one has 38 chromosomes, the other has 48, there would be sibling species in malaria mosquitoes) the number and morphology of chromosomes can change in individuals of the species as a result of mutations.
3. Physiological - These are similarities and differences in the life processes of individuals of the same species. It is not absolute, since individuals that do not interbreed under natural conditions can interbreed under artificial conditions and produce sterile offspring (silt) or fertile offspring (several species of poplar, willow).
4. Biochemical - these are features of the structure and composition of macromolecules and the course of certain biochemical reactions, characteristic of individuals of a certain species. It is not absolute, since proteins and nucleic acids can vary within a species.
5. Geographical - it is the range of a species that differs from the ranges of closely related species. It is not absolute, because there are types cosmopolitans, which are widespread everywhere (gray rat, duckweed).
6. Ecological - each species has its own ecological niche - a set of environmental factors in which the species exists. It is not absolute, because in one ecological niche There may be different species (sibling species with overlapping ranges).
So, the species identity of organisms is determined by a set of criteria that confirm each other.
Speciation is an evolutionary process of adaptive transformations directed by natural selection, which leads to the formation of genetically closed species systems from genetically open intraspecific systems. Speciation begins at the population level. Unlike microevolution, species development has irreversible nature. The formation of species can be carried out in three ways: 1) gradual transformation of the original species (phyletic evolution) 2) fusion of two existing species (hybridogenic evolution) 3) differentiation of the original species into several new ones (divergent evolution). New species most often arise from one ancestral group of closely related organisms (the principle monofiln). A necessary condition for speciation is insulation. Depending on the type of isolation, geographic and ecological speciation are distinguished.
I. Geographical (alopatric) speciation - This is the formation of new groups at the end of the range with geographic isolation. It may look like:
1) by fragmentation - rupture of a continuous habitat into parts (formation of different species of finches on different islands of the Galapagos archipelago)
2) through migration- expansion of the range and selection in new conditions (formation of the species Dahurian larch from Siberian larch)
II. Ecological (sympatric) speciation - This is the formation of new groups within an existing range during ecological isolation. It is carried out in the following ways:
1) seasonal isolation - as a result of the action of new seasonal conditions (formation of the species of large spring rattle and large summer rattle)
2) interspecific hybridization - as a result of crossing between individuals of related species (peppermint = spearmint + watermint)
3) polyploidy - due to mutations (the durum wheat species has 4n = 28, and soft wheat - 6n = 42).
Macroevolution- an evolutionary process that leads to the emergence of subspecific taxa. Unlike microevolution, which occurs in a historically short time and is accessible to direct study, macroevolution takes enormous periods of time and is not accessible to direct observation.
forms of macroevolution
The main forms of macroevolution of groups are considered phyletic , divergent , convergent that parallel evolution.
Phyletic evolution- adaptive transformations of representatives of one taxon, which changes over time in a certain direction as a single whole without divergence.
Divergent evolution- the development of signs of difference in individuals of the same species due to adaptation to different environmental conditions. The difference in characteristics that arises as a result of this phenomenon is called homology , homologous . The reason for divergence is the presence of hereditary variability, intraspecific competition and disruptive (disruptive) natural selection. An example of divergent evolution is the appearance of all series of placental mammals from a common ancestor.
Convergent evolution- independent development of similar characters in phylogenetically distant organisms due to their adaptation to similar environmental conditions. analogies , and the organs of developing - similar . An example of convergent evolution is the appearance of similar limbs and body shapes in sharks, ichthyosaurs and dolphins.
Parallel evolution - independent development of similar characters in related systematic groups of organisms. The similarity of characteristics that arises as a result of this phenomenon is called homoyology, and organs that develop - homoyologous (similarity of incisors in rodents and lagomorphs).
directions of macroevolution
Studying the patterns of historical development of animals, 0 M. Severtsov in the 20s of the XX century developed the concept of “biological progress” and “biological regression”. Biological progress- the direction of evolution in which the birth rate in a population prevails over the death rate. Signs of biological progress are an increase in the number of individuals; expansion of the area of existence; increasing rates of intraspecific variability; education and a large number of subordinate systematic groups; high survival potential. Today, angiosperms, cephalopods, insects, birds, and mammals are in a state of biological progress. Biological regression- the direction of evolution in which mortality in a population prevails over birth rate. Signs of biological regression are a decrease in the number of individuals; narrowing the area of existence; reduction in the rate of intraspecific variability; decreasing group diversity; low survival potential. Today, species listed in the Red Book are in a state of biological regression.
The concept of biological progress and biological regression are only general terms that show the degree of species diversity of a certain group in the corresponding geological period of the development of our planet.
paths of macroevolution
The idea of morphological ways to achieve biological progress is also general in nature.
Aromorphoses (morphophysiological progress) - evolutionary changes that increase the level of organization of the organism as a whole and open up new opportunities for adaptation to different living conditions. Examples of aromorphic evolutionary changes: the emergence of the circulatory system in kilchakiv, the appearance of the heart in mollusks, the appearance of jaws in fish, the appearance of seeds in seed ferns, the formation of flowers and fruits in angiosperms, etc.
Idiomatic adaptations- evolutionary changes that have the nature of adaptation to certain conditions and do not change the level of organization of organisms. Examples of idioadaptive changes: the varied structure of angiosperm flowers and limbs in mammals.
In the history of the development of the organic world, different paths of evolution are interconnected. Aromorphoses determine stages in the development of the organic world, raising the organization of a group to a higher level of evolution and opening up new opportunities for it to master the environment. Further development proceeds through idioadaptations, which ensure the development of the available variety of conditions. When organisms transition to simpler conditions, the formation of adaptations is accompanied by a simplification of the structure.
The paths of evolution of the organic world, alternating and connecting, lead to complication, a progressive direction in the development of living nature, to the emergence of the expediency of organisms.
The evolution of groups as a whole is progressive and occurs in two directions: allogenesis (cladogenesis) and arogenesis (anagenesis). During allogenesis, the development of a group occurs within one adaptive zone according to the principle of idioadaptations, when morphophysiological changes in the body do not lead to either a significant complication or simplification of its organization. Arogenesis is accompanied by the transition of a group to another adaptive zone through the development of aromorphosis.
STAGES OF EARLY EVOLUTION:
Coacervates (emergence of precellular life forms)
Prokaryotic cells (the emergence of life, cellular life forms - anaerobic heterotrophs)
Chemosynthetic bacteria (emergence of chemosynthesis)
Photosynthetic bacteria (the appearance of photosynthesis, in the future this will lead to the emergence of an ozone screen, which will allow organisms to reach land)
Aerobic bacteria (the appearance of oxygen respiration)
Eukaryotic cells (emergence of eukaryotes)
Multicellular organisms
- (exit of organisms to land)
STAGES OF PLANT EVOLUTION:
- (the appearance of photosynthesis in prokaryotes)
Unicellular algae
Multicellular algae
Rhiniophytes, Psilophytes (plant emergence onto land, cell differentiation and appearance of tissues)
Mosses (appearance of leaves and stem)
Ferns, Horsetails, Mosses (appearance of roots)
Angiosperms (appearance of flower and fruit)
STAGES OF ANIMALS EVOLUTION:
Protozoa
Coelenterates (appearance of multicellularity)
Flatworms (the emergence of bilateral symmetry)
Roundworms
Annelids (dismemberment of the body into segments)
Arthropods (the appearance of chitinous cover)
Cranials (formation of notochord, ancestors of vertebrates)
Fish (emergence of the brain in vertebrates)
Lobe-finned fish
Stegocephals (transitional forms between fish and amphibians)
Amphibians (the emergence of lungs and five-fingered limbs)
Reptiles
Oviparous mammals (the emergence of a four-chambered heart)
Placental mammals
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
PART 2 ASSIGNMENTS:
Quests
Establish the sequence of stages characterizing the evolution of the process of reproduction of living organisms. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) viviparity in mammals
2) the emergence of simple binary fission of bacteria
3) external fertilization
4) internal fertilization
5) the emergence of conjugation of unicellular
Answer
COACERVATES
1. Establish the sequence of evolutionary processes on Earth in chronological order
1) the emergence of organisms onto land
2) the emergence of photosynthesis
3) formation of an ozone screen
4) formation of coacervates in water
5) the emergence of cellular life forms
Answer
2. Establish the sequence of evolutionary processes on Earth in chronological order
1) the emergence of prokaryotic cells
2) formation of coacervates in water
3) the emergence of eukaryotic cells
4) emergence of organisms onto land
5) the emergence of multicellular organisms
Answer
3. Establish the sequence of processes occurring during the origin of life on Earth. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) the appearance of a prokaryotic cell
2) formation of the first closed membranes
3) synthesis of biopolymers from monomers
4) formation of coacervates
5) abiogenic synthesis of organic compounds
Answer
HETEROTROPHES-AUTOTROPHES-EUKARYOTES
1. Establish a sequence reflecting the stages of evolution of protobionts. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) anaerobic heterotrophs
2) aerobes
3) multicellular organisms
4) unicellular eukaryotes
5) phototrophs
6) chemotrophs
Answer
2. Establish the sequence of occurrence of groups of organisms in the evolution of the organic world of the Earth in chronological order. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) heterotrophic prokaryotes
2) multicellular organisms
3) aerobic organisms
4) phototrophic organisms
Answer
3. Establish the sequence of biological phenomena that occurred in the evolution of the organic world on Earth. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) the appearance of aerobic heterotrophic bacteria
2) the emergence of heterotrophic probionts
3) the emergence of photosynthetic anaerobic prokaryotes
4) formation of eukaryotic unicellular organisms
Answer
PLANTS SYSTEM UNITS
1. Establish the chronological sequence in which the main groups of plants appeared on Earth
1) green algae
2) horsetails
3) seed ferns
4) rhiniophytes
5) gymnosperms
Answer
2. Establish the chronological sequence in which the main groups of plants appeared on Earth
1) Psilophytes
2) Gymnosperms
3) Seed ferns
4) Unicellular algae
5) Multicellular algae
Answer
3. Establish the sequence of systematic position of plants, starting with the smallest category. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) psilophytes
2) unicellular algae
3) multicellular algae
4) gymnosperms
5) fern-like
6) angiosperms
Answer
Arrange the plants in a sequence that reflects the increasing complexity of their organization during the evolution of the systematic groups to which they belong.
1) Chlamydomonas
2) Psilofite
3) Scots pine
4) Bracken fern
5) Chamomile officinalis
6) Kelp
Answer
AROMORPHOSIS PLANTS
1. Establish the sequence of aromorphoses in the evolution of plants, which determined the appearance of more highly organized forms
1) cell differentiation and tissue appearance
2) appearance of the seed
3) formation of flower and fruit
4) the appearance of photosynthesis
5) formation of the root system and leaves
Answer
2. Establish the correct sequence of occurrence of the most important aromorphoses in plants. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) the emergence of multicellularity
2) the appearance of roots and rhizomes
3) tissue development
4) seed formation
5) the emergence of photosynthesis
6) the occurrence of double fertilization
Answer
3. Establish the correct sequence of the most important aromorphoses in plants. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Photosynthesis
2) Seed formation
3) The appearance of vegetative organs
4) The appearance of a flower in the fruit
5) The emergence of multicellularity
Answer
4. Establish the sequence of aromorphoses in the evolution of plants. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) the appearance of vegetative organs (roots, shoots)
2) appearance of the seed
3) formation of primitive integumentary tissue
4) flower formation
5) the emergence of multicellular thallus forms
Answer
5. Establish the sequence of processes occurring during the evolution of plants on Earth, in chronological order. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers in your answer.
1) the emergence of a eukaryotic photosynthetic cell
2) a clear division of the body into roots, stems, leaves
3) landfall
4) the appearance of multicellular forms
Answer
Arrange the structures of plants in the order of their evolutionary origin. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) seed
2) epidermis
3) root
4) sheet
5) fruit
6) chloroplasts
Answer
Choose three correct answers out of six and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Which of the listed aromorphoses occurred after plants reached land?
1) the occurrence of seed propagation
2) the emergence of photosynthesis
3) division of the plant body into stem, root and leaf
4) the occurrence of the sexual process
5) the emergence of multicellularity
6) the appearance of conductive tissues
Answer
CHORDAL AROMORPHOSES
1. Establish the sequence of formation of aromorphoses in the evolution of chordates
1) the appearance of lungs
2) formation of the brain and spinal cord
3) formation of a chord
4) the appearance of a four-chambered heart
Answer
2. Arrange animal organs in the order of their evolutionary origin. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) swim bladder
2) chord
3) three-chambered heart
4) uterus
5) spinal cord
Answer
3. Establish the sequence of appearance of aromorphoses in the process of evolution of vertebrates on Earth in chronological order. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers
1) reproduction by eggs covered with dense shells
2) formation of land-type limbs
3) the appearance of a two-chamber heart
4) development of the embryo in the uterus
5) milk feeding
Answer
4. Establish the sequence of complication of the circulatory system in chordates. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) three-chambered heart without a septum in the ventricle
2) two-chamber heart with venous blood
3) there is no heart
4) heart with an incomplete muscular septum
5) in the heart, separation of venous and arterial blood flows
Answer
CHORDAL SYSTEM UNITS
1. Establish the sequence of appearance of groups of chordates in the process of evolution.
1) lobe-finned fish
2) reptiles
3) stegocephals
4) skullless chordates
5) birds and mammals
Answer
2. Establish the sequence of evolutionary phenomena in vertebrates. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) the rise of dinosaurs
2) the emergence of primates
3) the flourishing of armored fish
4) the appearance of Pithecanthropus
5) the appearance of stegocephals
Answer
3. Establish the sequence of evolutionary processes of the formation of the main groups of animals that occurred on Earth, in chronological order. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers
1) Skullless
2) Reptiles
3) Birds
4) Bony fish
5) Amphibians
Answer
4. Establish the sequence of evolutionary processes of the formation of the main groups of animals that occurred on Earth, in chronological order. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers
1) Skullless
2) Reptiles
3) Birds
4) Bony fish
5) Amphibians
Answer
5. Establish the sequence of evolutionary phenomena in vertebrates. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) the appearance of Pithecanthropus
2) the appearance of stegocephals
3) the rise of dinosaurs
4) the flourishing of armored fish
5) the emergence of primates
Answer
ARTHOPOD AROMORPHOSIS
Establish the sequence of formation of aromorphoses in the evolution of invertebrate animals
1) the emergence of bilateral symmetry of the body
2) the appearance of multicellularity
3) the appearance of jointed limbs covered with chitin
4) dismemberment of the body into many segments
Answer
ANIMALS SYSTEMS UNITS
1. Establish the correct sequence of appearance of the main groups of animals on Earth. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Arthropods
2) Annelids
3) Skullless
4) Flatworms
5) Coelenterates
Answer
2. Establish in what sequence the types of invertebrate animals should be arranged, taking into account the complexity of their nervous system in evolution
1) Flatworms
2) Arthropods
3) Coelenterates
4) Annelids
Answer
3. Establish the correct sequence in which these groups of organisms supposedly arose. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Birds
2) Lancelets
3) Ciliates
4) Coelenterates
5) Reptiles
Answer
4. Establish the sequence of appearance of groups of animals. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) trilobites
2) Archeopteryx
3) protozoa
4) Dryopithecus
5) lobe-finned fish
6) stegocephals
Answer
5. Establish the geochronological sequence of the emergence of groups of living organisms on Earth. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) Flatworms
2) Bacteria
3) Birds
4) Protozoa
5) Amphibians
6) coelenterates
Answer
Establish the sequence of complication of the organization of these animals in the process of evolution
1) earthworm
2) common amoeba
3) white planaria
4) cockchafer
5) nematode
6) crayfish
Answer
Choose one, the most correct option. The ozone shield first appeared in the Earth's atmosphere as a result of
1) chemical processes occurring in the lithosphere
2) chemical transformations of substances in the hydrosphere
3) vital activity of aquatic plants
4) vital activity of terrestrial plants
Answer
Choose one, the most correct option. What type of animal has the highest level of organization?
1) Coelenterates
2) Flatworms
3) Annelids
4) Roundworms
Answer
Choose one, the most correct option. Which ancient animals were the most likely ancestors of vertebrates?
1) Arthropods
2) Flatworms
3) Shellfish
4) Skullless
Answer
© D.V. Pozdnyakov, 2009-2019
Biological evolution implies the natural development of living organisms, which is accompanied by changes in the genetic composition of populations, as well as an increase in adaptive properties, the emergence of new species and the extinction of old ones. All these factors change both the ecosystem and the biosphere as a whole over time.
Basic theory
There are several versions explaining the mechanisms on which the evolutionary process is based. Most scientists are now adherents of a fusion of population genetics and Darwinism. The synthetic theory explains the relationship between genetic mutations, that is, the material of evolution, and natural selection (the mechanism of evolution). The evolutionary process within the framework of this theory is the process of changing the frequencies of alleles of various genes in species populations over the life of several generations.
Patterns and rules of evolution
Evolution is any organism that, through the accumulation of positive mutations, was able to adapt to new conditions, when returning to its previous environment, will have to go through the path of adaptation again. Moreover, no biological species can be completely stable; Charles Darwin himself wrote that even if the habitat becomes the same as before, the evolved species will not be able to return to its previous state. That is, animals will be able to adapt to the return of old conditions, but not in the “old” ways.
This can easily be seen using the example of dolphins. The internal structure of their fins (along with those of whales) retains the characteristics of mammalian limbs. Mutations update the gene pool of a generation, so they are never repeated. Despite the fact that dolphins and whales have changed their habitat, and five-fingered limbs to fins, they are still mammals. Just like reptiles evolved from amphibians at a certain stage, but even returning to their previous environment, they will not be able to give rise to amphibians.
Another example of this rule of evolution: the evergreen shrub Ruscus. On its stem are shiny, large and thick leaves, which are actually modified branches. The true leaves are scale-like and are located in the center of these "stems". A flower appears from the axil of the scale in early spring, from which the fruit will subsequently develop. Butcher's broom got rid of leaves during the process of evolution, as a result of which it was able to adapt to drought, but then it again found its way into the aquatic environment, but instead of real foliage, modified stems appeared.
Heterogeneity
The rules of evolution state that the process is very heterogeneous and is not determined by astronomical time. For example, there are animals that have existed unchanged for hundreds of millions of years. These are hatteria and sabertail - living fossils. But it happens that speciation and modification occurs very quickly. Over the past 800 thousand years, new species of rodents have arisen in Australia and the Philippines, and Lake Baikal over the past 20 million years has been enriched with 240 species of crayfish, which are divided into 34 new genera. The emergence or change of a species does not depend on time as such, but is determined by the lack of fitness and the number of generations. That is, the faster a species reproduces, the higher the rate of evolution.
Closed systems
Processes such as evolution and mutation can occur much faster. This happens if environmental conditions are unstable. However, in deep oceans, cave waters, islands and other isolated areas, evolution, natural selection and speciation occur very slowly. This explains why lobe-finned fish have remained unchanged for so many millions of years.
It is quite easy to trace the dependence of evolution on the rate of natural selection in insects. In the thirties of the last century, poisonous drugs began to be used against pests, but only a few years later species appeared that adapted to the action of the drug. These forms took a dominant position and quickly spread across the planet.
Strong antibiotics - penicillin, streptomycin, gramicidin - were often used to treat many diseases. The rules of evolution came into force: already in the forties, scientists noted the emergence of microorganisms resistant to these drugs.
Patterns
There are three main directions of evolution: convergence, divergence and parallelism. During divergence, a gradual divergence of intraspecific characters is observed, which over time leads to new groupings of individuals. As differences in structure and method of food production become more pronounced, groups begin to disperse to other territories. If one area is occupied by animals that have the same food needs, then over time, when the food supply becomes smaller, they will have to leave the area and adapt to different conditions. If there are species with different needs in the same territory, competition between them is much less.
A striking example of how the evolutionary process of divergence occurs is the 7 species of deer that are related to each other: reindeer, deer, elk, sika deer, fallow deer, musk deer and roe deer.
Species with a high degree of divergence are able to leave large offspring and compete less with each other. When the divergence of characters becomes stronger, the population is divided into subspecies, which, due to natural selection, can eventually develop into separate species.
Community
Convergence is the evolution of living systems, as a result of which common characteristics appear in unrelated species. An example of convergence is the similarity in body shape among dolphins (mammals), sharks (fish), and ichthyosaurs (reptiles). This is the result of existence in the same habitat and the same living conditions. The climbing agama and the chameleon are also unrelated, but very similar in appearance. Wings are also an example of convergence. In bats and birds they arose by changing the forelimbs, but in the butterfly they are growths of the body. Convergences are quite common among the species diversity of the planet.
Parallelism
This term comes from the Greek "parallelos", which means "coming alongside", and this translation explains its meaning well. Parallelism is the process of independent acquisition of similar structural features among closely related genetic groups, occurring due to the presence of features inherited from common ancestors. This type of evolution is widespread in nature. An example of this is the appearance of flippers as adaptations to the aquatic environment, which were formed in parallel in walruses, eared seals and true seals. Also, among many winged insects, the transition of the fore wings into elytra occurred. Lobe-finned fish have characteristics of amphibians, and wild-toothed lizards have characteristics of mammals. The presence of parallelism indicates not only unity but also similar conditions of existence.
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