How to read uu in Latin. Topic I. Alphabet. Reading rules. Stress Latin alphabet

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

DON STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Rostov-on-Don

ESSAY

On the topic: "Phonetics in Latin»

1st year full-time student

Law, service and tourism

Specialty: jurisprudence

Kasabutsky Danil Alexandrovich

Rostov-on-Don 2014

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………...
	Latin alphabet……………………………………………………...
	Vowel sounds……………………………………………………………...
	Consonants…………………………………………………………...
	Emphasis……………………………………………………………………
Conclusion…………………………………………………...........................
Literature……………………………………………………………………

Introduction

A feature of the phonetic system of the Latin language is the presence of labiovelar stops kw (spelling qu) and (spelling ngu) and the absence of voiced fricatives (in particular, the voiced pronunciation of s for the classical period is not reconstructed). All vowels are characterized by opposition in longitude.
In classical Latin, the stress, according to the evidence of ancient grammarians, was musical (raising the tone on a stressed vowel); the place of stress was almost completely determined by the phonological structure of the word. In the preclassical era, there may have been a strong initial stress (this explains many historical changes in the Latin vowel system). In the postclassical era, stress loses its musical character, and none of the Romance languages retains musical stress.

The Latin language is also characterized by diverse restrictions on the structure of the syllable and it is enough complicated rules assimilation of vowels and consonants (for example, long vowels cannot be before combinations of nt, nd and before m; voiced noisy ones do not occur before deaf noisy ones and at the end of a word; short i and o also - with isolated exceptions - do not occur at the end of a word, etc. .P.). Confluences of three or more consonants are avoided (there are few permissible combinations of three consonants, they are possible mainly at the junction of a prefix and a root - for example, pst, tst, nfl, mbr, and some others).

Latin alphabet

The Latin alphabet is a variation of the Western Greek, assimilated by the Romans, like many other achievements of material and spiritual culture, possibly through the Etruscans. The modern version of the Latin alphabet, more precisely, the pronunciation of the sounds of the Latin language in the international transcription system (24 letters). However, more than two thousand years ago, during the time of the great Roman lawyer and statesman Since the time of the Roman Republic, Mark Tullius Cicero spoke about 21 letters of the Latin alphabet, there were no letters "K", "Y", "Z". They were later borrowed from the Greek alphabet, so linguists argue that it is impossible to absolutely accurately reproduce the phonetically correct sounds of a dead language.

In the oldest versions of the Latin alphabet, the letter G is missing (officially legalized by the end of the 3rd century BC), the sounds u and v, i and j are denoted in the same way (additional letters v and j appear only in the Renaissance among European humanists; during many scientific editions of classical Latin texts they are not used). The direction of writing from left to right is finally established only by the 4th century. BC. (the direction of writing in more ancient monuments varies). The length of vowels, as a rule, is not indicated (although in some ancient texts a special sign “apex” is used to convey longitude in the form of a slash above the letter, for example á).

To study international legal terminology and legal formulas of Roman law, we are forced to use a variant of the ancient alphabet, which, moreover, has become half native for the Russian language.

Table number 1. Comparative table of pronunciation of letters and letter combinations in Latin

Letter/combination	classic	Traditional	Contemporary
	[a]	[a]	[a]
	[b]	[b]	[b]
	[to]	[c]	[c]
	[e]	[e]	[e]
	[e]	[e]	[e]
	[f]	[f]	[f]
	[G]	[G]	[G]
	[X]	[x]/[g]	[X]
	[and]/[th]	[and]/[th]	[and]/[th]
		[th]	[th]
	[to]	[to]	[to]
	[l"]	[l"]/([l])	[l"]
	[m]	[m]	[m]
	[n]	[n]	[n]
	[about]	[about]	[about]
	[P]	[P]	[P]
	[to]	[to]	[to]
	[R]	[R]	[R]
	[with]	[s]/[s]	[s]/[s]
	[t]	[t]	[t]
	[y]/[v]	[y]	[y]
		[in]	[in]
			[in]
	[ks]	[ks]	[ks]
	[and]	[and]	[and]
	[h]	[h]	[h]
	[e]	[e]	[e]
	[yo]	[yo]	[e]
ae, ae, ae	ae	ae	ae
oh, oh, oh	oh	oh	oh
	ay	ay	ay
	eu	eu	eu
	hey	hey	hey
	ti	qi	qi
	ngv, ngu	ngv, ngu	ngv, ngu
	sq.	sq.	sq.
	St.	St.	St.

2. Vowels

The vowels a, e, i, o, u, y are pronounced as indicated in the alphabet. They can be both long and short. Longitude and brevity are natural positional. Natural longitude and brevity in writing are indicated by superscripts: longitude - ā, brevity - ă, for example: civīlis, popŭlus. Positional longitude and brevity are determined by the rules and are not indicated on the letter.

Longitude and brevity are important for determining the semantics of words, for example: mălum - evil, mālum - apple, and their forms, for example: justitiă and justitiā are different case forms the words. But the main objective definitions of longitude and brevity - correctly place the stress in the word. In this regard, it is important what is the number of the penultimate syllable in the word, since this determines the place of stress.

The pronunciation of two vowels as one syllable is called a diphthong. There are 4 diphthongs in Latin:

ae = e aera - (era)
oe = e poena - (pena)
au = ау aurum - (aurum)
eu = eu Europa - (europa)
If the combinations ae, oe represent two separate syllables, then a colon is placed over e or its longitude or brevity is indicated: aër = aēr [á-er], coëmo = coĕmo [kό-e-mo].

3. Consonant sounds

The consonants are divided into:

1) According to the organs of speech, which are mainly produced: labial, guttural, dental;

2) According to the property of the sound, into mute (which cannot be pronounced without the help of a vowel), sonorous or long (capable of prolonged pronunciation without the help of a vowel). The mute are further subdivided into deaf and voiced. The sonorous ones also include smooth l, r and nasal m, n.
C c - before vowels e, i, y and diphthongs ae, oe is read like Russian c, and before other vowels and at the end of a word - like Russian k:

Cicero (Cicero) corpus - (body)
Caesar (Caesar) culpa - (culpa)
сyanus (cyanus) caput - (kaput)
coepi (cepi) fac - (fak)
H h - pronounced like Belarusian aspirated g:
heres (gheres), honor (ghonor);
L l - pronounced medium between hard and soft l:
lex (lex), lapsus (lapse);
Q q - used only in combination with u: Qu, qu = sq:
aqua (aqua), equus (equius), quid (quid);
S s - pronounced as with: sed (sed), and between vowels as s: casus (casus).
The phrase ngu before vowels reads [ngv] - sanguis - blood, lingua - language; before consonants - [ngu] angulus - angle, lingula - tongue.
The phrase ti before vowels is read as [qi] solutio - solution; before consonants after s, t, x, before vowels like [ti] - inflamatio - inflammation, ostium - entrance, hole mixtio - mixing.
The phrase su before the vowels a, e is read sv:
suavis (svavis), Suebi (svebi), but: suus (suus).
To convey aspirated Greek sounds, combinations of consonants with h were created:
ch \u003d x - charta (hart);
ph \u003d f - sphaera (sphere);
th \u003d t - thermae (terme);
rh \u003d p - arrha (arra).

4. Emphasis

The stress is placed only on the long syllable. It is never placed on the last syllable, of course, except for monosyllabic words.

The stress is placed on the 2nd syllable from the end if it is long and on the 3rd syllable from the end if the second is short.

The stress itself in Latin was not always expressed in the same way. Initially, the stress was melodic: the stressed syllable was emphasized by the voice. Later it became expiratory - the stressed syllable is distinguished by the power of the voice (more active exhalation), as in most modern European languages.

The number of syllables in a word corresponds to the number of vowels (including diphthongs). The syllable division occurs:

1) before a single consonant (including before qu).
ro-sa, a-qua, au-rum, Eu-ro-pa

2) before the combination "mute with smooth" and before the last vowel of other consonant combinations.

pa-tri-a, sa-git-ta, for-tu-na, punc-tum, dis-ci-pli-na, a-gri-co-la, a-ra-trum
The middle language (voiced fricative) sound j (iota) between vowels in pronunciation was doubled, distributed between two syllables.
pejor >> pej-jor

3) the prefix stands out.

de-scen-do, ab-la-ti-vus, ab-es-se

Syllables are open and closed. An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong (sae-pe), while a closed syllable ends in a consonant (pas-sus).
In classical Latin, each syllable was either long or short in number. An open syllable with a short vowel is short. All other syllables are long. A closed syllable containing a short vowel is long, since it takes extra time to pronounce the closing consonant).

The stress in the Latin language of the classical period was musical, tonic, i.e. consisted in raising the tone when pronouncing the stressed syllable, if it was long. By the 5th c. n. e., after the loss of quantitative differences between vowels, the nature of the Latin stress changed: it became forceful, expiratory, as in Russian.

Conclusion

The Latin alphabet is a variation of the Western Greek, assimilated by the Romans, like many other achievements of material and spiritual culture, possibly through the Etruscans.

The modern version of the Latin alphabet, more precisely, the pronunciation of the sounds of the Latin language in the international transcription system (24 letters). However, more than two thousand years ago, it was said about 21 letters of the Latin alphabet, there were no letters "K", "Y", "Z". They were later borrowed from the Greek alphabet, so linguists argue that it is impossible to absolutely accurately reproduce the phonetically correct sounds of a dead language. To study international legal terminology and legal formulas of Roman law, we are forced to use a variant of the ancient alphabet, which, moreover, has become half native for the Russian language.

The vowels are pronounced as indicated in the alphabet. They can be both long and short. Longitude and brevity are natural and positional. Longitude and brevity are important for determining the semantics of words, the main goal of determining longitude and brevity is to correctly place the stress in the word. A syllable is long or short, depending on the length or shortness of its vowel.
In words consisting of two or more syllables, the stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words, the stress always falls on the first syllable. If the word contains more than two syllables, then the stress falls either on the second or third syllable from the end of the word, depending on the length or shortness of the second syllable from the end. If it is long, then the stress always falls on it, but if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end of the word.

Literature

Akhterova O.A., Ivanenko T.V. Latin language and fundamentals of legal terminology. - M.: Lawyer, 1998.
Garnik A.V., Nalivaiko R.G. Latin language with elements of Roman law. - Minsk: Belarusian State University, 2001

3. Lemeshko V.M. Latin language. - M.: Moscow Institute of Economics, Management and Law, 2009.

4. Sobolevsky S.I. Grammar of the Latin language. – M.: List-new, 2003.
5. Yarkho V.N. Latin language. - Moscow, graduate School, 2003.

In addition to simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [i], in Latin there were also two-vowel sounds (diphthongs) ae, oe, ai, her.

Digraph ae reads like [e]: vertebrae [ve" rtebre] - vertebrae, peritonaeum [peritone" mind] - peritoneum.

Digraph oe reads like [e], more precisely, like German o or French oe: foetor [fetor] - a bad smell.

In most cases, the diphthongs ae and oe, found in medical terms, served to render in Latin the Greek diphthongs ai and oi. For example: oedema [ede "ma] - edema, oesophagus [eso" fagus] - esophagus.

If in combinations ae and oe the vowels belong to different syllables, that is, they do not constitute a diphthong, then a separation sign (``) is placed above the “e” and each vowel is pronounced separately: diploe [diploe] - diploe - spongy substance of the flat bones of the skull ; aёr [air] - air.

The diphthong au reads like: auris [ay "rice] - ear. The diphthong eu reads like [eu]: ple "ura [ple" ura] - pleura, neurocranium [neurocra" nium] - brain skull.

Features of reading consonants

A double reading of the letter "C with" is accepted: as [k] or [c].

How [k] is read before the vowels a, o, and, before all consonants and at the end of the word: caput [ka "put] - head, head of bones and internal organs, cubitus [ku" bitus] - elbow, clavicula [curse" kula ] - clavicle, crista [cri "hundred] - crest.

How [c] is read before the vowels e, i, y and the digraphs ae, oe: cervicalis [cervical "fox] - cervical, incisure [incizu" ra] - tenderloin, coccyngeus [koktsinge "us] - coccygeal, coelia [tse" lia ] - abdomen.

"H h" is read as a Ukrainian sound [g] or German [h] (haben): homo [homo] - a person, hnia "tus [gna" tus] - a gap, a crevice, humerus [gume "rus] - a humerus.

“K k” is very rare, almost exclusively in words of non-Latin origin, in cases where you need to keep the sound [k] before the sounds [e] or [and]: kyphosis [kypho "zis] - kyphosis, kinetocytus [kine" that -citus] - kinetocyte - mobile cell (words of Greek origin).

"S s" has a double reading - [s] or [s]. How [s] is read in most cases: sulcus [su "lkus] - a groove, os sacrum [os sa" krum] - the sacrum, sacral bone; dorsum [to "rsum] - back, back, rear. How [h] is read in position between vowels: incisura [incizu "ra] - tenderloin, vesica [wezi" ka] - bubble. Doubled s reads like [s]: fossa [fo "csa] - pit, ossa [o" ss] - bones, processus [proce" ssus] - process. In the position between vowels and consonants m, n in words of Greek origin, s is read as [h]: chiasma [chia" zma] - cross, platysma [fly" zma] - subcutaneous muscle of the neck.

"X x" is called a double consonant, since it represents the sound combination [ks]: radix [ra" dix] - the root, extremitas [extre" mitas] - the end.

"Z z" is found in words of Greek origin and reads like [z]: zygomaticus [zygoma" tykus] - zygomatic, trapezius [trap" zius] - trapezoidal.

diphthongs and peculiarities reading consonants two-vowel sounds ( diphthongs) ah, oh, ah, her.
Peculiarities reading consonants. Adopted twofold reading letters "C with": like [k] or [c].

diphthongs and peculiarities reading consonants. In addition to simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [i], there were also two-vowel. Reading vowels (and consonant j).

diphthongs and peculiarities reading consonants. In addition to simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [i], there were also two-vowel. Loading. Download Get on phone.

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Peculiarities

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MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FGOU VPO TYUMEN STATE AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY

S.A. Veremeeva

LATIN LANGUAGE

With the basics of veterinary

Terminology

teaching aid for students

specialty 111201 "Veterinary"

Tyumen 2010

UDC 811.124(075.32)

BBK 81.2ya723

Reviewer:

cand. biol. Sci., Associate Professor of the Department of Anatomy

and human and animal physiology Tyumen State University

Lepunova O.N.

L 27 Veremeeva S.A., Latin language with the basics of veterinary terminology:Teaching aid for students of the specialty "Veterinary" / TGSHA. - Tyumen, 2010. - 84s.

The educational and methodical manual "Latin with the basics of veterinary terminology" contains phonetics, morphology: verb, noun, adjective, terminology, as well as the most commonly used vocabulary of the Latin language, grouped according to its part-of-speech affiliation, and within parts of speech - according to certain formal classes (declensions and conjugations), indicating Russian borrowings.

The educational and methodical manual is intended for students of the 1st year of full-time and absentee form teaching the specialty "Veterinary" as an additional didactic material for the textbook of the Latin language.

UDC 811.124(075.32)

BBK 81.2ya723

agricultural academy, 2010

Introduction……………………………………………….……
Lesson 1. Topic: History of the Latin language. Latin alphabet. Phonetics………………………………………....
Lesson 2. Topic: Emphasis. Accentus. Longitude and multiplicity of words…………………………………………………………….
Lesson 3. Topic: Verb. Verb change………….…
Lesson 4. Noun. Topic: Gender and declension of nouns. First declension………….…...
Lesson 5. Noun. Subject: Second declension……………………………………………………………...
Lesson 6. Noun. Subject: Third declension……………………………………………………………....
Lesson 7. Noun. Subject: fourth and fifth declension……………………………………………………....
Lesson 8. Adjective. Topic: Adjectives of the 1st and 2nd groups and their suffixes…………………………........
Lesson 9. Adjective. Topic: Degrees of comparison of adjectives…………………………………………….
Lesson 10. Topic: Terminology………………………….

INTRODUCTION

The Latin language contains phonetics, morphology: verb, noun, adjective, terminology, as well as terms and is recommended as an additional aid for the effective mastering of the main lexical composition of Latin textbooks by students of the specialty 111201 "Veterinary".

The volume included in the methodological manual lexical material determined curriculum, providing for the study of Latin for one semester with one credit.

The manual includes words of three parts of speech: nouns, adjectives and verbs. Latin vocabulary is arranged in accordance with its part-of-speech attribution and belonging to certain formal classes (declensions and conjugations), and within these classes - in alphabetical order.

The criteria for selecting vocabulary are:

1) its frequency, usage in educational texts for reading and translation included in Latin textbooks;

2) its derivational value, productivity in relation to the Russian language.

Toolkit prepared to help first-year students of full-time and part-time education in the specialty "Veterinary Medicine".

ACTIVITY 1

Topic: History of the Latin language.

Latin alphabet. Phonetics.

Target: Learn the history of the Latin language. Remember the names and spellings of Latin letters, learn the pronunciation of vowels, the pronunciation of consonants, the pronunciation of letter combinations.

The Latin language (Linqua Latīna) got its name from a small Italian tribe of Latins (Latini), who lived in the region of Latium (Latium). This area is located in the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula.

The history of the Latin language is divided into several periods:

Archaic period VI-IV centuries. BC e.;

Preclassic period III-II centuries. BC e. - this is the period of formation of the literary Latin language.

The era of the "golden age" - during the reign of Emperor Augustus (I century BC). Classical or "golden" Latin received its grammatical, syntactic and stylistic completeness. "Golden Age" - the century of the highest flowering of Roman literature. At this time, Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Caesar, Sallust worked.

The period of "Silver Latin" (I century AD). It is characterized by deviations from the purity of the classical literary language and is influenced by the languages of the Roman colonies. The era of the Middle Ages in the history of the Latin language is characterized as the period of Latinĭtas culinaria ("kitchen Latin"). It was during this period that a mass of new words and concepts that were absent in classical Latin were introduced into the Latin language.

· The Latin language again approaches the ideal of “golden Latin” in the era of humanism (XIV-XVII centuries). It was during this period that the beautiful New Latin literature was created (Francisk Skorina, Nikolai Gusovsky, Jan Wislitsky, Simeon Polotsky).

· In modern times, until the 18th century, Latin is used as the language of science and diplomacy.

Latin is currently the official language catholic church and the states of the Vatican. Despite the subsequent displacement of the Latin language by national languages, it still retains its importance in the field of scientific terminology, especially in jurisprudence, biology, medicine, and veterinary medicine.

Phonetics

Latin, like Russian, is predominantly synthetic.

Alphabet

Block letters	Name	Pronunciation	Block letters	Name	Pronunciation
Ah	a	a	Nn	en	n
Bb	bae	b	Oo	about	about
ss	ce	c or k	pp	pe	P
Dd	de	d	Qq	ku	to
Her	uh	uh	Rr	er	R
FF	ef	f	Ss	es	with
gg	ge	G	Tt	te	t
hh	ha (ha)	g(x)	Uu	At	At
II	and	and or th	vv	ve	in
Kk	ka	to	xx	X	ks
LI	ale	eh	Yy	upsilon	and
mm	Em	m	Zz	zeta	h

Vowel pronunciation

Vowel sounds a, o, u pronounced like Russian a oh u.

e uh.

I pronounced like a vowel in Russian and.

If a I stands at the beginning of a word before a vowel or in the middle of a word between vowels, then it is read as th("and short""). In these cases, in modern scientific terminology in international nomenclatures, the letter iota is used jj.

In words of Greek origin found at"upsilon" or "ygrek" ("and Greek"), reads like and.

diphthongs

A diphthong or two-vowel, that is, a combination of two different vowels that are pronounced as one sound or as one syllable.

diphthongs ah, oh pronounced like a vowel in Russian e.

If diphthongs ah, oh do not constitute one sound and must be pronounced separately, then over " e» put two points - yo.

Diphthong au pronounced like a diphthong in Russian ay.

Diphthong eu pronounced like in Russian eu.

Diphthong ou rare, pronounced like Russian at.

Pronunciation of consonants

Before letters e, i, y and diphthongs ae, o-s pronounced like Russian c, in other cases with are pronounced as a sound to.

g pronounced like a sound G.

H pronounced like a middle sound between Russians to and X, closer to Ukrainian ha.

Letter k borrowed from Greek pronounced like to. In Latin k very rare, because instead of k more often written with. Even in words borrowed from Greek, the sound to often transmitted through with.

L always pronounced softly.

M always pronounced like Russian m.

n always pronounced like Russian n.

q always goes with u and pronounced like sq..

s how to pronounce with, how h(like the sound h pronounced between two vowels or between vowel and m or n).

X pronounced like ks. Occasionally (between vowels) X pronounced like kz.

Z pronounced like Russian h, occurs in words of Greek origin. In words borrowed from other languages (but not Greek), z pronounced like Russian c.

Similar information.

1. Remember the styles and names of the letters of the Latin alphabet.

2. Learn to pronounce the sounds that are indicated by these letters.

3. Letter and sound are not the same thing. Do not change these concepts.

1. Alphabet

The Latin alphabet, which is used in modern textbooks, reference books and dictionaries, consists of 25 letters.

Below is the traditional reading of Latin letters, adopted in Russian educational practice.

Table 1. Latin alphabet

Capital letters in Latin are written proper names, names of months, peoples, geographical names and adjectives derived from them. In pharmaceutical terminology, it is customary to write the names of plants and medicinal substances with a capital letter.

Notes

1. Most of the letters of the Latin alphabet are pronounced the same as in various Western European languages, however, some letters in these languages are called differently than in Latin; for example the letter h is called in German"ha", in French - "ash", in English - "h", and in Latin - "ga". Letter j in French called "zhi", in English - "jay", and in Latin - "iot". The Latin letter "c" in English is called "si", etc.

2. It must be borne in mind that the same letter can denote an unequal sound in these languages. For example, the sound indicated by the letter g is pronounced in Latin as [g], and in French and English before e, i - as [zh] or [j]; in English j is read as [j].

3. Latin spelling is phonetic, it reproduces the actual pronunciation of sounds. Compare: lat. latina [latina], eng. latin - latin.

The difference is especially noticeable when comparing vowels in Latin and English. In Latin, almost all vowels are always pronounced the same as the corresponding vowels in Russian.

4. As a rule, names not from the Latin language, but from other languages (Greek, Arabic, French, etc.) are latinized, that is, they are drawn up in accordance with the rules of phonetics and grammar of the Latin language.

2. Reading vowels (and consonant j)

"E e" reads like [e]: vertebra [ve" rtebra] - vertebra, medianus [media" nus] - median.

Unlike Russians, no Latin consonants soften before the sound [e]: anterior [ante "rior] - front, arteria [arte" ria] - artery.

"I i" reads like [and]: inferior [infe "rior] - lower, internus [inte" rnus] - internal.

At the beginning of a word or syllable, before vowels, i is read as a voiced consonant [th]: iugularis [yugula "rice] - jugular, iunctura [yunktu" ra] - connection, maior [ma" yor] - large, iuga [yu" ha] - elevation.

In these positions, in modern medical terminology, instead of i, the letter J j is used - yot: jugularis [yugula "rice], juncture [yunktu" ra], major [ma" yor], juga [yu" ha].

The letter j is not written only in words borrowed from the Greek language, since there was no sound [th] in it: iatria [ia "triya] - healing, iodum [io "dum] - iodine.

To convey the sounds [ya], [yo], [ye], [yu], combinations of letters ja, jo, je, ju are used.

Y y (upsilon), in French "y", reads like [and]: tympanum [ti "mpanum] - drum; gyrus [gi" Rus] - gyrus of the brain. The letter "upsilon" is used only in words of Greek origin. It was introduced by the Romans to convey the letter of the Greek alphabet upsilon, which was read as German [and]. If the Greek word was written through i (Greek iota), read as [and], then it was transcribed into Latin through i.

In order to correctly write medical terms, you need to know some of the most common Greek prefixes and roots in which “upsilon” is written:

dys [dis-] - a prefix that gives the term the meaning of a violation, a disorder of function: dysostosis (dys + osteon - “bone”) - dysostosis - a disorder of bone formation;

hypo [hypo-] - “under”, “below”: hypoderma (hypo + derma - “skin”) - hypodermis - subcutaneous tissue, hypogastrium (hypo- + gaster - “belly”, “stomach”) - hypogastrium - hypogastrium;

hyper [hyper-] - “above”, “over”: hyperostosis (hyper + osteon - “bone”) - hyperostosis - pathological proliferation of unchanged bone tissue;

syn-, sym [syn-, sym-] - “with”, “together”, “together”: synostosis (syn + osteon - “bone”) - synostosis - connection of bones through bone tissue;

mu (o) [myo-] - the root of the word, indicating the relationship to the muscles: myologia (myo + logos - "word", "teaching") - myology - the study of muscles;

phys [phys-] - the root of the word, indicating in anatomical terms the relation to something growing in a certain place: diaphysis - diaphysis (in osteology) - the middle part of the tubular bone.

3. Diphthongs (digraphs)

In addition to simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [i], in Latin there were also two-vowel sounds (diphthongs) ae, oe, ai, her. In the classical era, they were all pronounced with a non-syllabic second element. Later, the diphthongs ae [from ai] and oe [from oi] began to be pronounced as one sound, that is, they turned into monophthongs represented by two letters, the so-called digraphs.

Digraph ae reads like [e]: vertebrae [ve" rtebre] - vertebrae, peritonaeum [peritone" mind] - peritoneum.

Digraph oe reads like [e], more precisely, like German o or French oe: foetor [fetor] - a bad smell.

In most cases, the diphthongs ae and oe, found in medical terms, served to render in Latin the Greek diphthongs ai and oi. For example: oedema [ede "ma] - edema, oesophagus [eso" fagus] - esophagus.

If in combinations ae and oe the vowels belong to different syllables, that is, they do not constitute a diphthong, then a separation sign (``) is placed above e and each vowel is pronounced separately: diploё [diploe] - diploe - spongy substance of the flat bones of the skull; aёr [air] - air.

The diphthong au reads like: auris [ay "rice] - ear. The diphthong eu reads like [eu]: ple "ura [ple" ura] - pleura, neurocranium [neurocra" nium] - brain skull.

4. Features of reading consonants

A double reading of the letter "C with" is accepted: as [k] or [c].

"H h" is read as a Ukrainian sound [g] or German [h] (haben): homo [homo] - a person, hnia "tus [gna" tus] - a gap, a crevice, humerus [gume "rus] - a humerus.

“K k” is very rare, almost exclusively in words of non-Latin origin, in cases where you need to keep the sound [k] before the sounds [e] or [and]: kyphosis [kypho "zis] - kyphosis, kinetocytus [kine" totsitus ] - kinetocyte - mobile cell (words of Greek origin). Exception: kalium [ka "lium] (Arabic) - potassium and some other words.

"X x" is called a double consonant, since it represents the sound combination [ks]: radix [ra" dix] - the root, extremitas [extre" mitas] - the end.

"Z z" is found in words of Greek origin and reads like [z]: zygomaticus [zygoma" tykus] - zygomatic, trapezius [trap" zius] - trapezoidal.

5. Pronunciation of letter combinations

The letter "Q q" is found only in combination with u before vowels, and this combination is read as [kv]: squama [squa "me] - scales, quadratus [quadra" tus] - square.

The letter combination ngu is read in two ways: before vowels as [ngv], before consonants - [ngu]: lingua [li" ngva] - language, lingula [li" ngulya] - tongue, sanguis [sa" ngvis] - blood, angulus [angu" lux] - angle.

The combination of ti before vowels reads like [qi]: rotatio [rota "tsio] - rotation, articulatio [article" tsio] - joint, eminentia [emine" ncia] - elevation.

However, ti before vowels in combinations sti, xti, tti is read as [ti]: ostium [o "stium] - hole, entrance, mouth, mixtio [mi" xtio] - mixture.

6. Digraphs ch, ph, rh, th

In words of Greek origin, there are digraphs ch, ph, rh, th, which are graphic signs for conveying the corresponding sounds of the Greek language. Each digraph is read as one sound:

ch = [x]; ph = [f]; rh = [p]; th = [t]: nucha [well "ha] - neck, chorda [chord] - chord, string, phalanx [fa" lanks] - phalanx; apophysis [apophysis] - apophysis, process; thorax [then" rax] - chest notch, rhaphe [ra" fe] - seam.

The letter combination sch reads like [cx]: os ischii [os and "schii] - ischium, ischiadicus [ischia" dicus] - ischium.

The Latin transcription of words of Greek origin depends on the sound-letter correspondences in Latin and Greek.

7. Rules for setting stress

1. The stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words, it is placed on the first syllable.

2. In trisyllabic and polysyllabic words, the stress is placed on the penultimate or third syllable from the end.

The placement of stress depends on the duration of the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end.

Therefore, in order to place stress in words containing more than two syllables, it is necessary to know the rules for longitude or shortness of the penultimate syllable.

Two rules of longitude

Longitude of the penultimate syllable.

1. The syllable is long if it contains a diphthong: peritona "eum - peritoneum, perona" eus - peroneal (nerve), dia "eta - diet.

2. The syllable is long if the vowel comes before two or more consonants, and also before the double consonants x and z. This longitude is called longitude by position. For example: colu "mna - column, pillar, exte" rnus - external, labyri "nthus - labyrinth, medu" lla - brain, medulla, maxi "lla - upper jaw, metaca" rpus - metacarpus, circumfle "xus - envelope.

If the vowel of the penultimate syllable comes before the combination b, c, d, g, p, t with the letters l, r, then such a syllable remains short: ve "rtebra - vertebra, pa" lpebra - eyelid, tri "quetrus - trihedral. Combinations ch , ph, rh, th are considered one sound and do not create the length of the penultimate syllable: chole "dochus - bile.

8. Rule of brevity

A vowel before a vowel or h is always short. For example: tro "chlea - block, pa" ries - wall, o "sseus - bone, acro" mion - acromion (shoulder process), xiphoi "deus - xiphoid, peritendi" neum - peritendinium, pericho "ndrium - perichondrium.

There are words to which the rules of longitude and brevity of a syllable cannot be applied. This happens when only one consonant follows the vowel of the penultimate syllable. In some words, the penultimate syllable is short, in others it is long. In such cases, it is necessary to refer to the dictionary, where the longitude of the penultimate syllable is conventionally indicated by the superscript sign (-), and the brevity - by the sign (``).

In addition, it should be remembered that the adjective suffixes -al-, -ar-, -at-, -in-, -os are always long and, therefore, stressed. For example: orbita "lis - orbital, articula" ris - articular, hama "tus - hooked, pelvi" nus - pelvic, spino "sus - spinous. The suffix -ic - in adjectives is short and unstressed: ga" stricus - gastric, thora " cicus - chest.

§ 1. Vowels and consonants.

§ 2. Diphthongs and digraphs.

§ 3. Pronunciation of consonants

§ 4. Features of the pronunciation of individual letters.

§ 5. Longitude and shortness of vowels;

§ 6. General rules for longitude and brevity

§ 7. Stress.

§ 8. The use of capital letters.

§ 9. Syllabification and transfer.

§ 1. The Latin alphabet has the following vowels and consonants

(note that the pronunciation of Latin sounds does not completely coincide with the ancient Roman, and is largely conditional):

Vowels: a, o, u, e, i (in words of Greek origin, y is also found, which can be pronounced like French and (or German Ü), or simple i).

The letters a and o are pronounced like the corresponding Russian letters, and o (unlike Russian) is pronounced the same in all positions.

The letter u is pronounced like the Russian y. See, however, § 4.

The letter e is pronounced like Russian e. For example: neto [nemo] nobody, septem [s′eptem], seven.

The letter i is pronounced like Russian and. For example: ira [ira] anger, vidi [see] I saw, abiit [ábiit] he left.

However, before a vowel at the beginning of a word (or syllable), i is pronounced as a consonant sound й(j). For example: ius [yus] right, iocus [y′okus] joke, adiuvo [′adjuvo] help. In some publications, and especially in dictionaries, such a consonant i is denoted by j (jus, jocus, adjuvo).

§ 2. Diphthongs, that is, monosyllabic two-vowel groups, are relatively rare. This is au, less often eu, ei, ui. In all these diphthongs, the first sound is pronounced fully, that is, it forms a syllable, and the second is incomplete, that is, it is non-syllabic (such diphthongs are called descending): cf. au in the word round. For example: aurum [áurum] gold, nauta [nauta] sailor, Europa [eur'opa] Europe, deinde [deinde] then.

Digraphs ae and oe should be distinguished from diphthongs. True, they originated from diphthongs (ai and oi), but later they began to be pronounced as single vowels: ae as e [e], oe as German ö (French eu in the word rhei, English and in the word fur or i in the word birt ). For example: aes [es] copper, roena [pona] punishment.

If in the groups ae and oe each letter must be pronounced separately, then this is indicated by the sign .. over the second of the given pair of letters. For example: аёr [air] air, poёta [poet] poet.

§ 3. All other letters of the Latin alphabet serve to designate consonants (for i as a consonant, see § 1). Most of them are pronounced like the corresponding Russian sounds:

b - b: bene [b′ene] good n - n: nomen [nomen] name

d - d: dare [dare] give r - n: pars [pars] part

f - f: fio [f′io] become r - p: praetor [p′etor] praetor

g - r: ego ['ego] I v - in: vivo [vivo] live

m - m: mitto [m'itto] send x - ks: vox [vox] voice

§ 4. The pronunciation and use of other vowels has the following features:

4.1. c is pronounced as q before e (and equivalent to it ae and oe) and i (y), and in all other cases as those:

Cicero [ts′icero] Cicero, Caesar [ts′ezar] Caesar, cado [kado] I fall, crédo [k′edo] believe, fac [fak] do.

4.2. h is the designation of a light exhalation with which the following vowel should be pronounced: habeo [hábeo] I have, coheres [koh'eres] co-heir.

4.3. Occasionally there are (mainly in words of Greek origin) combinations of h with the preceding c, p, t and r.

The ch group is pronounced like the Russian x: charta [harta] paper, letter, pulcher [pýlher] beautiful.

Ph is pronounced like f (f): triumphus [triýmphus] triumph, philosophia [philosophy] philosophy.

Th is pronounced as t (t) thermae [t′erme] terms, warm baths.

Rh is pronounced like r: arrha [árra] deposit.

4.4. The letter k is pronounced like k; it is extremely rare: only in the word Kalendae [kal'ende] Kalendy, the first day of the Roman month, and the name Kaeso [k'ezo] Kezon (which, however, are also written as Calendae and Caeso).

4.5. The letter l is pronounced like a Russian soft le only before i (y): lis [fox] litigation, publicus [publicus] public, lyra [l′ira] lira.

In all other cases, 1 is pronounced like French l (in le) or German l (in halten), that is, as a middle sound between l and l: luna [moon] moon, lex [lex] law, lana [lána] wool, populus [pópulus] people (do not pronounce lu like lu, le like le, etc.).

4.6. The letter s is pronounced like Russian s, but in the position between vowels - like z (this applies to words of native Latin origin): sto [one hundred] I stand, consisto [kons′isto] I consist, but casus [casus] case and Aesopus [Esópus] Aesop (Greek name).

4.7. The letter t is pronounced like the Russian t: totus [tótus] whole, whole, and only in the ti group before vowels it is customary to pronounce it as c: etiam [′ etsiam] even, constitutio [konstitýtsio] establishment.

However, in this case, t is pronounced like t:

if the following i is long (see § 5): totius

[tot′ius] of everything, the whole;

if it is preceded by s, t or x: bestia [b′estia] beast, Attius [attius] Attiy (name), mixtio [m′ikstio] mixture;

in Greek words: Spartiates [partiátes] spartiate.

4.8. The letter q occurs only with the subsequent u and in this combination it is pronounced as kv: qui [qui] who, quoque [kvokve] also, questio [kv'estio] question.

Only in the union quum [kum] when this group is pronounced as k. However, this word (in particular in this textbook) is written cum (as well as the preposition cum c).

4.9. The letter z is pronounced like Russian z. It is used mainly in words of Greek origin.

4.10. The letter and, which in the qu group is pronounced as v (c), is also pronounced in the ngu and su groups, followed by a vowel: lingua [l'ingua] language, suadeo [svádeo] I advise.

§ 5. Latin vowels can be long or short (do not mix short vowels that form a syllable with short ones that are non-syllabic: and in the diphthong ai or Russian й). This property of a vowel sound is called its quantity. In elementary textbooks, dictionaries, etc., longitude is indicated by the sign - ¯(ā,ē,), and brevity - by the sign - ˘(ǎ, ĕ).

In accordance with this, the syllables themselves are long or short: the syllable is long or short, depending on whether the vowel that is part of it is long or short: āu-rŭm (1st syllable is long, 2nd is short), pǒ-rŭ- lŭs (all three syllables are short), mā-lǔs (1st syllable is long, 2nd is short), mǎ-lǔs (both syllables are short).

In modern pronunciation, we do not distinguish between long and short syllables, but it is important for us to know these differences in three respects: for the correct rhythmic reading (scanning) of poetry, for the correct stress in words, and for the correct recognition of certain grammatical forms and even words (see above examples mālǔs apple tree and mǎlǔs bad, as well as: vĕnit comes and vēnit came; lĕvis light - lēvis smooth; lǎbor labor - lābor I slide, I fall; lǎtus wide - lātus side; lēges laws-lĕges you will read.

§ 6. The number (longitude or shortness) of a vowel is indicated in dictionaries, but in some cases it can be determined by general rules:

1. Diphthongs and digraphs are always debts. . 2. A vowel before a vowel or h is always short: habĕo (e before o), trǎho (a before h). Exceptions: fīo, totīus, diēt and some others.

3. A vowel before two or more consonants becomes long (longitude by position): mors (o before rs). However, before a group of stops with a smooth (I, r), that is, before bl - br, pl-pr, dl-dr, tl-tr, cl-cr, gl-gr (the so-called muta cum liquida), the vowel is usually short : tenĕbrae (e before br).

Because x and z are double consonants, the vowel that precedes them is also long.

4. Certain inflections (the endings of cases, personal forms of verbs, etc.) are characterized by a certain "number" of their constituent vowels; for example, the final a in the ablative singular of nouns of the 1st declension is always long (nominative terră, ablative terrā); in the infinitive endings of all four conjugations, the final e is always short, and the remaining vowels in these endings always have the following numbers: 1st conjugation - rog-āre; 2nd conjugation -mon-ēre; 3rd conjugation - leg-ĕge; 4th conjugation - aud-īre.

§ 7. In two-syllable words, the stress almost always falls on the penultimate syllable: páter, máter, Róma.

In trisyllabic and polysyllabic words, the stress can fall either on the penultimate syllable or on the syllable preceding it (third from the end) in accordance with the following rule: if the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then it is under stress. the syllable preceding it: cecídi (accented -cí-), but cécīdi; infídus (with accent -fí-), but pérfĭdus.

§eight. Currently, Latin words are written with capital letters at the beginning of a sentence (after a dot), as well as proper nouns and adjectives and adverbs derived from them: Latium Latium, Latinus Latin, Latine Latin.

§ 9. When dividing words into syllables for transfer, you must adhere to the following two rules:

1. All consonants that any Latin word may begin with refer to the following syllable: pater, doc-tor (do-ctor is incorrect, as there are no Latin words beginning with ct). :

2. Compound words are separated by their elements; con-structio, in-imicus (from in and amicus).

EXERCISES IN READING

Republican nostra. Cives nostri. Athenae. Rome. Lutetia Parisiōrum. Tiberis. Pontus Euximus. Plautus. Terentius. Vergilius. Horatius. Gaius lulius Caesar. Marcus Tullius Cicero. Pomponius. Ulpianus. Modestinus. lustinianus.

Pact convention. Corpus iuris. Ius utendi fruendi. Ius gentium. Iurisprudentia anteiustiniana. Ius praetorium. Bona fides. Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus. Leges agrariae. Decemviri legibus scribundis. Leges duodecim tabularum. Res corporales et incorporales.

Nota bene. Prima facie. Muttis mutandis. Et cetera. Quantum satis. Vis major. Tempra mutantur. status quo ante. Mens sana in corpŏre sano.

ALPHABET B. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE